preservation and conservation of information materials.doc

PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION OF INFORMATION MATERIALS

DISC 204HENRY NDUNGUFACULTY OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATICS

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION SCIENCES

DISTANCE LEARNING MATERIAL

2011, EDITION

PUBLISHED BY KENYA METHODIST UNIVERSITY

P.O. BOX 267 60200, MERU

Email: [email protected]

TEL: 254 064 30301, 31146/0736752262

Preservation and Conservation of Information MaterialsDISC 204 Kenya Methodists University, 2011All rights reserved.

No part of this module may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying or otherwise; without the prior written permission of the author or Kenya Methodist University on that behalf

1. INTRODUCTION The purpose of this course is to expose the student to basic processes involved in the preservation, conservation and restoration of information materials. The course explores the historical background and physical properties of information materials. One of your obligations as an information scientist is the preservation of the collection generated and kept by the society i.e. maintain the collection in a good, healthy and usable condition. The information scientist is normally skilled in the art of information collection, analyzing, processing, storage, retrieval and preservation of the same resource. Because the special strength of the graduate from this programme is to be a hands-on person, considerable emphasis is placed on giving the candidate considerable practical knowledge in preserving information as part of information science professional. To enable you fulfil this obligation with required competence, you need to know the WHYs and HOWs of preserving and conserving information resources. COURSE OBJECTIVESBy the end of this course you should be able to:

1. Explain the Nature and properties of various types of information materials

2. understand how records and archives deteriorate and the environmental and physical causes of their deterioration

3. Describe deterioration of information resources and prevention strategies of various collections in libraries, museums, archives and historical sites.4. Identify preservation methods used for disaster planning and recovery in cultural institutions and know how to care for materials in all media, from paper to photographic to electronic

5. Identify preservation and conservation related programs, and know how to develop a well-planned preservation programme and design for staff in libraries, museums and archival institutions 6. Analyze preserving projects and the understand the value of reproduction as a preservation tool and make reformatting plans designed for preservation of collections in cultural institutions

7. Plan and design preservation workshops for treatment of special library materials in need of preservation

Course Overview

Unit 1: Introduction to preservation, conservation and restorationUnit 2: Historical perspectives, nature and physical properties of information materials Unit 3: Deterioration and destruction of information materialsUnit 4: Material storage and preventive maintenanceUnit 5 Information materials preservation and restoration; document and manuscript preservation and restoration; conservation of photographic materials, sound recordings and digital materialsUnit 6: Administration and management for preservation and conservationUnit 7: Disaster planning, disaster management and disaster preventionUnit 8: Trends in conservation and preservation.Required Reading referencesOjo-Igbonoba, M.E. (1993). The Practice of Conservation of Library Materials in Sub-Saharan Africa. Indiana University.

Balloffet, N., & Jenny H. (2005). Preservation and Conservation for Libraries and Archives. Chicago: American Library Association.Forde, Hellen (2007) Preserving Archives. Jersey City, N, Prentice-Hall.

Kleifield H (2007) Conservation and mass processes: practical mass de-acidification. Essen: akadpress GmbH.Kathpalia Y.(1973) Conservation and restoration of archives materials. Unesco, Paris, 1973.

Paul N. B., & Roberta P (ed). (2000). Preservation; Issues and Planning. Chicago: AmericanLibrary Association.

Other recommended reading materials and websites

Feather, John. (2004). Managing Preservation for Libraries and Archives: Current Practices. Ashgate Publishing.

IRMT (1999) Managing Public Sector Records. Principles and Context. London: IRMT

IRMT Modules at www.irmt.org

Course Requirements

1. CATS (30%)

There will be two take home continuous assessment test (CATs) all totalling to 30 marks

2. Examination (70 %)

This is an end of trimester exam that will test your recall, understanding, and integration of course materials and tutorial discussions among other relevant skills.

3. Grading policy

Your scores on the above tasks will be added up for a final grade according to the university scale.

4. Late/ Incomplete work

Each of the assignments must be completed by the specified time/date. Late submission or completion of a task will result in an automatic penalty. Exceptions may be allowed only for unavoidable and documented emergencies.

Approach

At the beginning of each unit you will find an overview and the units objectives. Each unit is divided into a number of topics which you will find listed under the heading Unit Structure. At the beginning of each topic you will find the topic title followed by the topics objectives. Throughout the unit you will find a number of activities or in-text questions to stimulate your thinking. You should complete all such tasks indicated like this:

? ?

At the end of each topic you will find a series of self-assessment questions, indicated like this:

SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

These are meant to assist you to evaluate your understanding of the concepts presented in the topic. To ensure that you understand and apply everything that is being discussed, I suggest that you:

Complete each units topics one at a time in the sequence in which they are presented

Make notes to simplify the topic you are studying

Complete activities and self-assessment questions as you progress

Consult relevant books and other sources of information as you work through each topic. This is especially important if you are finding a particular topic difficult to understand. References given for further reading are indicated like this:

FURTHER READING

Millar, Laura (1997) Records Management Manual: London; International Records Management Trust.

Kenya National Archives and Documentation Service (2002). A Manual of Records Management. Nairobi; Government printers.

Although this manual will be your main reading and study source, I recommend and encourage you to read additional books and articles as you may find that you need more information on a specific concept or topic or, maybe, just because you find a topic interesting or intriguing!

UNIT IOverviewIn this unit we shall be finding meanings to various terminologies that are necessary in order to understand the concept of preservation, conservation and restoration of information materials. We will then discuss the difference between preservation and conservation and finally role and approach to preservation

Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

Define the basic terms used when discussing preservation, conservation and restoration of information materials. Discuss the difference between preservation and conservation. Describe the role of and approaches in preservationDefinitions

What is preservation and conservation?

Preservation

Processes and operations involved in ensuring the technical and intellectual survival of authentic records over time ISO, 2009:17

Actions which enable the materials in archives either the physical media themselves or the information they contain to be retained for as long as they are needed Harvey, 1993:74

The totality of processes and operations involved in the protection of records and archives against damage or deterioration Millar and Roper, 1993:34

It is a bound concept that denotes all actions relating to the protection, maintenance, restoration of information resources. It includes Measures taken to safeguard information materials. In other words, it is regarded as the totality of measures involved in the protection of records and archives and other information materials against any further destruction or damage like fire etc. Preservation can be compared with the medical saying that prevention is better than cure.

Thus it encompasses all managerial and administrative procedures and decisions, which affect how records are stored, how and how often they are used, information conversion programs, policies directed towards creation and use of longer-lasting materials and decisions on repair processes and techniques. Example of preservation measures include;

User education on proper handling of information resources

Regular cleaning and dusting information centres

Regular cleaning of walls, shelves, surrounding areas and fumigation of documents.

Care, repair and maintenance of information materials

Conservation

The intrusive protection of archival material, by the minimal physical and chemical treatments necessary to resist further deterioration, which will not adversely affect the integrity of the original - Millar & Roper, 1999:34

Conservation treatment is intended to stabilize materials in this origin format by chemical and physical means. Conservation of deteriorated information resources may be carried out to return damaged items to stable and usable condition

Thus it refers to specific work done to protect information materials from damage and measure undertaken to repair the damage. Conservation has embraced restoration in current usage and is generally considered to be but one aspect of and/overall preservation program.Conservation is considered to have three aspects:

Examination: To determine the nature/properties of materials and causes of deterioration and alteration.Preservation: Adoption of appropriate prophylactic (medicine/treatment or course of action tending to prevent disease or other misfortune) and prospective measures to maintain the specimen in as good a condition as possible, and prolong its life to whatever extent possible.

Restoration: Appropriate remedial treatment of an already affected specimen.

2. Difference between preservation and conservationPreservation is concerned with maintaining or restoring access to artifacts, documents and records through the study, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of decay and damage. It should be distinguished from conservation which refers to the treatment and repair of individual items to slow decay or restore them to a usable state.Conservation is occasionally used interchangeably with preservation, particularly outside the professional literature and for many years these two terms were used interchangeably. However, these two terms are taking different dimensions as preventive preservation receives more and more emphasis in the management of information resources. Today, preservation is used to refer to the maintenance aspect while conservation deals with the remedial treatment and restoration of the already damaged specimen.Restoration

Are curative, rehabilitative measures taken on any information material that has suffered damage or deterioration in order to reinstate or restore normalcy to its original form or surface. It accompanies the repair of an item that has undergoing damage. It aims to reinstate the physical and functional of an information material by repairing the effects and restore the damage. Deterioration

This is the process by which information materials lose their value to a point to which they cannot fulfil the functions for which they were intended. It refers to the loss of quality of documents. Examples include wear and tear, fading of documents leading to illegibility etc it also involves the destruction or lose of documents through tear, plucking of pages, destroyed binding, sticking of sheets together as a result of micro organic activity.

3. Role of preservation

The objective of preservation is to apply intervention measures To protect information resources from damage.

To protect information resources from wear and tear and Deterioration arising from pollutants and environmental conditions. To slow down the aging process of information resources and prolong their life. REASONS FOR CONSERVING INFORMATION MATERIALS

This is what forms the basis of conserving information materials. As a matter of fact, when something is conserved it is done for same reasons. Information materials are conserved because they have administrative / primary value and research / secondary value. They can be looked as the following values;

Cultural,educational,Sentimental,Fiscal,Historical,Legal,Financial,Administrative.Thus we preserve information materials because of

Educational and research purposes

Evaluation of how far we have gone.

Posterity and historical agreements.

Evidential values any tangible one.

Leisure and entertainment matters

Information purposes

4. Approach to preservation The ability for information resources to remain accessible and usable is dependent on three components. The physical entity (artefact) or the carrier

The image i.e. the impression on the artefact

The information or the content ; For example,

Artefact

When the pages of a book become brittle, they crack and crumble or when the pages of a book stick to each other due to the effect of moisture or water, they cannot be turned, or when the binding is in a delicate fragile state and incapable of holding the pages together

Image

A book may be stained and not clearly legible or Photographs are blurred, discoloured or stained or Scratches on films, vinyl recordings. All these cases result in diminished usefulness of the content.

Deterioration of the artefact and the image is caused by the interplay between three basic factors: The inherent characteristics of the materials of which the media is composed The storage condition of the media, Handling of the media by the users or members of staff.All preservation efforts must put into consideration these factors.

Write down the difference between the following terminologies: preservation, conservation and restoration, reasons for preserving information resources. What parts of information materials are preserved? Forde, Hellen (2007) Preserving Archives. Jersey City, N, Prentice-Hall.

Kleifield H (2007) Conservation and mass processes: practical mass de-acidification. Essen: akadpress GmbH.

Pederson, A. (1987).Keeping Archives. Sydney: Australian Society of Archives Inc.

Penn, Ira A. and Gail Pennix et al (1994). Records Management Handbook. Aldershot; Gower

Student Summary Notes:

UNIT IITOPIC TWO: NATURE OF INFORMATION RESOURCES

INK COMPONENTS, TYPES AND QUALITIES OF GOOD INK

Overview

In this unit we shall examine various types of inks, nature, properties, uses and its use as an instrument of writing and making impressions.


Define the basic terms used in inks and their uses

Categorize different types of inks

Describe various elements found in inks

Describe features of a good writing inks

Definitions

Ink is one of the important components of a record. It has been used for writing on paper, parchment, vellum, palm leaf, and similar materials. Ink is still important for record creation and the day to day running of life. In general, an ink is a fluid of various colours but most frequently black, brown-black or blue-black.

Definition: Ink is a liquid medium by means of which words or characters are recorded or drawn upon paper or similar material in more or less permanent form (Kathpalia 2006).

Ink is a liquid which is clear and not a suspension (substance containing particles suspended in a medium)

It is mobile but does not spread

It has an intense colour that does not fade

It is odourless and has little acidity

Since ancient times three types of inks have been used namely, vegetable inks, animals inks or mineral inks. The precise ingredients of those inks are varied considerably; the qualities and properties of these inks are determined by these constituents or ingredients

Characteristics of Inks;

It is a liquid which is clear and not in suspension.

It is mobile but doesnt spread.

It has an intense colour which doesnt fade.

It is odourless Ink has little acidity.

PROPERTIES/COMPOSITION OF INKS

Inks constitute both basic (primary and secondary elements / ingredients) which determines its quality and complementary values. For an ink to fulfil itself function, it must have certain basic components which are;

Colouring matter;

Pigments and dyes provide the characteristics colour of ink and can be of natural or scientific origin.

Pigments are the colouring matter which gives the ink its colour.

Solvents

This is the media in which the ink elements are dissolved or dispatched

The fluids in which the ingredients of ink are dissolved and diluted, endures smooth flow of ink over the writing material. The most common solvent used is known as; Calligraphic, typographic, water, oil respectively. Adhesives;

This is the substance which holds together the particles of pigments so that the ink doesnt become mouldy (precipitate)

Adhesives are substances that bind colouring matter to the paper. The most common are gum Arabic, Senegal gum, dextrin, sugar shellac, starches, albumen, fish glue and other various synthetic substances.

Mordents;

This is the chemical substance which fixes the ink to support the paper.

They are chemical fixatives that are used, In most cases they are used in metallic acid inks.

NB: It should be noted that the use of mordents in the manufacture of ink is a major source of acidity which leads to deterioration of ink.

Other Components/secondary ingredients

Thickeners

These are chemical ingredients added to inks to thicken it up to required standards.

They control the density of inks to required standards. Some of thicknesses used are sodium carbonate, heavy spur, white barium etc.

Humidifiers;

These are chemical substances added to control the speed of drying process which includes binding properties and flexibility of inks e.g. glucerium and glycols.

Antiseptics;

They are added to preserve ink from chemical deterioration which prohibit / prevent microscorbic activities.

In other words, they are meant to stop sterilize, deter, etc microscrorbic or insect activities and other biological pests. Examples; borax acid, phenol, clove oil alum and naphthrid.

Scents / Fragrances;

They are chemical substances that give ink odour reduce a disagreeable / unacceptable smell. Examples include; terpineol, ambergns, essence of musk.

Brighteners;

They are added to ink to allow shining and brightness of ink and they include; shellac beer, alum rosin, sugar, coffee etc.

Penetrates

These facilities can be classed according to their use or according to their structure.

CLASSIFICATION OF INKS

Inks can be classified to their use and according to their structures; Based on respective uses, inks may be classed as;

i) Writing inks used for manuscript and transcript writing.

ii) Printing ink printing purposes only

iii) Lithographic inks used in art work.

Based on structures, ink may be classed as; stable and unstable inks.

1) Stable inks;

They maintain their physical and chemical compounds in spite of the environmental fluctuations like humidity and temperature. They are commercially known as permanent ink, They are insoluble in water and therefore cant be affected. For example if paper drops in water, becomes flooded or experiences hygroscopic absorption.

2) Unstable inks

These inks contain an element that directly or indirectly cause their own alterations or changes on paper.

The earliest inks were essentially suspensions of lamp black or soot (carbon) in a gum and are harmless to all writing supports or materials. They are sensitive to water i.e. they can easily be easily washed off or removed with a wet cloth. This type of ink was in common use until the 11th Century, when iron-gall inks began to come into prominence.

Examination of parchment and manuscripts from the 9th to the 15th centuries indicate that all were written with iron-gall inks in which no trace of carbon could be found. Iron-gall inks were the predominant inks until about 1860, when the introduction of aniline dyes brought about radical changes in the manufacture of inks. Pigments

Pigments are natural or synthetic, organic or inorganic substances used to impart colour in ink. Most pigments and dyes are more or less stable and do not affect parchment and paper. But, many manuscripts have been damaged by the action of copper-green, caused by the acid used to prepare the green colour. Similarly, the use of basic lead carbonate, used as a white pigment since the ancient times, has a darkening reaction which eventually leads to a black discoloration.

The types of ink can be categorized into:

1. Carbon Inks, Iron Gall Ink

2. Modern Inks

Fountain Pen Ink, Ball-Point Inks , Printing Inks, Type writer ink ,Ink for Carbon Papers and Stencil Duplicating Inks

Carbon Inks

Carbon ink also known as India ink was widely used until the nineteenth century and it is still preferred for fine work. Carbon ink is made from lampblack or soot. The pigment is held in suspension in water by means of glue, gelatin or gum. Such ink is permanent and not harmful to the material written upon. China ink is similar to India ink, but in solid state. These carbon inks are black in colour. Carbon inks though permanent, can easily be washed off or removed with a wet cloth.

Iron Gall Ink

Iron gall ink is a combination of iron salts (green vitriol or copperas i.e. ferrous sulphate) with infusion of tannins obtained from nut galls. Freshly made, the ink has very little colour and cannot be used, but during storage, gradual oxidation takes place and a blue-black colour is developed. The ink thus formed has a natural tendency to settle. The addition of substances like gum prevents this precipitation or sedimentation.

After writing on paper or parchment the oxidation of the ink continues. During this process, the ink fixes itself indelibly on these materials. The degree of indelibility depends on the tannin and iron contents. Such writing has remained legible for centuries, but has faded from black to brown, through the action of residue chemicals in the paper and of light

These inks are more or less permanent and contain iron in the form of ferrous sulphate. The proportion of ferrous sulphate varies with the type of ink required, such as permanent record ink, ordinary writing ink and fountain-pen inks. Iron-gall inks have one serious disadvantage;

Free acids are often present and They attack parchment and more vigorously, paper

In extreme cases, the written letter or area will become brittle and the manuscript becomes too weak to be safely used.

Modern Inks

Fountain Pen Ink

Iron gall ink is not suitable for fountain pens because the acid that it contains destroys the nib.

Solutions of synthetic dyes with the same pictorial power as the modern iron gall inks are preferred

Among the dyes used are black Nigrosine, Fuschine, Brilliant Orange R, Naphthal yellow and diamond green.

Such inks have poor light fastness and therefore they are not permanent

They are water solvents or other solvents with a result that the writing spreads on becoming wet

These defects have been overcome by the use of certain substantive dyes which on drying adhere to the fibre. These inks are strongly alkaline with a pH of 12-13 and are fast to light

Ball-Point Inks

Ball points do not function properly with iron gall inks because of their acidity and muddiness. The inks used are made of fast dyes (usually basic dyes) mixed with an oily solvent. Their formula is a closely guarded secret by the manufacturers.

These inks are not permanent.

They are soluble in alcohol and other organic solvents, They may be washed off without difficult

They do not sink deep into paper thus they may be removed easily either by soaking in spirit or by an eraser.

Printing Inks

Printing inks are suspensions of pigments in various proportions in a varnish base, The proportion of the vanish oil varies from 70 to 78% while pigment depends to a great extent on the character of printing required

Boiled linseed oil a drying oil which solidifies as a result of oxidation on boiling, is commonly used as a varnish. The pigments commonly used are

Lampblack or amorphous carbon for black-coloured ink, Beryta white, Zinc oxide, titanium oxide and antimony oxide for white inks , Chrome yellow and zinc chromate for yellow coloured inks

Vermillion (Hgs), scarlet chrome and madder (alizarin) for red coloured inks, Ultra marine and Prussian blue for blue coloured inks

These inks are permanent and outlast the papers they are printed on for printing purposes:

Research works to determine the printing technology (dot matrix, ink jet, laser e.t.c.) that will have the best life expectancy indicate, ink jet printer is preferred since;

The ink particles adhere to the cellulose fibres with little reactive bonding agent

Later printed papers tend to block if stored under unsuitable conditions or if kept between certain types of plastic sheet.

On the other hand ink-jet printed paper are water-sensitive, while laser prints are water resistant

Type writer ink

Type written documents especially copies feature increasingly in archives collections, They are fast to light, erasure and solvents.

The ribbon of a typewriter is made from a thin tough textile fabric impregnated with an oily base carrying oil-soluble dyes or insoluble pigments

The black pigment is some form of carbon therefore it can be relied for permanence. Because of the oily medium in which it is suspended the ink penetrates the paper slowly. After about two days it is difficult to erase without damage to the paper.

The earliest inks used were strong solutions of aniline dyes in spirit or water. Glycerin was added in small quantities to prevent the ink from drying too rapidly.

Modern typewriter inks are almost identical with printing inks and insoluble pigments are used to a large extent.

Ink for Carbon Papers

When only a few copies are required tissue paper backed with specially prepared inks is used, The ink consists of a wax base containing lampblack or wax soluble dyes and is applied to thick, strong paper.

The carbon impression left by the typewriter key on the paper can be erased easily with a pencilled eraser. Being black, the writing is fast to light.

Stencil Duplicating Inks

When more copies are required, the method of stencil duplication is employed. Inks for this purpose have special characteristics

They flow readily from the roller, They do not clog the stencil sheet

They dry readily on paper, The pigment does no separate from the medium either on the rollers or when spread on paper

These qualities are achieved by the use either of an essential oil or a vegetable oil or hydrocarbon of suitable viscosity.

A good ink should as a rule:

Yield permanent writing which should become relatively black within a few days

Flow rapidly form the pen and penetrate the fibres of the paper without passing right through them

Neither gelatinize nor become mouldy in the ink pot

Have a minimum corrosive action upon steel pens and be neither stick nor drying problems.

Write down the basic compounds found in inks, discuss their use, and describe various categories of inks. Highlight the features of a good writing ink for writing permanent records

Forde, Hellen (2007) Preserving Archives. Jersey City, N, Prentice-Hall.





TOPIC TWO - NATURE OF INFORMATION RESOURCES

Media of Information Resources

Information resources have existed in one form or the other since man invented the art of writing. It can be traced to the years when man engraved records on stone and metal, before the two media gave way to writings on other materials such as papyrus, bark, leather and parchment and palm leaf and finally paper. These materials remained in use for a long time until paper replaced them. In particular, palm leaf remained in use in the East as late as the nineteenth century despite the invention of paper.

Palm leaves

The practice of writing on palm leaves was largely found in India and adjoining countries of Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Burma and Thailand. The practice continued into the nineteenth century especially in India and Sri Lanka. Records written on palm leaves are largely in private collections and Institutions in Burma, Germany, India, Japan, Nepal and Sri Lanka.

Birch Bark

A number of birch bark manuscripts still exist in India and Nepal and elsewhere in the world. The earliest documents dating from A.D. 450 are inscribed in Brahmi script and were discovered in 1889 in Eastern Turkistan. The bark sheets consist of a number of thin layers and are prepared in various ways. As a general rule;

Pieces from the bark measuring approximately 90 by 20 cm are cut from the tree

They are beaten to produce a hard surface and then smoothed to form a writing surface by oiling and polishing

The birch is durable and immune from insects because of the presence of birch oil, a natural preservative chemical.

Papyrus

Papyrus was the chief writing material of the ancient Egyptians. It is believed to have been manufactured in Egypt as late as A.D. 1050 and was used or about 4,000 years. Papyrus documents dating back

The earliest books were made from papyrus which is similar in composition to paper. It is known to have lasted 2-3 thousand years under good condition of storage

Parchment and Vellum

Vellum is the skin from sheep, goat, calf and sometimes pig. Animal skins first came into use when papyrus became too expensive and difficult to obtain. The manufacture of vellum even today uses manual skills and very little machinery. The process begins with;

Washing the skin in running water to remove dirt, blood e.t.c. They are coated with white and allowed to dry.

It is than allowed to soak for a few days in lime and water in pits to loosen the hair and soften the skins(simple machinery scraps off the hair and removes some of the flesh. The cleaned skins are put back into lime pits for some weeks and then re-fleshed and washed.

The calf, goat and pig skins intended for vellum are stretched while wet on wooden frames and washed with hot water. Thereafter they scrapped with blunt half-moon knives to remove as much fat as possible.

Parchment

Sheepskin intended for parchment are before stretching, split into skivers (grain side) and flesh .The flesh splits are stretched on frames (as for vellum) swilled with hot water and scrapped with blunt knives to remove as much fat as possible.

They are then covered with whiting, allowed to dry and scrapped to the required thickness. They are again washed, scrapped with a blunt knife and dried.

Vellum and parchment have great mechanical strength giving them lasting resistance to mechanical stresses and attritional wear. The process of manufacture introduces minimal impurities which remain on the surface and can be removed by scrapping

Vellum is susceptible to damp, causing them to cockle and ultimately rot. They must be kept dry for them to last.

RH 60-75% at temperatures of 40-70 F. Due to a high degree of imperviousness, it would difficult to impregnate them with fungicide. The remedy is to prevent the access of insects

Paper

The paper is without doubt the most commonly used material or document in archives libraries and other information centres today. Paper probably derived this name from Papyrus. Before the industrial era, it was made by slow, hand-operated processes it must have been comparatively expensive even though the labour that made it was cheap.

Paper was invented in China by Tsai-Lun about A.D. 105. In the British Museum there is a piece of paper, taken from the Great Wall of China, which dates about 2,000 years.

HAND MADE PAPER MAKING IN CHINA AN FAR EAST

Rags / pieces of clothes or stripes of plants, (silk) were collected, sorted and arranged. Dust was removed and they were immersed in a solution of lime in order to rot/ ferment to make extraction of cellulose fibres easier.

The extracted fibres were then pounded and mixed with water until they became pulp. The pulp obtained was then put into containers called VATS (Metal moulds) for the purpose of straining out the water. The paste (pulp) was diluted to suitable constituency on these containers (VATS) that were made of wood, stone / metal.

The Vats were then shaken in all directions to facilitate straightening to ensure fibres took the same position. The amount of H2O added determines the liquidity of the mould.

After shaking, the fibres are taken to their position by being assembled on a rock or a flat wooden materials and left to dry. The mould produced left had some water marks.

Once dried, the paper was glued then sized (strengthening by adding additives) i.e. glues derived from animal gelatin / plant glues (starch) which acted as adhesives. At the sizing stage calcium oxide would be added to increase the weight of the paper loading.

It was then polished using the bone or stone cut to size, flattened and written upon. NB: In the early times sizing agents used consisted of animal glue derived from hoofs / bones paste and was also derived from plants which gave the paper greater coherent, strength, quality etc. After the handmade paper was made the shits were sized (sizing adding a metal to make the paper smooth) and then they were glazed (adding materials) to help the ink not to run and also ink or water not to penetrate the paper.

In early times the sizing agent used consisted or rage table paste that was later replaced by animal glue (hooves). The sizing agent also helped paper to have a greater coherent and give paper a crisp sound when shaped then quality of paper produced depended on the skill of the craftsmen to obtain a uniformed distribution of pulp on the mesh and to ensure that the pulp in the VAT was uniformly spread.

This process of paper-making process did not change drastically; Paper continued to be made from pure rags until the 17th c. No method was employed to bleach or camouflage discoloured rags as the supply of clean and new white rags or clippings from garment making was sufficient to meet the demand for writing and printing papers.

From the second half of the 17th century water beating mills began to be replaced with HOLLANDERS. These were containers made of caste iron in which a roll fitted with metal bars was made to receive. The roller fitted with metal bars macerated the rags. With this invention paper production was greatly increased and paper refining considerably improved

Thereafter, the use of new and strong rags was confined to the best grades of writing and printing papers, while worn and discoloured rags were generally used for manufacturing inferior quality papers such as wrapping paper, cartridge paper

CHARACTERISTICS AND QUALITIES OF HAND MADE PAPER

The paper was quite strong because the cellulose fibres were quite long and multi directional. These gave the fibres greater resistance to tear in case of any form of mishandling. Also other substances like metallic irons in the raw materials were never removed. This gave the paper more strength.

The presence of water which was never completely removed gave the paper a lot of flexibility and bonding.

The paper had better colouration because initially only raw materials that were white in colour were being used. This means that chemicals were not added to bleach the paper and hence less acid were introduced.

There was no bloating of ink because sizing was done to provide the paper with a smooth writing surface and also giving it a good ink retention capacity.

Disadvantages of Hand Made Paper

The paper had high lignin content and acidic substance found in cellulose that was not removed during making process. This is because, this method was not powerful enough to crash down the substance as is the case today in machine paper. Suffice is to say that handmade paper had high acidic levels. Besides The paper had a lot of water marks.

Factors influenced the change in paper making process:

The invention of the printing press made the demand for paper higher. However the handmade-paper kept pace with these demands.

In 1798 the paper-making machine the Hollander was invented. It replaced the old slow stamping and macerating process in mortars by a rapid and mechanical process.

As societies became more literate, the demand for paper increased. It resulted in a shortage of rags, the traditional source of cellulose fibre from which paper was made. A search for new fibre sources resulted in wood becoming the most commonly used fibre source from the middle of the nineteenth century and it forms the basis of most of the paper in our archives and libraries.

Until the period of machine made paper the raw materials used were almost entirely flax (linen) and hemp. Later, cotton and esparto replaced these materials.

MACHINE MADE PAPER

By the 19th Century the impact of Industrial Revolution was spreading from Europe to other parts of the world. As a result, paper making process changed from hand making to machine making. The demand for paper had also increased. Several major pulping processes were developed that relieved the paper industry of dependency on cotton and linen rags and made large modern scale production possible.

Use of mechanical systems made it possible to manufacture strips of paper of endless length. Printers demanded paper that was smooth and uniform in surface. Endless paper differs from handmade paper in that its fibres are mainly aligned to along travel of the machine, making such paper to contract and expand sideways.

Machine made paper has the same components as handmade paper i.e. cellulose and water. However from the late 17th century onwards vegetables and animals sized in cellulose were complemented or replaced by a chemical known as ALUM. This is hydrated durable salt of aluminium sulphate and potassium sulphate.

The colour was removed by chlorination which is a bleaching agent. Chlorine is a chemical compound that reacts with water to form hydrochloric acid. (Paper = cellulose + water + sizing) Coloured Rags = Cl2 + H2O HCL2 + H2O = HCL

It was first used for sizing at the beginning of the 19th century. ALUM became generally used as a result of mechanical sizing methods invented by a German watch maker Liiq where the alum would be added to the pulp before the pulp was converted to paper.

This development followed two distinctive pathways:-

Fibres and fibre fragments were separated through wood structure by mechanical means.

Wood was exposed to chemical solutions that dissolved and removed lignin and other wood components leaving cellulose behind.

VAT SIZING

A sheet of paper consist only cellulose fibres (water Leaf) is water a absolvent hence water based needs and other aqueous liquids will penetrate and spread in it. Impregnating of the paper with various substances that are absolved and penetrated called sizing. Before 1800 paper sheets were impregnated with animal glue or vegetable gums, an expensive and tedious process. In 1800 maritz Fredrick discovered that paper can be sized in vats with rosin an alum. Though the published his discoveries in 1807 the method did not come into wide use for 25 years.

Chlorine breaching

Discovery of the adherent chlorine in 1774 led to its use in bleaching paper stock. Lack of chemical knowledge at that time resulted to production of inferior paper by the method, discrediting it for some years. However bleaching is a common paper making agent.

MECHANICAL PROCESS

The machine making process involved two main procedures (mechanical process and chemical processes) In this procedure, the machines are used to crash the logs into small fragments known as chips.

This process is sometimes known as chopping of wood pulp by use fourdrinier machine. It consist of endless belt (wire screen) on which the pulp i.e. slurry is fed. The water in the pulp will be drained off along the belt as the paper continues to be formed. There are wet rollers which presses it down into a smooth sheet. A chemical substance known as: Alum-rosin is added as the sizing agent to size the paper. This substance is acidic in nature and affects the future quality of the paper.

Bleaching agents like chlorine are also used for discoloration. The paper is then graded and cut into different paper sizes according to demand. Due to its nature, it has been suggested that, the use of mechanical process to manufacture paper is not the best. The process leads to deterioration in paper quality as lignin can easily oxidize causing deterioration. This is because the process breaks down the logs into very short elements (chips) whose resistance to tear is low. Also the fibres are arranged unevenly in the paper. It uses the grinding process, whereby the wood fibre is roughly separated making fibres short and irregular.

The poor quality of mechanical pulp is due to the continued presence of lignin and chlorinated agents which have not been completely removed after the bleaching process. Such paper is used for manufacturing newsprint (This is paper used for making newspapers and other media prints) in which the urgent transmission of news is more important than the material.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PAPER MADE USING MECHANICAL PROCESS

The fibres are fragmented because force is used to separate them.

Fibres produced are short, broken and un-evenly distributed.

Lignin and other wood impurities were never removed. These elements/ chemical substances have acidic substances that have adverse effects on paper leading to its deterioration. The fibres are fragmented and there is considerable debris.

The pulp contains all the chemicals constituents of wood including cellulose, semi-cellulose, lignin, and lesin and colouring materials. This means that papers containing this pulp i.e. brown wood pulp are subject to coloration.

Since ground wood pulp fibre are relatively short and have only a moderate ability to bold to each other, papers containing them do not have strength.

Ground wood pulp doesnt have a high whiteness being limited in this quality by the colour of wood from which it is made

Therefore this method produces paper that has a very short lifespan e.g. print paper used by (Standard, Nation and wrapping).

4.PAPER MADE FROM CHEMICAL PULP.

The cellulose pulp obtained from wood would easily be as pure as that derived from it only the extraneous matter is removed. Currently the so called sulphate process involves a mixing of caustic soda and sulphur. It is the most widely used method for making chemical pulp. Chemically treated cellulose is free from substances extraneous such as lignin and Rosin. However the pulp is of poor quality because of the presence of alum, rosin and presence of chlorine.

5.CHEMICAL PULPING PROCESS

Wood is brought in the paper industry and the logs are to be baked.

The logs are then taken into a chipper (the machine that cuts wood in pieces).

The chips are put in a series of tanks containing calcium hydroxide, sulphuric acid, chlorine and sizing agents.

Bleaching, sizing and loading processes follow closely

LIMITATION OF CHEMICAL WOOD PULP

Cooking of wood involves the use of sulphur which reacts with water to form an acid compound.

The sizing and the bleaching agents expose paper to acidic chemicals.

Advantages

Paper made from chemical pulp will have long strong fibres and therefore make strong paper and cause.

Lignin would be dissolved and therefore eliminating it.

Most of impurity will dissolve in chemical substances.

Components of machine made paper;

Cellulose fibres Lignin

Sizing agents

Bleaching agents chlorine

Loading agents.

Water as bonding agent

Other elements

Film

Films are generally composed of a support layer of polyester, cellulose acetate or cellulose nitrate and an image layer of a gelatin emulsion. The first films from the 1800s to the 1950s were manufactured on cellulose nitrate: a plastic material, which is flexible, transparent and reasonably strong. This material was considered as being

Highly unstable because it decomposed over time

Highly flammable and may self ignite or even explode in very high temperatures.

Nitrate is also liable to produce large amounts of toxic gases if it has insufficient oxygen to burn. Black and white acetate or safety film is relatively stable. However, over long periods of time, the acetate base reacts with oxygen and becomes brittle, while chemical processes in the silver emulsion layer cause the image to fade. Colour film stands to be most unstable.

The dyes used in colour film fade more quickly and the different pigments disintegrate at different rates. Inevitably, colour film cannot survive as long as black and white film, even in the most favourable storage conditions.

Films are sensitive to light and heat, to chemicals and pollutants. An archivist needs to identify the kind of film in the archival collection, since the kind of material and its condition will dictate what the storage conditions should be. These are covered by different International Organization of Standardization (ISO) standards as follows: ISO 10356: Cinematography Storage and handling of Nitrate-Base Motion-Picture films, Long term storage: temperature and RH of 2C and 20-30%. ISO 18911: Processed Safety Photographic Films Storage Long-term storage of black and white acetate film: temperature and RH at 2 C and 20 to 50%, or 5 C and 20 to 40% or 7C and 20 to 30%. Long-term storage of colour film: temperature and RH at 10 C and 20 to 50%, or 3C and 20 to 40% or 2C and 20 to 30%.

However good your copy, film or digital, the original will always remain the source, the master. Something will be lost in the copy (something could also be gained of course, which could also be a problem). And you will always be able to make a better copy in ten years, assuming your Photographs

Photographic prints are composed of an image layer and a support layer. The support layer is usually composed of paper, but it may be made of glass, metal or other materials. The image layer is composed of a number of chemicals which determine the stability of the image. For example, black and white photographic images consist of silver, embedded in gelatin, albumen or collodian binder while colour images are composed of organic dyes embedded in three layers of gelatin. Because of their chemical composition, black and white photographs are more stable than colour images. Colour images are more sensitive to light, they can fade in the dark and are easily affected by temperature and humidity.

All photographic prints can be damaged by ultraviolet light, pollutants and dust. But the most important factor in the preservation of photographic prints is the stability of temperature and relative humidity (RH). They are best kept at temperatures below 20 C, while 15 to 25 C is acceptable. The relative humidity should be as follows: 30-35% for black and white, 25-30% for colour and 20-30% for materials in cold storage. They should be stored in individual enclosures to shield them from dust, dirt, handling and the environment. Ideal containers are acid-free, non-buffered envelopes or folders, non-buffered photographic mats, mylar sleeves, or inert plastic holders.

ELECTRONICS RECORDS

Electronic materials are those records produced and accessible only using electronic devices that manage data, text, images, sound and motion in complex relationships. Electronic data can be recorded in analogue or digital form. They have a short life span of 20 to 25 years while software and hardware obsolescence remains a major concern in preservation of these records.

Sound recordings

Sound recordings appear in a number of formats that have emerged through the years. They can be grouped into three main categories:-

Phonographic recordings- acetate, shellac and vinyl discs as well as the wax cylinder.

Magnetic tape recordings- reel-to-reel tapes, cassettes, digital audio tapes and magnetic wire recordings.

Optical digital recordings compact digital audio disks (CDs) and DVDs.

For most of these formats there is a wide variety of technological variations. They require a range of techniques and equipment to preserve them and make them accessible.

Magnetic and Electronic Media

Records created using magnetic media include computer tapes and diskettes, audio and video-cassettes and reel-to-reel audio tapes. Magnetic media are composed of metallic oxides applied to a carrier such as polyester, cellulose acetate or paper. The oxide surface holds magnetic particles that store information that can be read using appropriate equipment.

Electronic and magnetic media are sensitive to temperature and relative humidity. Excessive temperatures and high humidity will cause magnetic materials to deteriorate rapidly and electronic data, in particular, will suffer permanent loss. Magnetic media is also highly susceptible to abrasion caused by dust or from oil on fingers. Magnetic media can also be erased if brought into contact with a magnetic field and therefore they should be kept away from magnetic, electrical equipment, vacuum cleaners and transformers. Due to their sensitivity, these materials should be handled with care. They should be protected from direct light and dust, in a stable environment with temperatures of 18 C to 20 C and RH at between 40 and 50%. Together with careful handling, for long-term storage, backup copies should be made every five to ten years to ensure that data is protected. Copies should be made for public use so that the original copies can be safely stored and not placed at risk.

All preservation efforts must put into consideration these factors.

SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

Write down the difference types of Information materials that have existed in one form or the other since man invented the art of writing. What are their features, properties and characteristics? How were they prepared or manufactured FURTHER READING:






UNIT IIIDETERIORATION OF INFORMATION RESOURCES

Overview

In this unit we shall find out what causes document deterioration, how information materials loss their value as result of influence by several intertwined factors from environment to human based factors. These factors can be categorized into .Internal agents of Deterioration and External agents of Deterioration. Broadly referred as Agents of deterioration

Objectives


Describe the causes of deterioration of information materials Discuss the various categories of deteriorating agents. Explain how deterioration takes place and effects of deterioration on information materialsIntroduction

Deterioration is the loss of quality in any material which decreases its ability to carry out its function as intended. There are many different reasons why information resources deteriorate, which include inherent and external factors. Agents of deterioration may act jointly or severally, regularly or sporadically. The ultimate proof of the presence of a causal deterioration is the appearance of its effects on the information resource media.

It is impossible sometimes to fit the causes of deterioration into neat compartments, for instance inherent causes can be reinforced by simultaneous action of external causes and vice versa. However, this lesson examines the causes of deterioration of information resources that include:

Inherent characteristics

Environmental factors

Biological agents

Human factors.

1. Inherent Instability/Characteristics

1.1 Oxidation.

This is a process of natural decay in air which affects all organic materials. If such materials are stored in good environmental conditions, the process is normally slow, but it is accelerated by oxidizing pollutants, such as ozone (created in electrostatic copying processes), sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and cleaning fluids. In paper it results in the breakdown of the cellulose fibre structure and the weakening of the paper. Its effects are unlikely to be significant and are not easy to distinguish from those created by acid deterioration, which is more likely to be the prime cause of decay in archival documents. Oxidation is most noticeable in cellulose acetate still and motion picture film and microfilm, where it becomes apparent in the form of 'redox blemishes' or 'red spot'.

1.2 Acid deterioration.

Cellulose materials are also liable to decay through contamination by inherent acidic components, by acidic materials used in their manufacture and by atmospheric pollutants. Papers made from mechanical ground wood pulp which has a high lignin content, or which have been sized with alum rosin are especially liable to such deterioration. Deterioration will be accelerated by certain external factors such as heat, humidity, light or chemical pollution or by the use of acidic packing materials. The first visible evidence of such deterioration may be a slight discoloration, which progresses in time through yellow to brown. At the same time the paper loses its strength and eventually becomes embrittled to the point where it crumbles when handled. The level of acidity or alkalinity in a paper is measured by its pH value measured on a logarithmic scale numbered from 0 to 14 with 7.0 as the neutral point; numbers higher than 7 denote alkalinity, while numbers lower than 7 denote acidity. pH may be measured colourmetrically with certain chemical indicators (e.g. Merck strips) or, more accurately, by potentiometric methods using electrodes.

1.3 Fugitive dyes

Certain pigments used in inks, water based paints, textile dyes, photographic dyes, etc. are fugitive and fade or change in time. These changes may be accelerated by acidity, heat, moisture or light, but for some colour photographic processes fading occurs even when prints or negatives are kept in the dark. Several pigments, especially those in fountain pen inks and felt tip colours, are water soluble and should be fixed prior to any treatments which require wetting.

1. 4. Other Chemical Instabilities.

A wide range of other chemical instabilities may be encountered by archivists and conservators, e.g. fading or staining of badly processed photographs, destructive deterioration of cellulose nitrate bases of old still and motion picture film, hydrolysis of polyester film.

1.5. Electromagnetic deterioration.

Most electromagnetic signals, e.g. on audio, video and computer tape, are subject to gradual loss of strength. They are moreover, susceptible to deliberate or accidental deletion, distortion, print-through and over-recording.

2. Environmental Agents

These are related to the climate or more precisely microclimate in which the information resources are kept. They are basic environmental factors affecting the information resources. They include :

Humidity and Temperature

Light

Pollution

Dust and dirty

Fire, flood and tempest

2.1 Temperature and humidity.

It is important that information resources should not be subjected to extremes of temperature or humidity. High temperatures increase the rate of chemical reactions; when allied to low relative humidity they lead to embrittlement of paper and the drying out of adhesives; when allied to high relative humidity they encourage fungal growth, the migration of adhesives, oxidation and hydrolysis. Changes in temperature or humidity, especially rapid or repeated changes (cycling) of conditions between day and night or from season to season, lead to dimensional instability in addition to any other damage which may be done.

2.2 Light

High levels of natural or artificial light, especially from the blue end of the spectrum (ultra-violet light), cause fading in inks and pigments (including dyes used in colour photography) and through photo-oxidation may accelerate the degradation of the organic materials used as supports for those inks and pigments e.g. the breakdown of lignin in paper). Even low levels of light can cause problems if they are maintained over a long (not necessarily continuous) time.

2.3 Pollution

Atmospheric pollution, especially sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxides, which is produced by the internal combustion engine, furnaces, power stations and many industrial processes which use fossil fuels (i.e. coal, oil, etc) may react with the materials of which documents are composed, e.g. to accelerate acid deterioration in paper or changes to photographic chemicals.

Similar effects may be experienced when chemicals (acids, peroxides, sulphates, etc)

1. Migrate from one component of a document to another, e.g. from board used in the binding of a volume to the paper contents

2. Migrate from a container to a document, e.g. from an envelope to a photographic negative within it

3. Migrate from one type of document to another, e.g. from a badly processed photograph to the letter with which it is enclosed

4. Migrate from building components to documents stored within the buildings, e.g. from paint or concrete dust to the documents.

2.4 Dust and Dirt

Dust and dirt may become imbedded in paper fibres and cause disfigurement of documents or even lead to abrasion of the materials of which they are composed. In addition they may carry with them chemical pollutants or fungal spores which can attack the documents. Concrete dust may be highly alkaline, which is as damaging as high acidity.

2.5 Fire, Flood and Tempest.

These disasters may arise from meteorological events or from local or internal factors, such as arson or accidental fires, or burst pipes or water mains.

3. Biological Agents

3.1 Fungi (moulds) and Micro-organisms.

These are always present in the atmosphere in an inert state and only become active when conditions, e.g. of high temperature and humidity (a relative humidity of more than 65X will promote fungal growth), promote their development and growth. They attack by feeding on paper and other organic components of documentary materials, weakening them and often leaving disfiguring stains, which may obliterate information.

3.2 Insects

These also feed upon the organic components of documentary materials: some on cellulose products e.g. paper; others on animal products e.g. certain adhesives, parchments, leathers. Book lice appear to be especially attracted to fungal growths and their attack on paper, is a by-product of their attack on fungal growth.

3.3 Other Animal Pests.

Rodents also may damage documents by feeding upon them, using them as nesting materials or merely fouling them. Birds also may foul documents. Animal and bird excrement is not only unpleasant and corrosive but itself provides food for fungi, micro-organisms and insects which may also attack the documents.

4. Human Factors

4.1 Unintentional damage

Information resources may suffer from neglect, improper handling and careless handling.

1. Frequent use, no matter how careful, can itself lead to or accelerate damage and deterioration.

2. Photocopying without due care is a major contributor to damage. A recent international survey of archives and libraries pointed to use as the most frequent cause of damage to documents and books.

3. Unintentional damage may occur from careless handling in retrieving and re-shelving documents, from damage in transit within and between buildings or from excessive display on exhibition.

4. First-aid treatment of damaged documents by unqualified persons with unsuitable materials e.g. pressure-sensitive tape ('Scotchtape' or 'Sellotape')) can aggravate that damage.

4.2 Vandalism

This may involve tearing or cutting, writing on or marking individual documents; disordering assemblies; or even arson.

4.3 Theft

The deliberate removal of documents, or extracts from documents, for personal gratification or monetary reward is, unfortunately, by no means unknown.

Write down the causes of deterioration of various information materials, Discuss the various categories of deteriorating agents. Explain how deterioration takes place and its effects on deterioration of information materials Forde, Hellen (2007) Preserving Archives. Jersey City, N, Prentice-Hall.





UNIT IVPRESERVATION STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES

Overview

In this unit we shall discuss and demonstrate with practical examples methods and strategies of preserving information materials. We shall also be looking at preventive strategies and techniques that are used in preservation of records and archives as well as other information resources.

Objectives


Describe the various methods and strategies of preserving information materials.

Discuss and demonstrate with practical examples methods used in preservation of records and archives Explain how preventive strategies and techniques are used successfully in preserving information materials

Introduction

The best and most cost-effective way to protect information resources is to ensure the good and orderly physical and administrative management of the entire organisation. All staff should be trained to handle materials, properly. Preservation to a good standard is not inexpensive, but it is much less costly than having to send large proportions of the material for repair. Repair of damaged materials should be a last resort, after the potential for other preservation strategies such as microfilming or copying has been considered.

To come up with effective preservation strategies and techniques we should be guided by the following questions:

Why are information resources e.g. paper often inherently acidic, and how can acidity be controlled?

What is the effect of temperature and relative humidity on information resources?

How can temperature and relative humidity be monitored and controlled?

How does light damage information resources and how can it be monitored and controlled?

What is the effect on information resources of air pollution and biological agents?

How can institutions protect their holdings against air pollution and biological agents?

What is the effect of mishandling on information resources?

How can institutions protect their holdings against mishandling?

1. Storage of Information Resources

1.1 Buildings

The provision of secure storage areas in which environmental conditions can be stabilized by inherent construction or artificial means, is the most effective single measure which can enhance the longevity of information resources. Considerations should include:

Heating, dehumidifying or even full air-conditioning to stabilize the storage conditions. Proper ventilation with good circulation of air to prevent the growth of fungi.

Minimizing pollution and dust through air filtration. Reduction of light levels by using blinds to reduce natural light that filters into the storage areas.

Protective measures to allow immediate detection and suppression of fires and where risks of fire, flood and tempest are minimized.

Maintenance of temperatures as low as practicable in the range 15-22 C and relative humidity as low as practicable between 35% and 65%, preferably below 55%.

Flooring where weight bearing capacity of the floor should be sufficiently strong to support a full load of documents.

1.2 Storage equipment

There are some basic requirements that storage equipment should have. They include:

Equipment be strong enough to take the weight of documents. Shelving should be of a proper size to support the documents and Racking and shelving should be

Chemically inert (non-corrodible) and Fire-proof i.e. metal not wood

Baked enamelled surfaces properly and thoroughly cured not painted.

Sufficient space (15 cm) should be left below the bottom shelving to avoid damage from minor flooding and a similar space above the contents of the top shelf to permit free circulation of air.

The use of mobile (compactuses) shelving should not be considered if ventilation and air circulation is a problem.1.3 Enclosures

The use of acid-free storage boxes and folders for loose papers and files and of boxes for bound volumes has been shown to extend the life of documents stored within them and should be seriously considered. They provide a good level of protection against fire, flood, light, vermin, pollution and cycling of environmental conditions in the storage area. Where acid-free boxes are not available, boxing will still provide protection, but documents should be wrapped in acid-free paper or folders as a protection against acid migration.

2. Good Housekeeping

2.1 Cleaning

Good housekeeping is a basic requirement for information resources. To protect information resources and prolong their life:

Dust and dirt should be removed from documents and their containers on their reception in the institution/archives.

Regular, preferably annual cleaning thereafter should be observed.

Chemical cleaning or bleaching should not be undertaken by non-conservation staff.

Materials should always be carefully tested before chemicals are applied to ascertain that no harm will result as a consequence.

2.2 Removal of harmful components

Corrodible metallic components such as staples, pins and paper clips should be removed.

Files which are held on 'tags " lengths of cord with solid ends which thread through the contents of files and attach them to file covers should have any tags with corrodible ends replaced by others with plastic ends

Files in pillar (or post) binders with corrodible pillars should be removed from those binders and placed in new ones with inert pillars.

Chemically active components with archival significance e.g. photographs, acidic file covers should be removed and stored separately or placed within inert polyester sleeves.

The removal of pressure-sensitive tape requires the careful use of solvents and should not be attempted by non-conservation staff.

2.3 Flattening

Folded papers should be opened and held flat by pressing or by humidification and tying between acid-free boards after interleaving with white blotting paper, never by the direct application of a domestic laundry iron.

2.4 Packing

Any repacking should be in acid-free materials. Boxing, as in 1.3 above, is the best means of packing, but where this is not feasible wrapping in acid-free folders or wrappers tied with undyed broad cotton tape (not string or cord) may be recommended.

2.5 Handling

Procedures for the careful handling of documents by staff and users should be introduced and enforced. These will include:

a) Provision of archival trolleys which support documents

adequately and are maneuverable;

b) Avoiding stacking documents on trolleys, desks, floors, etc;

c) Providing adequate working surfaces for staff and users and,

where necessary, properly constructed book-rests or cradles;

d)Controlling the handling of documents when being

photocopied.

2.6 Inspection

Storage areas should be inspected regularly to ensure that storage and environmental conditions are adequate and that there has been no infestation by fungi, micro-organisms, insects or vermin.

3. Pest Control

3.1 Treatment of premises

Where fungi, micro-organisms, insects or vermin are an inherent problem within the storage areas, regular treatment with appropriate substances is essential.

3.2 Routine treatment of new accessions

Where fungi, micro-organisms or insects are an endemic environmental problem, it is desirable to eliminate them before documents are placed in storage by an appropriate method of disinfestations. However, this will be ineffective if the area into which they will subsequently be placed is already infested or provides conditions which encourage a recurrence of the problem.

3.3 Treatment of infestations

Where an infestation of fungi, micro-organisms, insects or vermin is discovered, immediate steps should be taken to treat the affected documents by cleaning, disinfestations, etc. to clean and disinfect the area (aerosol sprays should not be used - they will spread the infestation) and to eradicate the cause of the infestation, e.g. improving the environment (i.e. lowering the temperature and relative humidity), repairing broken windows or damaged screens. Food and drink should never be brought into storage areas (or, ideally, into the archives). Documents should not be replaced in the area until the source of the infestation has been eliminated.

3.4 Methods of treatment

Considerable uncertainty exists as to the best methods of disinfestations. Those which have been employed are:

a) Fumigation which requires a special fumigation chamber and appropriate chemicals:

Thymol, long a preferred chemical, is now considered to be of limited effectiveness.

Ethylene oxide is explosive when mixed with air and requires a properly designed and maintained vacuum chamber for its use and very careful handling.

Its reaction and decomposition produces by-products which are both toxic and injurious to certain documentary materials.

b) Freezing in a modified domestic freezer to -18C will kill insects, their larvae and their eggs, but not all fungi

c) Radiation has also been tested in the laboratory, but the necessary facilities are unlikely to be available to most archival institutions.

d) Environmental conditions which do not encourage fungi and insects are the most effective single contribution to eliminating them from storage areas.

3.5 Health and safety

Effective disinfestations treatments are in general harmful also to humans and should, therefore, be applied only by properly trained personnel using proper equipment under conditions prescribed by law or by manufacturers' recommendations.

AIR CONDITION

Storing information in air conditional room is conducive for their longevity. For effective air conditioning ventilation in the room should be planned in such a manner that leakage of air conditioned air is avoided as much as possible. The conditioning load should be so calculated in such a way that the bulk of the shelving equipment stored materials, the number of staff and people a seated in a given time.

Temperature and relative humidity the conditioned room should be maintained in the region of 20C + 2 and 45% - 55%respeciallyectively. In order to effect total humidity control in the room it is necessary to ensure that dumpiness through the floors or walls does not take place by laying up a water proof floor and coating the walls by using waterproof paints.An air conditioning plant is quiet costly but advantages are far more important compared to the cost.

Steps have to be taken to provide alternative options:

Chemicals which have great affinity for water can be used to lower RH e.g. anhydrous calcium, chloride, Naphthalene, silica gel. These chemicals are placed art strategic places on shelves based on experiments carried out.

Portable air conditioners/fans, Local fans, Split type air conditioner, Dehumidifiers and humidifies and Improving ventilation and air circulationSHELVING

Proper shelving in an information centre should be functional, facilitate easy cleaning, durable and allows maximum protection and safety of information materials.

Shelves should be fixed away from the walls and from the ceiling and also from the floors.

Distance between success shelf rows should be about 1.5ft with a central gang way 3ft to allow a man or woman pass with 5 trolleys.

It is desirable to have steel shelves but they have to be painted with rust proof paint. The paint must be non injurious to the materials. Sharp edges and corners in the shelves or their support which can result in physical damage to the documents should be avoided

Wooded shelf are good but must be treated with insecticide and fungicide in the room. Shelves should be designed according to the nature and format of information materials and should be always be slightly larger than the materials they are likely to carry. The information materials should arranged loosely to allow free flow of air. Use of book ends to supports the books should be considered.

LIGHTING

Light by use of fluorescent tubes is good in a library and they diffuse the flow of light. Flexi glass can be used to filter ultra violet rays which are an enemy of information materials. Paint that reflects off light should be used in the library.

FIRE FIGHTING ARRANGEMENT

Fire may break in the information centre due to various reasons.

(i) Mischief, Accidents, or Natural calamities

To protect materials from these fires several things may need to be put into place.

(ii) All electrical wires must be installed by qualified technicians and must pass through a through a circuit and the main controls switches of light should be located in a distinct position and possibly far way from storage area.

(iii) The room should be made fire resistible by use of fire resistible materials like asbestos fittings

(iv) For early detection of fire smoke detectors need to be installed so that any fire breakout can be detected early. Fire alarm system should be there.

(v) Rules and regulation should be formulated that goes with the governing policies regarding information materials

(vi) Adequate equipment for fire fighting should be put in place and training should be done to staff members on how to use them.

PROTECTION OF MATERIALS AGAINST THEFT

Make sure everybody needs and desires are met on the basis of what you have.

Deploy staff for security, Install electronic system and T.V monitors.

Use I.T detectors through computer, Use user education to train users.

In summary protective aids for the conservation of information materials comprise of the vigilance on the part of the manger in affecting the following.

Good housekeeping practices i.e. Creating good hygienic condition as well as a conducive environment for the upkeep of information materials must be there. The staff must always be alert in any situation that may encourage enemies of information so that they not cause any harm as they are decisively dealt with.

4. Reformatting Information Resources

Reformatting refers to the process of converting information resources from one format to the other e.g. from paper to digital image. Reformatting offers many advantages with preservation benefits. Firstly, having more than one copy gives added security in case of accidental damage, especially when the copies are stored in more than one location. It minimizes the possibility of losing the materials altogether. Secondly, accessibility is enhanced because more users, in multiple sites, can use the materials simultaneously. Methods that have been adopted in reformatting information resources include digitization, microfilming and photocopying.

4.1 Digitization

Digitization is the process of conversion of any physical or analogue item into an electronic representation. The digital images are stored on media such as CDs, DVDs and DAT tapes.

Digital images provide alternative copies that can be accessed and thus help preserve the original copy. The major goals of creating and maintaining a digital version of an object is that:

Should the original item suffer any deterioration or damage, there is a digital copy which can act as a surrogate.

If an item is already fragile, then the digital surrogate can be viewed instead of the original, thereby reducing the possibility of further deterioration.

By converting the original copy and placing its digital copy on the computer, the files can be manipulated, stored and accessed with ease.

4.2 Microfilming

Microfilming may be referred to as the use of photographic processes to produce reduced size images of textual or graphic material on film. As a preservation strategy, microfilming may be used for one or more of the following purposes:

To prolong the life of documents, To make material more widely available

To reduce high cost storage, To protect the security of vital original records.

Despite increasing interest in new technologies, preservation microfilming remains an established and valued strategy. Properly produced and stored microfilms (using silver halide films or safety films) have a lifespan of about 500 years.

Microform systems can be enhanced by using computers.

Computer output microfilming (COM) systems convert computer-generated data directly from machine-readable form to eye-readable form on a microform.

Microfilms (analogue) may be scanned to produce digital images easing access and retrieval.

4.3 Photocopying

Photocopying is a process, which makes paper copies of documents and other visual images quickly and cheaply. This option is available where:

Financial resources do not allow microfilming or digitization imaging as options for preservation.

It is especially suitable for materials that are heavily consulted yet microfilming is less appropriate because it requires reading equipment and may encounter user resistance.

Factors to Consider when Choosing a Format Conversion Media

1. Purpose for format conversion

This should be clear because different formats maybe suitable for different purposes. It should be considered whether the purpose is:

Substitution to replace a deteriorated version

Security to provide a backup for rear or unique items

Compaction where a new version replaces a bulky original

Conservation where the new version is used for normal reference

Dissemination where multiple copies can be used simultaneously.2. User Needs

There are some factors to consider in regard to the users.

The ease with which the users will be able to identify, retrieve and interpret the information held in the new media.

Speed with which users who are located far, can retrieve the information.

The anticipated volume of access to information.

3. Technical Considerations

This relates to the following:

Life expectancy of the new media; This is important in order to reduce the cost associated with migration into a different medium in the future.

Hardware and software dependency; The extent to which a specific technology is essential for access to information in the new format.

Special preservation measures to ensure the physical safety of the new media

Standards; The existence of standards that promote confidence in the quality of the new format;

Standards to facilitate further format conversion on changing of technology

Standards for the physical preservation of the media.

discuss and demonstrate with practical examples methods used in preservation of records and archives

Explain how preventive strategies and techniques are used successfully in preserving information materials






UNIT VRESTORATION OF INFORMATION MATERIALS

Overview

In this unit we shall discuss and demonstrate with practical examples methods of conserving and restoring information materials. We shall also be looking at various techniques that are used in restoration worn out records such as full pasting, encapsulation, binding among other methods.

Objectives


Outline and discuss the various principles applied in conservation as well as methods used in conservation and restoration of information materials. Describe and demonstrate with practical examples methods used in restoration of worn out records such as archival materials

Explain how restoration techniques are applied successfully in preserving information materials

Introduction Restoration involves direct intervention as the only means of repairing damages or correcting the influences that have modified or altered the object to be restored. The aim of restoring is to reinstate the physical and functional integrity of an object by repairing the effects of alteration and damage.

Principle of Restoration

Principles are clear statement of fact:

1. The principle of compatibility

The materials used for repairing process of documents must be compatible with the documents being repaired so as to create a harmonious co- existence.2. The principle of reversibility

Any repair done can be reversed or done for the purpose of increasing expertise in restoration or knowledge as evidence if the original documents are required you can give it.

3. The principle relating to the original state or form of the documents

Whatever methods used for repair must not interfere in any way to original state of the documents.

4. The principle relating to the aesthetic of the repaired documents

What materials are added for documents or repairs must be cleared and distinguished from the original documents and no attempt should be made of hiding the repaired and the writing of the documents. It should not be impaired or marred in anyway. In other words the repaired documents must retain its aesthetics and should remain tidy and clean.

5. Principle/affordability relating to cost of repair.

The process or methods adopted on the documents should impart maximum strength and minimize cost. in other words the repairs should be affordable.

Reasons for documenting during the process of restoration

1. Adherence to the conservation ethics ; all procedures and material used in order to ensure the possibility of future removal should this become necessary should be documented2. Treatment of records permits the assessment over a time, on the stability of the treatment approaches and materials and the ways in which they react with various types of paper, other support materials and media.

3. From an archival perspective documentation is also important because of the need to maintain a complete and accurate record of any changes to the material

4. For legal purposes; It is necessary to document all alternations of the document to ensure its authenticity and continued validity.

5. For costing and accounting ; due to the high cost involved in restoration documentation assist in avoiding duplication of efforts in years to come.

METHODS OF REPAIR

(i) Traditional methods and Modern methods of repair .These include;

(i) Full pasting method of repair, Resizing, Tissue repair, Machine lamination

(ii) Hand lamination, Encapsulating, Inlaying

Full pasting

This is a method of repairing documents that are written on one side. It strengthens the document being repaired by applying a rag or a handmade paper at the back of documents using starch paste.

Factors considered

(i) Documents should be written on one side and The side on which writing is should face the other verso side.

(ii) It is meant for wicked writing that is soluble in water and the writing must be prefixed. if they are soluble they can be treated

Requirements

(i) You need handmade paper for strengthening or repairing paper. Maita paste- to provide the adhesive power to stick things together. Water for relating the documents or cleaning hand.

(ii) Clean glass topped table for convenience of repair. A brush for applying the paste and The bloating papers for cleaning purposes

(iii) Weights or lying press for squeezing things together in this case papers .then a Water tray for relaxing the documents.

Application techniques

The document to be applied is relaxed first using water either by immersing or spraying with water. Also if there are previous repairs made they are removed and clean up is done. The spray should be uniform and thorough and spray gun is used. Then roll it up carefully. Cut a piece of handmade paper slightly larger than the documents then relax the paper then apply thick cmc maita paste that is uniformly distributed. Clean it slowly, put the pair between two blotting paper and then dry them under normal room temperature.

Advantages

It is very effective in imparting the required strength in the documents. It is reversible because water is used. It is also compatible and reasonable in terms of cost and easy to apply.

Disadvantages

It is limited, It is time consuming, Handmade paper is not available

Resizing method

It is one of method applied to documents which are slightly damaged and are otherwise in good condition. This is to stop further deterioration and thus it is suitable for documents that are slightly damaged. The objective of sizing is to increase fibres bonding.

Requirement

1. Alum rosin (very difficult to handle with hands, gelatin, glue and CMC paste (carbonyl Methyl Cellulose Paste (b) Water for the purpose of resizing the sizes, (c) Water trays (d) Glass topped table (e) Blotting paper (f) Personnel (g) Plastic wire netting (h) Waxed pap