Physical DevelopmentPhysical Development

Physical DevelopmentPhysical Development

What Changes?What Changes? Biological agingBiological aging

• PhysicalPhysical• Physiological and sensoryPhysiological and sensory• Health statusHealth status

Biological AgingBiological Aging

Deterioration of organism from time-Deterioration of organism from time-dependent, irreversible changesdependent, irreversible changes

Intrinsic to allIntrinsic to all Human life span fixed, but life Human life span fixed, but life

expectancy at birth changingexpectancy at birth changing

Females: Females: 82 years82 years

Males:Males:77 years77 years

Human Survival CurveHuman Survival Curve

Approaching Approaching rectangular rectangular

shapeshape

Primary agingPrimary aging• SenescenceSenescence• Weakening/decline of bodyWeakening/decline of body• Normal processNormal process

Secondary agingSecondary aging• Increase in rate of senescence due to Increase in rate of senescence due to

extrinsic factorsextrinsic factors Environment (UV light: cataracts; noise Environment (UV light: cataracts; noise

pollution: hearing loss)pollution: hearing loss) Behaviour (smoking: decline in respiration)Behaviour (smoking: decline in respiration)

Primary agingPrimary aging• SensorySensory• physical: physical:

PhysiologicalPhysiological Musculo-skeletalMusculo-skeletal

• Theories of agingTheories of aging• Factors affecting healthFactors affecting health• Trends in disabilityTrends in disability

Sensory ChangesSensory Changes

Gradual decrease in sensory capacityGradual decrease in sensory capacity Often undermine cognitive Often undermine cognitive

functioningfunctioning

VisionVision

Field of vision restricts (changing Field of vision restricts (changing retinal metabolism)retinal metabolism)

Presbyopia: Accommodation declines Presbyopia: Accommodation declines (loss of near vision from decreased (loss of near vision from decreased flexibility of lens)flexibility of lens)

Sensitivity to glare, recovery time Sensitivity to glare, recovery time increasesincreases

Colour sensitivity declines (70 years)Colour sensitivity declines (70 years)• Blue/green discrimination difficulty due Blue/green discrimination difficulty due

to yellowing of lensto yellowing of lens Dark adaptation decreases: reduced Dark adaptation decreases: reduced

light transmitting properties of lenslight transmitting properties of lens

HearingHearing

Presbycusis Presbycusis • Decreased sensitivity to high-frequency Decreased sensitivity to high-frequency

soundssounds

Taste, smell: Taste, smell: • Taste not affectedTaste not affected• Smell diminishes in mid-50sSmell diminishes in mid-50s

Theories of AgingTheories of Aging

Programmed theoryProgrammed theory• Metabolic theoryMetabolic theory

Damage to mitochondria impairs function in Damage to mitochondria impairs function in older cellsolder cells

Restricted diet?Restricted diet?

Stochastic theoriesStochastic theories• Random wear and tearRandom wear and tear• Free radicalsFree radicals

Reactive molecules produced in cell from Reactive molecules produced in cell from oxygen metabolismoxygen metabolism

• Oxygen-free radicalOxygen-free radical• Accumulate, destroy fats, protiens critical to cell Accumulate, destroy fats, protiens critical to cell

functioningfunctioning• Damage DNADamage DNA• Genetic therapy?Genetic therapy?• Diet: antioxidant enzymes neutralize free radicalsDiet: antioxidant enzymes neutralize free radicals

Anti-oxidantsAnti-oxidants

Physical HealthPhysical Health

Mortality: death rate (deaths per Mortality: death rate (deaths per 100,000 per year)100,000 per year)• DroppingDropping

Morbidity: prevalence of disease in a Morbidity: prevalence of disease in a populationpopulation• Chronic (long-term)Chronic (long-term)• Acute (short, suddent)Acute (short, suddent)

DisabilityDisability• Inability to perform activities of daily Inability to perform activities of daily

livingliving• Later in life, shorter durationLater in life, shorter duration

VitalityVitality• Subjective rating of health and energySubjective rating of health and energy

Factors affecting healthFactors affecting health

GenderGender• Mortality: men higher than womenMortality: men higher than women• Morbidity: women higher than menMorbidity: women higher than men

Chronic: women>menChronic: women>men Serious acute: men>womenSerious acute: men>women

• Heart disease: diagnostic procedures, treatment, Heart disease: diagnostic procedures, treatment, protective factors may have different effects on protective factors may have different effects on women than on menwomen than on men

FactorsFactors

IncomeIncome• Directly related to perception of healthDirectly related to perception of health

AgeAge• Much variationMuch variation• Young adulthoodYoung adulthood

Good healthGood health Few hospitalizationsFew hospitalizations Respiratory ailments most common (colds)Respiratory ailments most common (colds) Few chronic ailmentsFew chronic ailments Fatal diseases rareFatal diseases rare Leading causes of death: M: accidents/F: cancerLeading causes of death: M: accidents/F: cancer

Middle adulthoodMiddle adulthood• Common daily symptomsCommon daily symptoms

Musculo-skeletal problems (pain, stiffness in Musculo-skeletal problems (pain, stiffness in joints)joints)

Respiratory ailments (colds)Respiratory ailments (colds)• Disease more commonplaceDisease more commonplace

Chronic: main source of discomfortChronic: main source of discomfort Arthritis, hypertension, sinusitis, heart Arthritis, hypertension, sinusitis, heart

conditions, hearing impairmentsconditions, hearing impairments Fatal diseases: diabetes, ateriosclerosis, Fatal diseases: diabetes, ateriosclerosis,

emphysema, canceremphysema, cancer Death: heart disease, cancerDeath: heart disease, cancer

Late AdulthoodLate Adulthood• Common: musculoskeletal symptoms Common: musculoskeletal symptoms

(arthritis)(arthritis) 90%: pain symptoms, stiffness90%: pain symptoms, stiffness

• Acute problems diminish sharplyAcute problems diminish sharply Predominant: arthritis, hypertension, Predominant: arthritis, hypertension,

heart conditions, hearing impairmentsheart conditions, hearing impairments More severe than in middle adulthoodMore severe than in middle adulthood Limit work and leisure actiitiesLimit work and leisure actiities Hospital stays: life-threatening Hospital stays: life-threatening

diseasesdiseases Death: heart disease, cancer, strokeDeath: heart disease, cancer, stroke

Subjective evaluation of health Subjective evaluation of health declines with age (less than declines with age (less than expected)expected)

Types of symptoms changeTypes of symptoms change Rate of acute conditions drops, Rate of acute conditions drops,

chronic riseschronic rises Nonfatal disease: arthritis, sensory Nonfatal disease: arthritis, sensory

impairmentsimpairments Fatal: increase with ageFatal: increase with age Limitations to daily activities Limitations to daily activities

increase with ageincrease with age

Trends in disabilitlyTrends in disabilitly

Compression-of-Morbidity hypothesisCompression-of-Morbidity hypothesis• James FriesJames Fries• Prevention, better treatmentPrevention, better treatment

Portion of life spent in disease and disability Portion of life spent in disease and disability compressed, delayedcompressed, delayed

Poor health later in life, shorter durationPoor health later in life, shorter duration More healthy yearsMore healthy years Lack of data on incidence of disease and Lack of data on incidence of disease and

disabilitydisability But: falling rates of disability among elderly, But: falling rates of disability among elderly,

falling rates of chronic diseasefalling rates of chronic disease

Successful AgingSuccessful Aging

Hardiness and thriving (Perls, 1995)Hardiness and thriving (Perls, 1995)• Genetic determiners of “hardiness” in Genetic determiners of “hardiness” in

oldest oldoldest old• Adaptive capacity (ability to overcome Adaptive capacity (ability to overcome

disease or injury)disease or injury)• Functional reserve: how much of organ Functional reserve: how much of organ

required for adequate performance required for adequate performance (determines ability to deal with disease)(determines ability to deal with disease)

More hardyMore hardy• Slower rate of progressSlower rate of progress• Higher thresholdHigher threshold• Symptoms of age-related disease (e.g., Symptoms of age-related disease (e.g.,

Alzheimers) appear laterAlzheimers) appear later• Morbidity, mortality, disability Morbidity, mortality, disability

compressed into shorter periodcompressed into shorter period

More hardyMore hardy• Slower rate of progress of symptoms of Slower rate of progress of symptoms of

disease than in less hardydisease than in less hardy• Threshold for disease lowers more Threshold for disease lowers more

slowlyslowly

• Symptoms of age-related disease (e.g., Symptoms of age-related disease (e.g., Alzheimers) appear later (b vs. a)Alzheimers) appear later (b vs. a)

• Morbidity, mortality, disability Morbidity, mortality, disability compressed into shorter periodcompressed into shorter period

Possible explanations for Possible explanations for hardinesshardiness

Longevity genes: increased resistance Longevity genes: increased resistance against oxygen radicalsagainst oxygen radicals• Slow rate of damageSlow rate of damage

Low complement of deleterious genesLow complement of deleterious genes• E.g., Apolipoprotien E (apo-E) related to risk of E.g., Apolipoprotien E (apo-E) related to risk of

Alzheimer'sAlzheimer's• Gene for protein apo-E less prevalent in oldest-Gene for protein apo-E less prevalent in oldest-

old survivorsold survivors 18% of 90-103 year-olds18% of 90-103 year-olds 25% of under-65 year-olds25% of under-65 year-olds

• Adaptive capacity (ability to cope with Adaptive capacity (ability to cope with and overcome disease or injury) higher and overcome disease or injury) higher in more-hardyin more-hardy

• Functional reserve (how much of an Functional reserve (how much of an organ is required for its adequate organ is required for its adequate performance) higherperformance) higher

Autopsy studies of “healthy” oldest-Autopsy studies of “healthy” oldest-old brainsold brains• No outward signs of disease, but level of No outward signs of disease, but level of

neurofibrillary tangles would indicate neurofibrillary tangles would indicate dementia in younger braindementia in younger brain

• Excess reserve of brain function Excess reserve of brain function compensates for processes damaging compensates for processes damaging the brainthe brain

Two Basic Principles of Normal Two Basic Principles of Normal AgingAging

Variability of aging ratesVariability of aging rates• Longitudinal studies (e.g., Baltimore Longitudinal studies (e.g., Baltimore

Study)Study) Aging rates vary remarkably (60 year olds Aging rates vary remarkably (60 year olds

like 40; some 40 year-olds like 60, like 40; some 40 year-olds like 60, physically)physically)

Differences in appearance mirrored on Differences in appearance mirrored on physiological testsphysiological tests

Variability increases as age increasesVariability increases as age increases Individual aging rates vary across years, and Individual aging rates vary across years, and

across physical systemsacross physical systems

Variability of Aging PatternsVariability of Aging Patterns• Several aging paths:Several aging paths:

• Cross-sectional researchCross-sectional research Some functions decline in a regular way Some functions decline in a regular way

over timeover time Other functions are stable, unchanged or Other functions are stable, unchanged or

decline only in terminal phase of lifedecline only in terminal phase of life

• Physiological loss, but only when an Physiological loss, but only when an age-related illness is experiencedage-related illness is experienced

E.g., heart disease correlated with a decline E.g., heart disease correlated with a decline in heart pumping capacity with agein heart pumping capacity with age

Without heart disease, pumping capacity as Without heart disease, pumping capacity as well at age 70 as at age 30well at age 70 as at age 30

• Terminal Loss PatternTerminal Loss Pattern Loss in a normally stable function may be Loss in a normally stable function may be

sign of impending deathsign of impending death E.g., immune system: # of lymphocytes E.g., immune system: # of lymphocytes

(white blood cells) stable normally stale(white blood cells) stable normally stale• Decline occurred in minority of Baltimore Study Decline occurred in minority of Baltimore Study

samplesample• Reported good health; good physical examsReported good health; good physical exams• At next follow-up for study – subgroup more likely At next follow-up for study – subgroup more likely

to have diedto have died

Loss occurs, but body compensates for the Loss occurs, but body compensates for the changechange• E.g., brain: neural loss but robust individual cell E.g., brain: neural loss but robust individual cell

growth (new dendrites, new connections) may growth (new dendrites, new connections) may help preserve thinking and memoryhelp preserve thinking and memory

Physical Aging: not only lossPhysical Aging: not only loss• StabilityStability• ResiliencyResiliency• Capacity for growthCapacity for growth

Term Test 1Term Test 1

50 MC50 MC 5 (out of 7) short answer5 (out of 7) short answer

Ideas and IssuesIdeas and Issues

Why study adult developmentWhy study adult development Demographic changesDemographic changes Life-span perspectiveLife-span perspective Social Realities of AgingSocial Realities of Aging

• Special needsSpecial needs• Stereotypical attitudesStereotypical attitudes• AgeismAgeism

Research in Adult DevelopmentResearch in Adult Development

Developmental research designsDevelopmental research designs Special problems in studying adult Special problems in studying adult

developmentdevelopment• Sources of biasSources of bias• Identifying samplesIdentifying samples

Theories and Psychosocial Theories and Psychosocial DevelopmentDevelopment

““World Views”World Views”• ContextualContextual• OrganismicOrganismic• MechanisticMechanistic

Psychosocial DevelopmentPsychosocial Development

ContextualContextual• Bronfenbrenner: Ecological system’s Bronfenbrenner: Ecological system’s

theorytheory• Neugarten: Timing of EventsNeugarten: Timing of Events

OrganismicOrganismic• Stages (psychoanalytic)Stages (psychoanalytic)• EriksonErikson• LevinsonLevinson

MechanisticMechanistic• Trait approachTrait approach• McCrae & Costa: Five-Factor modelMcCrae & Costa: Five-Factor model

Stability vs. change in adult Stability vs. change in adult personality developmentpersonality development

IdentityIdentity

Self-conceptSelf-concept EriksonErikson James MarciaJames Marcia

Physical DevelopmentPhysical Development

Biological agingBiological aging• Primary, secondaryPrimary, secondary

Physical changesPhysical changes• Body systems (heart, lungs, musculoskeletal)Body systems (heart, lungs, musculoskeletal)• Sensory systems (vision, hearing)Sensory systems (vision, hearing)

Theories of AgingTheories of Aging• ProgrammedProgrammed• StochasticStochastic

Hardiness in Oldest-OldHardiness in Oldest-Old