Power lines cause diseases through Static Power lines cause diseases through Static ElectricityElectricity

•New science reveals, not radiation, but static New science reveals, not radiation, but static electricity produced by power lines interferes electricity produced by power lines interferes with the bioelectrical life process causing diseases with the bioelectrical life process causing diseases and premature aging.and premature aging.

•NPR had a story that farm cows tend to gather NPR had a story that farm cows tend to gather underneath the power line because their underneath the power line because their magnetic fields are confused (PNAS 2009)magnetic fields are confused (PNAS 2009)

http://www.justlogiclifescience.com.au/powerlines.html

http://photos.innersource.com/page/45/31

http://www.rr-fallenflags.org/aft/aft.html

Cheatgrass was brought from Cheatgrass was brought from Eurasia to Washington State in Eurasia to Washington State in the 1890s. In 30 years it basically the 1890s. In 30 years it basically took over the Western USAtook over the Western USA

http://www.enn.com/enn-news-archive/1999/08/081399/cheatgrass_5005.asp

Cheatgrass changes not only the Cheatgrass changes not only the fire frequency of a site, but also fire frequency of a site, but also the fire volatility, intensity and the fire volatility, intensity and the extent that an area is likely to the extent that an area is likely to burn in the future. burn in the future.

The combination of fires, and low nitrogen content soil may drive out the native plants. But the cheatgrass seems to thrive under these conditions.

http://www.enn.com/enn-news-archive/1999/08/081399/cheatgrass_5005.asp

Merriam & Saunders (1993)Merriam & Saunders (1993)

H1: Home range sizes of all three study species would be larger in patches with a corridor than in patches w/o a corridor.

H2: Habitat generalists would more likely than habitat specialists to move between them.

H3: Individual movement distances would be affected by corridor presence.

Hypotheses: Very rare/difficult in landscape ecology

Cotton Mouse: Peromyscus gossypinus -- generalist

Old field mouse: Perromyscus polionotus -- specialist

Cotton rat: Sigmodon hispidus -- specialist

http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/tmot1/sigmhisp.htm

Generalist

Specialists

H1: Home range sizes of all three study species would be larger in patches with a corridor than in patches w/o a corridor. not true

H2: Habitat generalists would more likely than habitat specialists to move between them. true

H3: Individual movement distances would be affected by corridor presence. not supported

Hypotheses: results

Road EffectsRoad Effects• Increased mortality from road constructionIncreased mortality from road construction• Increased mortality from collision with vehiclesIncreased mortality from collision with vehicles• Modification of animal behaviorModification of animal behavior• Alteration of the physical environmentAlteration of the physical environment• Spread of exotic speciesSpread of exotic species• Increased alteration and use of habitat by humanIncreased alteration and use of habitat by human• Alteration of chemical environmentAlteration of chemical environment

Road Corridors and Their Ecological SignificancesRoad Corridors and Their Ecological Significances

• How much road is there in US?How much road is there in US?• Roads in Roads in USUS National Forests National Forests• Effects of roads on plants & animalsEffects of roads on plants & animals

Reading: • Trombulak, S.C. and C.A. Russell. 2000. Conservation Biology 14(1): 18-30.• Forman, R.T.T. 2000. Conservation Biology 14(1): 31-35.• Semlitsch et al. 2007. Conservation Biology 21(1): 159-167.

6.2 million km public roads in the US, including

• 3,836,381 km secondary roads in rural area;• 1,237,198 km of primary roads in rural area;• 927,122 km of primary roads in urban area;

Covers 1% of the US land All rural roads and 25% of urban roads are near natural

ecosystems A minimum of 200 m effect distance caused by roads 19% of the total area of the US is directly affected by roads

THE LARGEST HUMAN THE LARGEST HUMAN ARTIFACT ON EARTH!ARTIFACT ON EARTH!

Salamander abundance near the road was reduced Salamander abundance near the road was reduced significantly, and salamanders along the edges were significantly, and salamanders along the edges were predominantly large individuals. These results indicate that predominantly large individuals. These results indicate that the road-effect zone for these salamanders extended 35 m the road-effect zone for these salamanders extended 35 m on either side of the relatively narrow, low-use forest roads on either side of the relatively narrow, low-use forest roads along which we sampled. Furthermore, salamander along which we sampled. Furthermore, salamander abundance was significantly lower on old, abandoned abundance was significantly lower on old, abandoned logging roads compared with the adjacent upslope sites. logging roads compared with the adjacent upslope sites. These results indicate that forest roads and abandoned These results indicate that forest roads and abandoned logging roads have negative effects on forest-dependent logging roads have negative effects on forest-dependent species such as plethodontid salamanders. species such as plethodontid salamanders.

Quantifying roads and road networksQuantifying roads and road networks

• Road density (km.kmRoad density (km.km-2-2))• Road length (km)Road length (km)• Road width (m)Road width (m)• Road typeRoad type• Road sidesRoad sides• Road surfaceRoad surface• Other constructions (bridge, signs, etc.)Other constructions (bridge, signs, etc.)

Road density relative to population in various countries. Total Road density relative to population in various countries. Total road lengths (km) in a road lengths (km) in a countrycountry are in parentheses. are in parentheses.

Forman et al. 2003.

Longest among all countries!

Roads in National Forests:Roads in National Forests:10% of total U.S. road length (» 380,000 miles) lies within the 10% of total U.S. road length (» 380,000 miles) lies within the National Forest systems. On Jan. 22, 1998, the USDA Forest National Forest systems. On Jan. 22, 1998, the USDA Forest Service proposed a moratorium on the construction of new Service proposed a moratorium on the construction of new roads in some roadless areas of the National Forests. This was roads in some roadless areas of the National Forests. This was designed to allow time for procedures to be put in place to designed to allow time for procedures to be put in place to evaluate the need for a new management policy.evaluate the need for a new management policy.

Case StudiesCase Studies

1. Reed et al. (1996)2. Brosofske (1999)3. Watkins (2000)4. Saunders et al. (2002)

Data from the Rockies indicated that Data from the Rockies indicated that roads not only occupy a large roads not only occupy a large proportion of the landscape, but also proportion of the landscape, but also elevate the fragmentation and edge elevate the fragmentation and edge effectseffects

Reed et al. (1996)

Study site showing: A) location of Section J, Southern Study site showing: A) location of Section J, Southern Superior Uplands, within Province 212; B) Subsections Superior Uplands, within Province 212; B) Subsections

within Section J.within Section J.

Saunders et al. (2002)

Road densities (km.kmRoad densities (km.km-2-2) for LTAs (n=117) across Section J ) for LTAs (n=117) across Section J based on all primary and secondary surfaced roadsbased on all primary and secondary surfaced roads..

Road density (km/kmRoad density (km/km22) by land cover class for LTAs of Section J.) by land cover class for LTAs of Section J. Median (line in gray box), upper and lower quartiles (box), 1.5 x inter-quartile range

(whiskers) and outliers (>1.5 x interquartile range) are shown.

Average % of a land cover class within an LTA falling inside road buffers of different widths

Average % of the road buffer within an LTA falling in each land cover class.

Housing density and soils Housing density and soils with excellent suitability for with excellent suitability for road subgrade were road subgrade were positively related to road positively related to road density while wetland area density while wetland area was negatively related.was negatively related.

Brosofske (1998)

Percent Cover of Selected Species Along the Transect

OP

B

OPBBOPBOPB PASPB CC YA2 H2

H1JPO SPB

MA

YA

1

0 5

0 1

00 0

10

2

0 0

1

5 3

0 0

4

0

800

3

6 0

1

2

1000 0 2000 3000

Per

cent

Cov

er

Distance (m)

Pteridiumaquilinum

Amelanchierarborea

Hieraciumaurantiacum

Conyzacanadensis

Trientalisborealis

Trifoliumpratense

50

70

90

110

130

40

70

100

130

0 30 60 90 120 1503

7

11

15

0

4

8

12

0

1

2

3

0 30 60 90 120 1500

30

60

90

Distance from Roads (m)

( a) Canopy cover (%)

( b) Litter cover (%)

( c) Litter depth (cm)

( d) Woody debris cover (%)

( e) Stump cover (%)

( f) Bare ground cover (%)

Changes in (a) canopy Changes in (a) canopy cover, (b) litter cover, cover, (b) litter cover, (c) litter depth, (d) (c) litter depth, (d) woody-debris cover, woody-debris cover, (e) stump cover, and (e) stump cover, and (f) bare ground cover (f) bare ground cover with distance from with distance from unpaved forest roads unpaved forest roads inin northern northern hardwood forests. hardwood forests. Vertical bars Vertical bars represent standard represent standard deviations.deviations.

8

10

12

14

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

0 30 60 90 120 1501.2

1.6

2

2.4

8

10

12

14

0

1

2

3

0 30 60 90 120 1501.2

1.6

2

2.4

Distance from Roads (m)

( a) Species richness

( b) Exotic species richness

( c) Total H’

( d) Native species richness

( e) Gramnoids species richness

( f) Native species H’

Changes in (a) total Changes in (a) total species richness, (b) species richness, (b) exotic species richness, exotic species richness, (c) Shannon-Wiener (c) Shannon-Wiener diversity (H’), (d) native diversity (H’), (d) native species richness, (e) species richness, (e) species richness of species richness of gramnoids, and (f) gramnoids, and (f) native species H’ with native species H’ with distance from unpaved distance from unpaved forest roads into the forest roads into the forestforest

The roads appeared to be The roads appeared to be associated with a associated with a disturbance corridor that disturbance corridor that affected site variables up affected site variables up to 15 m into the hardwood to 15 m into the hardwood stands. Our results suggest stands. Our results suggest that roads have associated that roads have associated effects that alter interior effects that alter interior forest conditions and thus forest conditions and thus plant species composition plant species composition and abundance; however, and abundance; however, these effects are limited in these effects are limited in depth of penetration into depth of penetration into managed forests. managed forests.

Perforate the road as a barrier to animal movement by using tunnels, under passes, and other mitigation technology;

Close and remove logging and other roads in remote areas to reduce disturbance effects of human access;

Increase the use of soil berms, plantings, depressed roads and other construction techniques;

Concentrate traffic on primary roads and minimize the conversion of secondary roads;

Reduce traffic noise. Forman (2000)