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Polymer and Ceramic Processing

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Page 2: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Outline

Polymer Processing TechniquesPolymer AdditivesCeramic Fabrication MethodsGlass FormingParticulate FormingCementation

Page 3: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Forming Processes for Polymers

Compression Molding Injection MoldingExtrusion Blow Molding

Page 4: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Processing Details Blow Molding Techniques

Extrusion [hose and tubing, belts, rope and cable covers, sheeting and films]

Foaming Techniques

Foam molding offers the possibility of increasing the size of a part without increasing weight and reducing the weight of a part with controlled change of properties. Chemical foaming involves mixing a chemical blowing agent with pellets prior to the pellets being fed into the feed throat of the molding machine.

Injection Molding Most engineering thermoplastic parts are fabricated by injection molding.

http://www2.dupont.com/Plastics/en_US/Knowledge_Center/Processing/processing_methods.html

Page 5: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

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Polymer Formation

Thermoplastic - can be reversibly cooled & reheated, recycled; heat until soft, shape, then cool. examples: polyethylene, polypropylene,

polystyrene.Thermoset - when heated, forms a molecular

network (chemical reaction), degrades (doesn’t melt) when heated. examples: urethane, epoxy

Page 6: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Additives for Plastics

Fillers Pigments Stabilizers Antistatic Agents Flame Retardants Plasticizers Reinforcements Catalysts

Page 7: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Improve mechanical properties, processing, durability. Fillers - Added to improve tensile strength & abrasion

resistance, toughness & decrease cost. Examples: carbon black, silica gel, wood flour, glass, limestone, talc.

Plasticizers - Added to reduce the glass transition temperature Tg below room temperature. Presence of plasticizer transforms brittle polymer to a ductile one. Commonly added to PVC.

Stabilizers – Antioxidants, UV protection Lubricants - Added to allow easier processing polymer

“slides” through dies easier (sodium stearate). Colorants - Dyes and pigments Flame Retardants - Substances containing chlorine,

fluorine and boron.

Polymer Additives

Page 8: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

More Additives

Antimicrobials: Used to control the build up of bacteria, fungi and algae on the surface of plastic products. A wide range of chemical and natural compounds are used as antimicrobials. An example would be naturally occurring silver ions used in products like cell phones or organic acids in food-related products.

Antistatics: Used to minimize static electricity. These types of additives can be mixed with the resin or applied to the surface of the product. Antistatic additives are common to a wide variety of products ranging from cosmetics to industrial goods to sensitive electronic parts.

Fibers: Used to increase strength and stiffness. The most common type of fibers added for strength would be carbon and glass. Glass-reinforced plastic is more commonly known as fiberglass.

Page 9: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

99

Processing Plastics – Compression MoldingThermoplastics and thermosets polymer and additives placed in mold cavity mold heated and pressure applied fluid polymer assumes shape of mold

Page 10: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

1010

Processing Plastics – Injection Molding

Thermoplastics and some thermosets• when ram retracts, plastic pellets drop from hopper into barrel• ram forces plastic into the heating chamber (around the

spreader) where the plastic melts as it moves forward• molten plastic is forced under pressure (injected) into the mold

(die) cavity where it assumes the shape of the mold

Barrelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injection_mold

Page 11: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Plastic Injection Molding Operate 30 plastic injection molding machines from 22 tons to 550 Tons and 60

oz. shot capacity.  Many machines are capable of multiple core pulls for complex plastic injection molded parts. 

Plastic injection molding group services mid-sized manufacturing companies in the energy, electronics, life science, aerospace, food and beverage, industrial and construction markets.  As a custom plastic injection molder we seek diversity in many markets and focus our skills on part geometry for molding, material and product application.

Our plastic injection molding group processes most commodity and engineering injection molded resins including PS, PE, PP, ABS, SAN, PC, PVC, PBT, PPS, TPO, TPU, POM, Nylon 66, Nylon 11 and many custom compounded engineering resins.

http://www.blackwellplastics.com/PlasticRodExtrusion.html

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Processing Plastics – ExtrusionThermoplastics• plastic pellets drop from hopper onto the turning screw• plastic pellets melt as the turning screw pushes them

forward by the heaters• molten polymer is forced under pressure through the

shaping die to form the final product (extrudate)

Page 13: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Extrusion of Plastics In the extrusion of plastics, raw thermoplastic material in the form

of small beads (resin) is gravity fed from a top mounted hopper into the barrel of the extruder. Additives (colorants and UV inhibitors in either liquid or pellet form) are often used and can be mixed into the resin prior to arriving at the hopper.

The material enters through the feed throat (an opening near the rear of the barrel) and comes into contact with the screw. The rotating screw (normally turning at up to 120 rpm) forces the plastic beads forward into the barrel which is heated to the desired melt temperature of the molten plastic (which can range from 200°C/400°F to 275°C/530°F depending on the polymer).

In most processes, a heating profile is set for the barrel where three or more independent PID controlled heater zones gradually increase the temperature of the barrel from the rear (where the plastic enters) to the front. This allows the plastic beads to melt gradually as they are pushed through the barrel and lowers the risk of overheating which may cause degradation in the polymer.

13

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Processing Plastics – Blown-Film ExtrusionThe manufacture of plastic film for products like shopping bags is done using a blown film line.

This process is the same as a regular extrusion process up until the die. The die is an upright cylinder with a circular opening similar to a pipe die. The diameter can be a few cm to more than 3 m across. The molten plastic is pulled upward from the die by a pair of rollers high above the die.

Changing the speed of these rollers changes the gauge (wall thickness) of the film. Around the die sits an air-ring. The air-ring cools the film as it travels upward. In the center of the die is an air outlet where compressed air can be forced into the center of the extruded circular profile, creating a bubble.

Page 15: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Ceramic Fabrication Methods

Page 16: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Glass A glass is an inorganic non metallic material that does

not have a crystalline structure.  Such materials are said to be amorphous and are virtually solid liquids cooled at such a rate that crystals have not been able to form.

Typical glasses range from the soda-lime silicate glass for soda bottles to the extremely high purity silica glass for optical fibers.  

Glass is widely used for windows, bottles, glasses for drinking, transfer piping and receptacles for highly corrosive liquids, optical glasses, windows for nuclear applications.

Most products have been blown glass.  In recent times, most flat glass has been produced using the float process.  

Mass produced bottles and decorative products are made using industrial scale blown glass process.  

Page 17: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

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Glass Properties: Viscosity

• Viscosity, describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. -- relates shear stress () and velocity gradient (dv/dy):

has units of (Pa-s)

dydv /

velocity gradient

dv

dy

glass dvdy

Glass or noncrystalline materials do not solidify in the same sense as crystalline materials. Upon cooling, a glass becomes more and more viscous with decreasing temperature.

Page 18: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Important in glass forming operations are the viscosity-temperature characteristics of glass.

Temperatures:Melting Point: viscosity = 10 Pa-s; glass is fluid enough to be considered liquid.

Working Point: viscosity = 103 Pa-s; glass is easily deformed.

Softening Point:viscosity = 4x106 Pa-s; max temp. glass can be handled without altering dimensions.

Annealing Point: viscosity = 1012 Pa-s; good atomic diffusion; stress relief.

Strain Point:viscosity = 3 x 1013 Pa-s; below strain point, fracture will occur before the onset of plastic deformation .

Page 19: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

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• Specific volume (1) vs Temperature (T):

• Glasses: -- do not crystallize -- change in slope in spec. vol. curve at

glass transition temperature, Tg

-- transparent - no grain boundaries to

scatter light

• Crystalline materials: -- crystallize at melting temp, Tm

-- have abrupt change in specific volume at Tm

Glass Properties

T

Specific volume

Supercooled Liquid

solid

Tm

Liquid(disordered)

Crystalline (ordered)

Tg

Glass (amorphous solid)

density

Page 20: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

20

Vis

cosi

ty [P

a-s]

1

102

106

1010

1014

200 600 1000 1400 1800 T(°C)

Working range:

glass-forming carried out

annealing point

Tmelt

strain point

• Viscosity decreases with T

Log Glass Viscosity vs. Temperature

• fused silica: > 99.5 wt% SiO2

• soda-lime glass: 70% SiO2 balance Na2O (soda) & CaO (lime)

• Vycor: 96% SiO2, 4% B2O3

• borosilicate (Pyrex): 13% B2O3, 3.5% Na2O, 2.5% Al2O3soda-lim

e

glass

96% silica

fused silica

Pyrex

Page 21: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Glass Blowing Some glass blowing is

done by hand. The process is completely

automated for the production of glass jars, bottles and light bulbs.

From a raw gob of glass, a parison (temporary shape) is formed by mechanical pressing in a mold.

This piece is inserted into a finishing or blow mold and forced to conform to the mold contours by the pressure created from a blast of air.

Drawing is used to form long glass parts (sheets, rods, tubing and fibers) that have a constant cross section.

Page 22: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

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Sheet Glass Forming

Sheet forming – continuous casting sheets are formed by floating the molten glass on a pool of

molten tin

Page 23: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

23

• Annealing: -- removes internal stresses caused by uneven cooling.

• Tempering: -- puts surface of glass part into compression -- suppresses growth of cracks from surface scratches. -- sequence:

Heat Treating Glass

at room temp.

tensioncompression

compression

before cooling

hot

initial cooling

hotcooler

cooler

-- Result: surface crack growth is suppressed.

Page 24: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Tempered GlassFully tempered glass is roughly 4 times stronger

than annealed glass of the same thickness and configuration; residual surface compression must be over 10,000 psi for 6mm thickness, according to ASTM C 1048.

Tempered glass is manufactured through a process of extreme heating and rapid cooling, making it harder than normal glass.

The typical process to produce tempered glass involves heating the glass to over 1,000 °F, then rapidly cooling to lock the glass surfaces in a state of compression and the core in a state of tension.

When glass cools down to ambient temperature, the center plane of the glass contracts more than the surfaces. The contraction of the center plane pulls the surfaces into compression and the glass becomes very strong.

Tempered glass cannot be cut or drilled after tempering, and any alterations, such as edge-grinding, sandblasting or acid-etching, can cause premature failure.

Page 25: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Tempering Process

Fabrication occurs on electrically heated horizontal furnaces that heat the glass to a uniform temperature of roughly 1200°F.

Ceramic rolls convey the glass through these furnaces at speeds regulated to ensure temperature uniformity and minimal optical distortions.

When the glass exits from the furnace, it is rapidly cooled by a series or air nozzles. This rapid cooling puts roughly 20% of the glass surface into a state of compression, with the center core in tension.

Page 26: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Shattered Tempered GlassThe brittle nature of tempered glass causes it to shatter into small oval-shaped pebbles when broken. This eliminates the danger of sharp edges. Due to this property, along with its strength, tempered glass is often referred to as safety glass.

Tempered glass breaks in a unique way. If any part of the glass fails, the entire panel shatters at once. This distinguishes it from normal glass, which might experience a small crack or localized breakage from an isolated impact.

Tempered glass might also fail long after the event that caused the failure.

Stresses continue to play until the defect erupts, triggering breakage of the entire panel.

Page 27: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Heat-strengthened (Hs) glass has been heated and cooled and is generally twice as strong as annealed glass of the same thickness and configuration.

Hs glass has greater resistance to thermal loads than annealed glass and, when broken, the fragments are typically larger than those of fully tempered glass.

It does not require the strength of fully tempered glass, and is intended for applications that do not specifically require a safety glass product.

Heat Strengthened Glass

Hs glass must achieve residual surface compression between 3,500 and 7,500 psi for 6 mm glass, according to ASTM C 1048.

Hs glass cannot be cut or drilled after heat-strengthening and any alterations, such as edge-grinding, sandblasting or acid etching can cause premature failure.

Page 28: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Annealed Glass

Annealing float glass is the process of controlled cooling to prevent residual stress in the glass. It is part of the float glass manufacturing process.

Annealed glass can be cut, machined, drilled, edged and polished.

To anneal glass, the glass is heated and kept for a defined period of time to relieve internal stresses.

Carefully cooled under controlled conditions to ensure that no stresses are reintroduced by chilling/cooling.

• Float glass (also called “flat” glass) has not yet been heat-strengthened or tempered.

Page 29: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Glass Properties

1100 KHz225-1000°C320-1000°C

B - Blown WareC - CastD - Drawn SheetE - Extruded

P - Pressed WareR - Rolled SheetS - Ground & PolishedT - Tubing & RodU - Panels

F - Frit & Powdered GlassG - Gob & StripK - Special CaneM - Multiform

Page 30: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Different techniques for processing advanced ceramics.

The space shuttle makes use of ~25,000 reusable, lightweight, highly porous ceramic tiles that protect the aluminum frame from the heat generated during re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere.

Page 31: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Typical steps encountered in the processing of ceramics.

Green ceramic - A ceramic that has been shaped into a specific form but has not yet been sintered.

Page 32: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Mechanical Properties of Advanced Ceramics

Typical Porcelain Composition(50%) 1. Clay(25%) 2. Filler – e.g. quartz (finely ground)(25%) 3. Fluxing agent (Feldspar)

-- aluminosilicates plus K+, Na+, Ca+

-- upon firing - forms low-melting-temp. glass

Page 33: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

CEREC Technology An optical 3D image is acquired with a small

camera, directly in your mouth. The computer and CEREC® 3D software

converts the digital picture to a three dimensional virtual model of your prepped tooth. Your dentist then designs your restoration right on screen using the software.

This software can handle single tooth restoration: crowns, inlays (fillings), onlays (partial crowns), and veneers. After the design is complete, the data is transmitted via a wireless radio signal to the CEREC® Milling Unit.

Diamond coated instruments mill a ceramic block to reproduce the design.

This is done during a single appointment using Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacture (CAD/CAM).

http://www.sirona.com/ecomaXL/index.php?site=SIRONA_COM_cadcam_systems

Page 34: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Ceramic Materials

When creating CEREC restorations, you can choose from feldspar ceramics, glass ceramics and high-performance polymers.

They are biocompatible, clinically tested, durable and metal-free. Problems due to corrosion and incompatibility can be virtually ruled out.

The ceramic materials fulfill stringent standards in terms of fracture toughness, abrasion, aesthetics and machinability. Sirona has developed its own range of machinable ceramic blocks for the CEREC and inLab CAD/CAM systems.

Sirona inCoris materials consists of partially sintered framework ceramics – they provides the basis for manufacturing high-precision all-ceramic crowns and bridge restorations made of aluminium and zirconium oxide.

Page 35: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Slip Casting A liquid clay body (a slip) is poured into a plaster mold and allowed to form a

layer on the inside cavity of the mold. In a solid cast mold, ceramic objects like handles and platters are surrounded by

plaster on all sides with a reservoir for slip, and are removed when the solid piece is held within.

For a hollow cast mold, once the plaster has absorbed most of the liquid from the outside layer of clay the remaining slip is poured off for later use.

The cast piece is removed from the mold, trimmed and dried. This produces a green piece that is then fired, with or without decoration and glaze.

The technique is suited to the production of complex shapes, and is commonly used for toilets, basins, figurines and teapots. The technique can also be used for small scale production runs.

35solid component hollow component

pour slip into mold

drain mold

“green ceramic”

pour slip into mold

absorb water into mold

“green ceramic”

Page 36: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

36

ram billet

container

container

forcedie holder

die

A o

A dextrusion

Hydroplastic Forming

Hydroplastic forming - Processes where a moist ceramic clay body is formed into a useful shape.

Mill (grind) and screen constituents: desired particle size.

Extrude the mass. Dry and fire the formed piece.

Page 37: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

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• Drying: as water is removed - interparticle spacings decrease – shrinkage .

Drying and Firing

Drying too fast causes sample to warp or crack due to non-uniform shrinkagewet body partially dry completely dry

• Firing: -- heat treatment between 900-1400°C -- vitrification: liquid glass forms from clay and flux – flows between SiO2 particles. (Flux lowers melting temperature).

Si02 particle

(quartz)

glass formed around the particle

mic

rogr

aph

of

porc

elai

n

70 m

Page 38: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Kaolinite Clay is inexpensive. Kaolinite is a clay mineral with the

chemical composition Al2Si2O5(OH)4. It is a layered silicate mineral, with one

tetrahedral sheet linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina octahedra.

When water is added to clay, water molecules fit between layered sheets, reducing degree of van der Waals bonding; (Can shear along vdW bonds more easily).

When external forces are applied, clay particles are free to move past one another, becoming hydroplastic.

Adding water to clay enables extrusion and slip casting.

Kaopectate, paper, pipes (smoking).

weak van der Waals bonding

charge neutral

charge neutral

Si4+

Al 3+

-OHO2-

Shear

Shear

Structure ofKaolinite Clay

Page 39: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Kaolin

Page 40: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

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Uniaxial compression - compacted in single direction Isostatic (hydrostatic) compression - pressure applied

by fluid - powder in rubber envelope Hot pressing - pressure + heat.

Microstructure of a barium magnesium tantalate (BMT) ceramic prepared using compaction and sintering. (Courtesy Heather Shivey.)

Used for clay and non-clay compositions. Powder (plus binder) compacted by pressure in a mold.

Powder Pressing

Page 41: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

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Sintering

Aluminum oxide powder: -- sintered at 1700°C for 6 minutes. 15 m

Sintering occurs during firing of a piece that has been powder pressed, powder particles coalesce and pore size is reduced.

Typically, ceramics with a small grain size are stronger than coarse-grained ceramics.

Finer grain sizes help reduce stresses that develop at grain boundaries due to anisotropic expansion and contraction.

Page 42: Polymer and Ceramic Processing. Outline  Polymer Processing Techniques  Polymer Additives  Ceramic Fabrication Methods  Glass Forming  Particulate

Tape CastingTape casting - A process for making thin sheets of ceramics using a ceramic slurry consisting of binders, plasticizers, etc. The slurry is cast as tape with the help of a blade onto a plastic substrate. Used for integrated circuits and capacitorsSlip = suspended ceramic particles + organic liquid

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Hardening of a paste: paste formed by mixing cement material with water. Formation of rigid structures having varied and complex shapes. Hardening process: hydration (complex chemical reactions involving water and cement particles). Production of Portland cement:

mix clay and lime-bearing minerals

calcine (heat to 1400°C) grind into fine powder

Ceramic Fabrication Methods - Cementation