Prenatal “experience” and the phylogenesis and ontogenesis of music

Richard Parncutt, University of Graz

Music & Science, Baden bei Wien, Austria, 1-4 October 2006

Music, the body and biology

• Movement and dance (Trevarthen)

• Identity (Janata)

• Melody and speech (Koelsch)

• Rhythm and tempo (several…)

• Emotion (several…)

Why is music like this?

Origins and definitions of music

• A definition is necessary– to analytically explain origins

• Every definition and theory of origins – assumes universals– is ethnocentric

Music: A definition

(a) an acoustic signal that

(b) evokes recognizable patterns of sound,

(c) implies physical movement, (d) is perceived as segmented and structured,

(e) is meaningful,(f) is intentional wrt (b), (c), (d) or (e), and

(g) is accepted by a cultural group

Further musical universals

• Exists in all known cultures

• Has dedicated brain structures (Peretz)

• Functions– social (communication, group, identity)– emotional (share/influence states)– religious (gods, spirits)

Widespread musical structures

Themes and forms call-answer (antecedent-consequent) development (repetition, variation)

Melody pitch and interval distributions (M2, P8, P5 etc.) rise-fall phrases

Rhythm pulse perception/production, entrainment tempo distributions

Origins of musicSome theories

• Extended vocalisation– from speech (Spencer, 1890)– "tumbling strains" (Sachs, 1962)– primate vocalisations (Wallin,

2000)

• Imitation– Child’s drive to play– Movement, gesture, mimesis

(Tolbert, 2001)– Environmental sounds

(Cazden, 1951)

• Survival– mating (Darwin)– training (Roederer)– group survival

• long-distance communication (Stumpf, 1911)• rhythmic work (Bücher, 1896; Hornbostel, 1912)

Origins of musicTheoretical problems

• Evolutionary adaptation vs “parasite”

• Strong emotionality; spirituality, identity

• Biological basis of structures– rhythm and walking/heartbeat– melody and speech

• Roles of men vs women

• What actually happened and why?

Origins of music

a new scenario1. Fetus

a) environmental sounds and movementsb) perception c) classical conditioningd) communication with mother

2. Infanta) transnatal memory b) protomusical sensitivityc) communication with mother / adultsd) operant conditioning

3. Child and adultreflective consciousness and culture

1. Fetus

a) Environmental sounds, movementsInternal to mother’s body• vocalizations and breathing • heartbeat• body movements and footfalls • digestion

All these sounds• are repetitive• depend on mother’s (emotional) state• are muffled (low-pass to about 2 kHz)

External sounds• Only loud, mid-frequency sound

1. Fetus

b) Perception

• Functioning cochlea and vestibule – from 20-24 weeks– both sound and motion

• Myelinization of auditory pathways– from 24-28 weeks – improved neural transmission

1. Fetus

c) Classical conditioning

• Pavlov’s dog• Parncutt’s fetus

Both are examples of• perceptual learning (Gibson)• without reflective awareness

Classical conditioningPavlov‘s dog

neutral stimulus footsteps

unconditioned stimulus food

unconditioned response saliva

many repetitions

conditioned stimulus footsteps

conditioned response saliva

Classical conditioning of fetus (Spelt 1948; Hepper 1996)

neutral stimulus vibration or tone

unconditioned stimulus loud noise

unconditioned response fetal movement

15-20 repetitions

conditioned stimulus vibration or tone

conditioned response fetal movement

Classical conditioning

Parncutt‘s fetus

neutral stimulus auditory, tactile, kinesthetic

unconditioned stimulus biochemical

unconditioned response emotional

many repetitions

conditioned stimulus auditory, tactile, kinesthetic

conditioned response emotional

Biochemical correlates of emotionExamples

• fear– corticosteroids, e.g. glucocorticoids, e.g. cortisol

• anger – high cortisol, adrenaline– low dopamine, serotonin

• bonding– oxytocin

Placental filtering

• passes – nutrients and oxygen toward fetus– wastes and carbon dioxide away– fetal steroids since highly lipophilic

• partly filters out – bacteria, viruses, toxins, drugs– chemicals like alcohol, nicotine, cocaine

Brain-blood barrier

• Protects brain from infection

• Passes lipid-soluble molecules– O2, CO2, ethanol, steroid hormones

• Steroid hormones include– glucocorticoids incl. cortisol– mineralocorticoids incl. aldosterone– sex steroids

• androgens• estrogens• progestagens

1. Fetus

d) “Communication” with mother

• Emotion, physical state

• Physiological and behavioural

• Survival value: bonding after birth

2. Infant

a) Transnatal “memory”

Babies “recognize” “melodies” heard repeatedly before birth (e.g. Hepper)

This is not “memory” but• ontogenetic adaptation to prenatal environment• phylogenetic exaptation (Buss)

– parasitic on prenatal audition/bonding

Duration of “memory”:• Hepper: a few weeks• Lamont: one year?

2. Infant

b) Protomusical sensitivityInfants are:1. sensitive to musical structure2. sensitive to musical emotion3. more interested in singing than speech

Trehub & Nakata (2001)

Prenatal perceptual learning model:1. heart/feet rhythm, voice melody2. sound patterns depend on emotion 3. muffling emphasizes pitch contour

2. Infant

c) Communication with adults

Infant-adult vocal play (motherese) • is universal

• promotes speech acquisition

• involves meaningful gestures (Papousek)

• may underlie (musical) ritual (Dissanayake)

• projects prenatal learning into childhood

2. Infant

d) Operant conditioning

• Skinner’s rat

• Parncutt’s baby

Both are examples of• perceptual learning (Gibson)• without reflective awareness

Operant conditioning Skinner: positive reinforcement

quasi-random behavior

accidentally

push lever

reward receive sugar

increase in frequency of behavior

Why does the rat push the lever?

Operant conditioning:Motherese

quasi-random behavior

accidentally create prenatally “familiar” sound patterns

reward emotion

increase in frequency of behavior

Why do mother and baby exchange physical/vocal gestures?

3. Child and adult

Reflective consciousness

„Cultural explosion“ (Mithen) 100-50 kya• “conscious” use of symbols

– painting, body decoration

• social organisation– migration, ritual (e.g. burial)

Music as deliberate creation of emotional sound patterns

The origins of music3 stages

A = adaptation, E = exaptation (parasite)

1. Fetus: Emotionality of pitch-time patternsA: Prenatal bonding and preparation for languageE: Classical conditioning (sound-movement-emotion)

2. Infant: Motherese as protomusicA: Postnatal bonding and preparation for languageE: Operant conditioning (sound-movement-emotion)

3. Children and adults: Music as we know itA: Reflective language and consciousnessE: Music as deliberate emotional manipulation

Thesis• Music is exaptive

– a parasite on pre- and postnatal • bonding • preparation for language

• Music may also be adaptive– trains individual cognitive and motor abilities– promotes social coherence

If music has prenatal origins…Implications

• Music and the body– The body is music’s origin

• Music and biology– Biology underlies musical structures

• Music, identity, spirituality– Music is a cultural elaboration of cognitive

representation of mother as perceived by fetus