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Preparing Problem Solvers for the 21st Centurythrough Problem-Based LearningKellah M. EdensPublished online: 25 Mar 2010.

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Preparing Problem Solvers for the 21 st Century through Problem-Based Learning

Kellah M. Edens

roblem-based learning (PBL) is a constructivist teaching model that helps students learn to think and

to solve problems-skills too frequently not acquired in traditional university course work. This approach is imple- mented widely in medical school educa- tion. It uses an authentic, complex prob- lem as the impetus for learning and fosters the acquisition of both discipli- nary knowledge and problem-solving skills. Professors introduce a confusing, open-ended problem, like those faced in the workplace and in everyday life, which leads students to an investigation from which subject matter content and instruc- tion emerge.

That approach contrasts with the usual teaching practice of presenting concepts in a lecture format followed by well- structured problems. PBL, which en- gages students in developing a context- rich knowledge base and the skills for applying that knowledge, can be applied in a wide variety of classroom settings and fields. This article provides an overview of the PBL model, its applica- tion to college courses, specific examples of PBL currently used in several fields of study, and a brief description of a PBL cycle in an undergraduate educational psychology course.

Kellah M. Edens is an assistant professor in the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of South Carolina, Columbia.

Anchoring Learning to an Authentic Context

We professors face a continuing chal- lenge to teach pre-professionals to learn to think and solve problems like profes- sionals in their field and to link theory with practice. Calls for reform in higher education have grown as legislatures and national professional associations ques- tion the quality of classroom experiences (Braxton, Eimers, and Bayer 1996), which in some cases are based on teach- ing practices of the 1900s. Students are not well prepared for the job market and cannot perform decision-making and problem-solving tasks associated with their profession.

Thus, we need to examine and redefine the academic learning environment. A new approach emphasizes the students’ active role in constructing knowledge and students’ actively engaging in inquiry and problem solving, typically in a collabora- tive framework. Learning is anchored to real-world or authentic contexts-stu- dents learn how to apply inert knowledge to real problems.

Those authentic contexts are vital to the many fields that require specific pro- fessional training. That, of course, is a dramatic shift from the traditional view of cognitive development resulting from one’s reception of knowledge transmitted by the instructor. Problem-based learning holds promise as a teaching tool that pro- vides for the acquisition of problem-solv-

ing skills to meet the challenges of the twenty-first-century workplace.

The PBL Model

The PBL model was developed and introduced in response to demands to bet- ter prepare physicians for professional practice (see Barrows and Tamblyn 1980), and for the last thirty years it has been used increasingly in medical schools around the world. Similar to recent assertions of inadequate profes- sional preparation in the sciences, busi- ness, and teacher education, criticisms of medical education included emphasis on memorization, fragmented course work, and a deficiency in providing graduates with hypothetico-deductive reasoning and problem-solving skills for lifelong learning (Barrows and Tamblyn 1980).

In a PBL environment, students take on the active role of problem solvers. A key element is the student’s ownership of the problem and the natural way the problem unfolds as students lead an investigation from which subject matter content and instruction emerge. The instructor as- sumes the role of a facilitator, serving as a cognitive coach by monitoring, probing, and challenging students. Flexibility is a keystone of the PBL model. For example, PBL may be the entire focus of a course, or it may occur within the context of a unit of study. The length of time varies, depending on the scope of the particular problem.

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Although teachers have developed sev- eral variations, of course, the core of the PBL model consists of the following characteristics (Barrows 1996): ( a ) Learning is student centered; (b ) learning occurs in small groups; ( c ) teachers are facilitators or guides; (d) problems form the organizing focus and stimulus for learning; ( e ) problems are a vehicle for the development of problem-solving skills; and (f) new information is acquired though self-directed learning. Although

mapping all possibilities is important, because although the process is student- directed, first the instructor needs to anticipate certain paths students may take in order to steer them in useful directions that support higher order thinking and problem-solving skills.

Next, the problem situation should be developed and student roles established. To reflect the “messiness” and complexi- ty of real problems, the scenario/situation should also include problems that grow

Assessment of information-seeking strat- egies and problem-solving logic is em- bedded within this phase.

Phase 3. Problem Solution

Students generate possible solutions, examine their “fit,” and propose the most appropriate one. A final performance assessment and debriefing also occur dur- ing this phase to help students build their understanding of concepts and skills encountered during the problem cycle.

the process is cyclical, it has at least three distinct phases.

Phase 1 . Problem Development

and change, with no simple, formulaic solution. For example, the problem is likely to have a time or financial con- straint that will affect its solution.

How Does PBL Look in the Classroom?

Although PBL is being used more fre- The PBL cycle begins when learners

meet an ill-structured problem, presented through a scenario or situation that direct- ly involves students. Appropriate prob- lems are difficult to define, ambiguous, are likely to change, and have many pos- sible solutions (Stepien and Pyke 1997). Good problems share several important features (Allen 1996). First, the problem engages students in relevant settings, thus facilitating a connection between theory and application. Good problems also are open-ended and sometimes controversial, which challenges students to make justi- fications and demonstrate thinking skills. They should also be complex enough so that students must work together and rely on each other to solve them (Allen 1996).

Possibilities are derived from real problems, events (current and past), or a topic, theme, or central issue from the curriculum. Newspapers, magazines, movies, television, the Internet, and daily life all can trigger the idea for a good problem. The most effective learning cycles occur when the problem is devel- oped with a particular group of students, the instructor, the available resources, and community in mind. Although problems that have been successfully implemented in several subjects are available online (see table 1 for examples) and in several recent publications (see Allen and Duch 1998; Wilkerson and Gijselaers 1996), to my knowledge, there are no reference books with a comprehensive listing of problems by subject area or field.

After the selection process, the instruc- tor should fully conceptualize the prob- lem by brainstorming about possible link- ages to course content. Listing or

The professor should anticipate the flow of activity during all PBL stages: beginning, inquiry, investigation, and problem solution and debriefing, so that he or she can effectively coach the stu- dents (Stepien and Pyke 1997). Authentic assessments to obtain evidence about stu- dents’ understanding of the issues in the problem and their reasoning skills also need to be developed. In contrast to tradi- tional tests, the assessments should mir- ror tasks performed by real problem solvers placed in the same situation as the students. Moreover, assessments should involve higher order thinking and reason- ing skills, include individual and group products, and encourage self-assessment (Stepien and Pyke 1997).

Phase 2. Initiation of PBL Events, Inquiry, and Investigation

Problem-based learning begins when students write the problem definition statement, build hypotheses that launch an investigation, and list what they already know and what they need to know in order to solve it. Listing What we know, What we need to know, and What we need to do is an important component of the process, in which the content that needs to be learned to solve the problem and the possible sources of that new knowledge are identified through group discussion. During this phase, as students gather and share information, the What we need to know board is updated. Need to know information is shifted to What we know as new information is acquired. Students identify other needed informa- tion as the problem evolves, and it is added to the What we need to know list.

quently, generally speaking, it is relative- ly new in undergraduate courses. PBL has been integrated, however, into college introductory science courses (Allen, Duch, and Groh 1996), chemical engi- neering (Woods 1996), art history (Miller 1996), educational psychology (Pyke and Pourchot 1997), leadership education (Bridges and Hallinger 1996), criminal justice (Hans 1999), nutrition and dietet- ics (Lieux 1996), and a masters program in business education (Stimson and Mil- ter 1996).

PBL also has been implemented in other contexts, such as K-12 public schools, in programs designed for gifted students as well as regular students (see Stepien and Gallagher 1993; Dods 1997). Specific examples of PBL in these set- tings are far ranging, but our focus here is on undergraduates. In all instances, stu- dents encounter a problem that is a typi- cally “messy” situation mirroring those confronted in professional practice. The problems are presented in different for- mats, including videotapes, live simula- tions, and written cases. Table 1 provides a brief overview of problems that have been successfully investigated by under- graduates in several fields of study.

PBL in Educational Psychology: A Case Study

The following PBL episode, Is Educa- tional TV Educational? was designed for students in a small introductory honors class in educational psychology for aspir- ing teachers (n = 16). PBL phases include the design phase, specific learning events, critical events, and embedded assess- ments. The cycle described below lasted

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Table 1 .-Sample Problems in Undergraduate Courses

SubjecVfield Problem title Related concept(s) Student role Scenariolsituation

“Overload” (Duch 1996)”

Electrical circuitry Voltage

Electrical wiring planner

You are good friends with Sharon and Stanley who are building their dream house and need your help in determin- ing how many circuits the house needs to be safe. You need to construct a wiring plan for their mode of living.

Lt. John Henry investigates a serious automobile accident at the intersection of Main St. and State St. The investigation is critical because there may be a fatality involved. Students are given a sketch of the accident scene and more informa- tion as the problem unfolds.

You must review a proposal based on J. H. Martin’s ideas about counteracting global warming by dumping iron into the ocean waters off Antarctica. You are concerned that the application hasn’t addressed the possible ecological impact of seeding a 60 sq. kilometer plot south of the Galapagos Islands. You must justify your decision to fund or not fund.

A segment on NBC’s Dateline and articles from the New York Times report incidences of a mix-up at two fertility clinics. As the problem unfolds, students address issues about the error in embryo implantation procedures at one of the clinics.

You are invited to spend the weekend at a cousin’s new ener- gy-efficient cabin in the Poconos, which is constructed with solar cells and collectors for generating electricity and heat- ing their home. They are still deciding the best way to trap and store energy for use at night and on cloudy days, and need advice on several ideas, including a magazine article on using “phase-change materials” to store energy.

You must design a historically accurate temple for a fiction- al film set in Greece (c. 425 B.C.). The temple’s interior, exterior, the immediate vicinity, and the activities in and around it must be determined, and a location(s) where the filming of the temple scene could take place and/or be altered should be recommended.

Fred Rowan, CEO of Lee Company of Merriam, Kansas, is struggling to reorient Lee to address a huge decrease in international sales (despite enormous demand) and ten plant closings. How would you advise Mr. Rowan? You must address complex issues of student violence and gangs in the form of several unanticipated disruptions, insti- gated by individuals who have been trained to assume spe- cific roles. These interruptions include a student sent to the office for misbehavior, the student’s parent, a newspaper re- porter with questions about the incident, and a subsequent negative article.

Dr. Waldo Pepper, chief of surgery, must respond to an arti- cle in a tabloid weekly titled “Region Surgeons Scalpel- Happy, Study Finds,” which suggests that the hospital’s sur- geons are incompetent and greedy.

A car accident has resulted in injury and death and has led to the arrest of the driver. Each group, consisting of the pros- ecutor, victim (Madeleine Mad), defense attorney, and defendant (Sam Sad), must work together to reach a deci- sion about how to resolve the case.

Physics

Physics “A Day in the LiFe of John Henry” (Duch 1993)”

John Henry Work and energy prin-

Linear momentum Equations of motions

ciples

Biology “The Geritol Solution” (Allen 1996y

Ecology Marine biology Photosynthesis

NSF Panel member (grant reviewer)

Biology “Whose Embryo Is It, Anyway?” (Allen, Hans, Duch 1999)a

“Saving for a Rainy Day” (Groh 1999)”

Genetics DNA testing Legal, ethical, social

issues

An interested stakeholder (e.g., parents of embryo, clinic physician)

Heat storage system consultant

Chemistry Solar energy Thermal energy

“Greek Tem- ple: The Movie” (Miller 1996)a

Religious architecture Greek temples

Consultant for a major motion picture

Art History

Business “Lee Jeans Company” (Gijselaers 1996) “Safety and Order” (Bridges and Hallinger 1996)

Market demand Organizational structure

Advisor to CEO of company

Leadership Education

Student violence and

Parent and community gangs

relations

Principal of a school

“Unkind Cuts” (Ran- gachari 1996)

Medicine Rates of Cesarean

Laprascopic surgery Negative publicity

Case negotiation

sections Chief of surgery

Criminal Justice

“Crime and Punishment” (Hans 1999)a

One of four roles: prosecutor. victim, defense attorney, or defendant

dAvailable www.udel.edu/pbl/courses

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approximately eight weeks. A brief sum- mary of each phase highlights the cyclical and generative nature of PBL.

Problem Development

The idea for the problem sprang from a newspaper article that I read during the beginning of the semester. It concerned the approaching deadline for the three major national television networks to comply with an FCC mandate to carry three hours per week of educational pro- gramming for viewers under 16. The prob-

that would put constraints on the solution and provide subtle hints to alternative paths. I also designed assessments of sub- ject content and of problem-solving processes to occur during and at the con- clusion of the PBL activity.

PBL Events, Inquiry, and Investigation

I introduced the problem with a brief memorandum requesting that the stu- dents serve as consultant teams to deter- mine the extent to which the major net- works were in compliance with the

ithin each team, members assumed specific W tasks, including multiple observations of programs and collection of data, and were accountable to their team for completion of tasks.

lem for the students, who were retained as educational consultants, was to determine i f , and if so, in what speciJic ways, so- called educational shows are truly educa- tional for children and adolescents.

During the design phase, I analyzed the problem to determine what content from educational psychology would be perti- nent and to identify specific issues, top- ics, and concepts that might be seen by students as “need to know” content. Related issues, topics, concepts, and skills embedded in the context of the problem included:

how children learn, learning processes, instructional design, cognitive developmen- tal stages, language development, social- emotional development, individual differ- ences, information processing, perception, attention, motivation, reinforcement, “edu- cational” criteria, age appropriateness, moral development, multiculturalism, di- versity, media literacy, media ethics, cultur- al influences, effects of advertising, evalua- tion approaches, research methods, data collection and analysis methodology, reporting findings, conclusions, implica- tions and recommendations, collaborative work, and decision making.

I made plans for twists to the problem to occur through subsequent memoranda

federal regulations for educational pro- grams. Attached to the memo was a copy of a newspaper article indicating that the regulation would take effect beginning the following Saturday. The article also contained the exact wording of the fed- eral regulation. The memorandum stated that the class should divide into three consultant teams, yet no provisions were made for how the teams should be selected or what each team should inves- tigate. The memo was intentionally vague and ambiguous.

Next, students began to define the problem and make decisions about form- ing teams, goals, and active steps to reach those goals. Many questions were generated during that phase, and my role as cognitive coach was key to the resolu- tion of many questions and to movement toward problem solution. In this role, I modeled and coached by posing chal- lenging questions, monitoring and adjusting levels of challenge, managing group dynamics, and keeping the process moving by encouraging active decision making and searching for meaning on the part of the students (Finkle and Torp 1994). In this student-directed learning environment, decisions about the appro-

priate steps toward a solution were in their hands.

The students made important decisions during this phase: Three teams were formed to study the educational showings on each of the major networks-ABC, CBS, and NBC. Each team functioned independently of the other two and deter- mined the roles of its members, the ques- tions asked about the programs, and methodology used. Within each team, members assumed specific tasks, includ- ing multiple observations of programs and collection of data, and were account- able to their team for completion of tasks.

Students used a variety of resources- ranging from ABC’s Web home page and other Internet sources, to journal articles, textbooks, and knowledgeable individu- als-to investigate educational program- ming, evaluation methods, developmen- tal characteristics, and other relevant concepts. Each team eventually designed an instrument based on formulated “Edu- cational TV Criteria” to obtain systemat- ic data on an individual show’s educa- tional merit.

After the students had been immersed in the problem for five weeks, they received a memo from a professor who taught the same course inviting them to share their findings from the investigation with his class. After they accepted the invitation, another memo followed that specified the date and the amount of time allotted for their presentation. The amount of time for them to convey their findings was limited to one hour, a realis- tic constraint that forced them to think about their priorities.

Problem Solution

Each team compiled a complete report. In a panel discussion, each team reported to the other teams so that questions could be fielded across teams. During this ses- sion, questions reflected higher level thinking, focusing on explanations and justification for decisions and conclu- sions. Examples of questions included, “How did you choose the indicators for language development?’ and “What was your reasoning for having three team members view the same show?’

The reports of the teams differed sub- stantially. One team, for example, sur- veyed a group of adolescents to deter-

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mine their important issues, and they examined adolescent TV shows for their portrayal of social-emotional develop- mental issues. In addition to many obser- vations and ratings by team members about delineated criteria, another team observed children as they actually viewed one of the programs and conducted inter- views with them.

All of the teams participated in the final performance assessment; that is, they made a formal presentation to the other class, and two of the teams also pre- sented their findings to yet another class. One of the teams decided to send their report to the manager of the local ABC affiliate station.

Evaluating PBL: Identifying Promises and Pitfalls

Two meta-evaluations (Albanese and Mitchell 1993; Vernon and Blake 1993) investigating the effectiveness of PBL in the medical school environment have supported PBL as a viable approach, finding that students may show better clinical problem-solving skills and that they are stimulated and motivated by PBL as a method. A significant difference between traditional curriculum students and PBL students on conventional tests of knowledge, however, has not been found, despite observations by faculty and self- reports by PBL students of cognitive and behavioral differences.

Moreover, evaluations of problem- based learning in several disciplines sug- gest that although PBL shows promise, difficulties also may be encountered. PBL is a radical change from traditional course work and tends to increase faculty and student workloads, so that monitoring of time is necessary.

Students, however, generally report satisfaction with the method (Kingsland 1996). They sometimes perceived that they were “learning less” because they seem to be covering less material than students in a lecture class. But they also perceived that they developed more prob- lem-solving skills and were more active and interested students (Lieux 1996). Other findings indicate that compared to other students, PBL students have more positive perceptions of the learning envi- ronment, more confidence with problem- solving skills, more positive attitudes

toward lifetime learning, and better pro- cessing skills (Woods 1996).

An evaluation of the PBL episode Is Educational TV Educational? was con- ducted at the end of Phase 3 and provided evidence about its benefits and difficul- ties consistent with previous findings. A written summative evaluation and focus group discussion at the end of the semes- ter and the final written and performance assessment showed distinct benefits of PBL congruent with findings from evalu- ations in other fields.

At the conclusion of the cycle (Phase 3), students clearly were actively engaged in “constructing their own meaning” and in directing their own learning as shown by their choice to present to another class and to contact a local TV station. On their end evaluation, the majority of the stu- dents gave a high rating to the PBL activ- ity as an effective instructional tool.

With the scale, 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree, students strongly agreed with the following statements: “In the problem-based learning cycle, I learned to apply problem-solving strate- gies to the kinds of problems that I expect to encounter in real life” ( M = 4.6); “The activity provided a means for useful peer interactions that facilitated problem solu- tion” ( M = 4.9); “I would like to use PBL approach as an instructional strategy when I teach” ( M = 4.2).

Students’ open-ended responses about the most useful aspects of PBL included “feeling responsible for my own learning, getting to know other classmates, improvement of problem-solving capa- bilities”; “Just when we thought that we understood what we were doing, we were faced with more problems-this was very realistic and representative of real life”; “The opportunity to work in a team where everyone pulled their own weight and to create your own definition of what to do;” and “The flexibility in structure, we were forced to work through it ourselves.” The overall grade awarded by students for the PBL unit was a B+.

The final written and performance assessment indicated that application of specific concepts relevant to cognitive, language, and social and emotional devel- opmental characteristics was more preva- lent in the PBL environment than in a more traditional assignment assessed dur-

ing a previous semester. Students also agreed, or somewhat agreed, that “PBL should be used for other courses at the college level” (M = 3.8).

The final written and performance assessments of content and problem-solv- ing and decision-making skills indicated that students effectively learned relevant concepts and used problem-solving skills adeptly. Peer evaluations of problem- solving skills also provided a way for me to assess individual team members’ use of these higher level skills when assessing the team as a whole. From my perspec- tive, designing and participating in the PBL episode in the role of cognitive coach was stimulating, particularly when it was apparent that students truly were constructing their own individual mean- ing rather than acquiring meaning as defined by the instructor.

We did encounter several pitfalls, how- ever, and those were reflected in the stu- dents’ evaluations. Some features inherent in the PBL process (e.g., an ill-structured problem that is intentionally ambiguous and changing) created difficulties. When the problem was initially introduced, sev- eral students asked me to “show us exact- ly what you want us to do” or asked for “more structure and guidance.” One open- ended response to the evaluation indicated that “the assignment was not clear.”

Throughout the PBL cycle, students sometimes were frustrated with the gen- erative nature of the PBL process; infor- mation and resources were often needed on short notice. For example, when the teams were preparing for the presentation to another class, a last-minute decision to include film clips of several of the shows necessitated a scramble to obtain appro- priate taped segments and to learn how to use the equipment provided in the large lecture hall. It was impossible to plan for many events within the cycle. Although that was frustrating, it was certainly typi- cal of modem life.

At the end of the semester, students acknowledged the discomfort created by the ambiguity-”We had no idea if we were on the right track”-but generally were satisfied with the end of the episode and problem resolution. The majority of students strongly agreed or agreed with the statement “I prefer a structured assignment-that is, I like to know exact-

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ly what to do, when to do it, and how the final product should look” (A4 = 4.6).

In the focus group discussion, several students commented that structured assignments were much easier and quick- er to complete than the PBL task, and because of other course work obligations and time constraints, they preferred struc- tured tasks. The open-endedness and ambiguity of PBL threatened this class of honors students’ sense of security con- cerning “knowing how to play the acade- mic game.” Nevertheless, the majority indicated that their motivation level and sense of accomplishment were high for the PBL task.

Problems also were present from my perspective, for, like the students, I con- fronted ambiguity. For example, I was not always certain that the students were real- ly understanding and benefiting from the PBL process. It sometimes was difficult to refrain from divulging information or dispensing advice. The syllabus could not be planned in advance and followed in a straightforward manner. In contrast to “keeping on schedule,” class sessions evolved at an unpredictable pace. My experience was consistent with reports from faculty in other fields about PBL‘s taking more time and about uncertainty about the pace of activities, both of which may diminish teachers’ enthusiasm.

PBL as a Constructivist Curricular Tool

We should examine new curricular tools as college courses shift from being teacher-centered to student-centered, with the teacher’s role changing “from sage-on-the-stage to the guide-by-the- side” (Stimson and Milter 1996,40). PBL appears to be a viable tool for recon- structing college course work because it models contemporary views of complex learning as contextualized in an authentic setting. PBL provides opportunities for students to make a direct link between theory and practice, between “knowing that” and “knowing how.” Students learn how to apply inert knowledge to prob- lems that they are likely to encounter in their professional career.

PBL offers flexibility in its implemen- tation, although important common fea- tures exist, such as student-centered learning with the teacher as facilitator

and an ill-structured problem serving as the initial stimulus and framework for learning. The three phases of the PBL model serve as a guide or a map that we teachers can creatively adapt in many fields and classroom settings. We can design activities to fit the needs or resource and space constraints of a par- ticular course.

For the full potential of PBL to be real- ized, however, dialogue among faculty involved is essential so that initial diffi- culties do not suppress enthusiasm. Moreover, research is needed on PBL processes and on specific learning out- comes in diverse undergraduate settings, so that its merit as an instructional tool and its benefits in stimulating life-long learning can be evaluated.

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