physical activity & sport issuesphysical activity & sport issues chapter 20 sport books...

Physical Activity& Sport Issues

Chapter 20

Sport Books Publisher 2

DefinitionsModern sport is a reflection of our society– Example: winning at all costs

Sociology is the study of the functioning of human society in various environments (e.g., workplace, church, school)

Sport sociology is the study of the functioning of society within the modern sport environment


Important Issues in Sport Sociology

Specifically, we will discuss:– Aggression and violence in

Sport – Cheating in sport– Gender and sport– Race and ethnicity in sport– Racism in sport– Other victims of discrimination– Future sporting trends


Aggression and Violence in Sport


Violence in sport parallels the reality of violence in society as a whole– We see examples of societal violence

watching the evening news– Sports news isn’t much different


Examples of Violence in Sport

Hockey– 2004: Todd Bertuzzi punched Steve Moore in the

back of the headBasketball– 2004: Ron Artest and Stephen Jackson charge

into stands to confront abusive fansBaseball– 2000: Roger Clemens throws the jagged piece of

a broken bat at Mike PiazzaExamples can be found in almost every sportCan you think of any recent examples?


Definitions

Violence = extreme aggression

There are three distinct components of aggressive behavior:

1. Hostile Aggression2. Instrumental

Aggression3. Assertive Behavior


Hostile Aggression Instrumental Aggression



The intent is to cause harm








The goal is to cause suffering







The goal is to achieve some external award







Anger is usually involved








No anger is involved









Performed outside the rules of the game

e.g., fist-fighting in hockey









Performed outside the rules of the game

Performed within the rules of the game

e.g., fist-fighting in hockey e.g., aggressive checking meant to hurt the opponent


Assertive Behavior

Often confused with aggression

Increased effort and energy expenditure

No intent to harm

No anger involved

May result in harm, but any resulting harm is incidental to the game


What Causes Aggressive Behavior in Sport?

The following are the most popular and likely instigators of aggression


1. Parents and coaches

Often unknowingly Through comments, e.g., “Bob can really take care of himself.”By demonstrating interest in televised sporting event fights

Recommendations:1. Every effort should be made to convey a

negative reaction to aggression2. Others?


2. Outcome of the contest and league standing

More aggression occurs after losing contest– FrustrationTeams lower in league standing demonstrate more aggression

– Frustration and little to lose

Recommendations:1. Coaches need to refocus the teams efforts into

more productive channels, e.g., a new game plan2. Others?


3. Point spread

The larger the point spread, the more aggression occurs

– Nothing to lose because game is perceived to be out of reach

Recommendations1. Coaches and players should try out a new play

to refocus attention from point spread2. Others?


4. Physical contact

Sports with a lot of physical contact result in more aggression

– Perceived intent of the opponent– If player believes that an opponent intends bodily harm

there is an increased likelihood that aggression will occur

Recommendations:1. Encouraging athletes to increase effort versus aggressive

acts2. Victory (versus harm) is the ultimate way to get back at an

opponent3. Others?


5. Fan Reaction

More aggression occurs when a team plays away from home

– Linked to fan reaction (i.e., unfriendly crowd is likely to anger the visiting team)

Recommendations:1. Players must learn to “tune out” this fan reaction

and focus on the game2. Others?


Cheating in Sport


Cheating = behavior aimed at getting around the rules or simply breaking themWhy do athletes engage in cheating?

1. The win-at-all-costs mentality2. Cheating results from the sport ethic

Ben Johnson’s world record in the 100-meter dash at the 1988 Summer Olympics before he was stripped of his win for using anabolic steroids.


The Sport Ethic

A cluster of norms that many individuals in power and performance sports have accepted as the definition of an athlete

Four specific norms make up the sport ethic


1. An athlete makes sacrifices for the game

An athlete must love the game and meet the demands of competition without question

– Must make sacrifices– Willing to pay the price to

play their sports


2. An athlete strives for distinction

“Citius, Altius, Fortius = “swifter, higher, stronger”

– Constantly seeking improvement

– Pursuit of perfection


3. An athlete accepts risks and plays through pain

Athlete does not give in to pressure, pain, or fearSuccess comes with: – Overcoming the fear and challenge of

competition– Accepting the increased risk of failure and

injury


4. An athlete accepts no limit in the pursuit of possibilities

Obligation to pursue one’s dream to succeed without questionAnything is possible if a person is dedicated enough


Cheating occurs when the norms of the sport ethic are accepted without question


The Most Common Forms

of Deviance


Athlete Recruitment

Rules are often bent in order to sign promising talentExample: “getting around” the rules regarding athletic scholarshipsExample: “ignoring” the required admission average standardsOthers?


Academic Cheating

Athletes have their course work written by “academic support” staff

However, athletes are NOT more likely to engage in academic cheating than other students

Pressure to maintain a certain GPA has the potential to cause athletes, like other students, to consider cheating


Cheating in Games

Modification of equipment– Fencing: rewiring athletes– Baseball: using cork-filled bats, applying Vaseline

on the ballModification of play– Basketball: using the slightest amount of physical

contact to throw off an opponent’s jump shot when out of the referee’s sight lines

Others?


Performance-Enhancing Drugs

To gain a winning edge or to stay competitiveExample: Tim Montgomery and Chryste Gaines; American SprintersIOC considers certain performance-enhancing drugs illegal because:

• They give one an unfair advantage• They have serious health side effects


Drug Physiological Effect Performance Effect

Amphetamines ↑ muscle tension, HR, BP

To “get up” for competition

Cocaine Physiological stimulant

Help overcome fear

Rectal Air Injections

↓ body density ↑ swimmer’s buoyancy

Alkalines Neutralize accumulation of acids in the blood

Postpone fatigue

Blood Doping ↑ oxygen carrying capacity

Postpone fatigue

Beta-adrenergic receptors

Sedative To steady the hands and slow down heart rate


Gender and Sport


What Prevented Women From Participating in Physical

Activity in the Past?


1. Lack of rightsWomen were not allowed to vote, get education, make own decisions, etc.

This prevented them from making decisions with respect to their participation in physical activity

1948 Olympics – 400 m relay


2. Emphasis on reproduction

Women were described almost exclusively by their biology as reproducing organisms

Physical exertion was thought to destroy a woman’s potential to have children


3. Societal expectationsWomen were expected to act “lady-like”– Female athletes were negatively labeled because

they did not act in accordance with these norms

Many sports were discouraged because they prevented women from acting “lady-like”– Example: bicycling

Female athletes were expected to emphasize their femininity – Example: by wearing feminine clothes, which

impaired performance


Access to Sport for Women

Single most important change in the world of sport over the past generation was INCREASED PARTICIPATION OF FEMALES

Women can now freely participate in sports that were not available to them a few decades ago


What Led to the Increased Participation of Females in

Sport?


1. New OpportunitiesDevelopment of new teams and programs since the late 1970s linked with increased participation– Unfortunately, women still

don’t receive an equal share of opportunities in today’s society - Examples?

These new opportunities have resulted from political changes


2. Political Pressure and Equal Rights Legislation

Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972– A federal law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in all

educational programs and activities receiving federal funds

Major impacts of Title IX:– Dramatic increase in girls’ and women’s sports participation at

high school and college levels– Sports not traditionally offered in schools and colleges are now

offered to female athletes– Increased sport participation for women of color

Remaining inequalities as of today– Women’s sports are not usually promoted as mass sports– Male athletes still enjoy greater financial rewards than female

athletes


3. The Global Women’s Rights Movement

Over the past 30 years:– Emphasized that females excel as human beings when they are

given the opportunity to develop their intellectual and physical abilities

– Played role in redefining occupational and family roles for women, providing more time and resources they need to participate in sports

In the official Platform for Action of the U.N.’s Fourth World Conference on Women called for:– Increased efforts to provide sports opportunities– New efforts to promote education, health, and human rights for

females all over the world


4. The Expanding Health and Fitness Movement

Since the mid-1970s research highlighted the many health benefits of regular participation in physical activity

Today, well-toned muscles and cardiovascular fitness are no longer seen as desirable only in the male population

More women are pursuing the goal of developing physical strength and sport competence


5. Increased Media Coverage of Women In Sport

Today, there are increased opportunities for girls and women to follow female athletes in media– Example: WNBA

This provides them with role models and encourages them to be active athletes themselves– Example: Nadia Comaneci (gymnastics)– Example: Mia Hamm and Brandi Chastain (soccer)

Unfortunately, women’s sports are still not covered as often or with the same detail as men’s sports– Examples?


In Summary

The preceding factors have: – Collectively fostered

increased interest in sport participation for females

– Emphasized that gender equity in sports is an important and worthwhile goal


Race and Ethnicity in Sport


DefinitionsRace– Involves reference to physical traits– BUT it is based on meanings that people have given to

those particular physical traits

Ethnicity– Not based on physical traits– Based on characteristics associated with cultural traditions

and background

Minority group– A socially identified group that experiences discrimination

and suffers social disadvantages


The Black Athlete


View of the PastOnly white athletes were allowed to play on major league baseball teams

Black athletes played in Negro Leagues

Jackie Robinson – first black baseball player to play in the major leagues (1946)– Verbally taunted– Received death threats– Had balls thrown at his head

consistently


ProgressProgress has been made leading to a significant increase in black athlete representation

However, the majority of people in power (e.g., team owners) are white, so the possibility of unequal access still exists

– NBA and NFL 100%– MLB 97%

Black Athlete Representation Trends in Three Professional Sports

0102030405060708090

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000Year

Perc

enta

ge (%

)

Baseball

Football

Basketball


Other Victims of Discrimination


North American First NationsConcerns of native peoples with respect to sports:

– Equity• Bottom of the social ladder• Lack resources, coaching, and support

– Cultural • Maintenance of cultural values in sports• Maintenance of traditional sports; e.g. snow snake • Value placed on of inclusion and sharing (versus competition)

These concerns have been ignored, but may be addressed by governing bodies in the future

The Arctic Winter Games– Since 1970, held every 2 years– Objectives

• To allow circumpolar North athletes to compete on their own terms and turf

• To involve as many athletes as possible• To provide competitive exchange below elite level of competition


Disabilities and Sport

Traditionally people with disabilities have been viewed as “crippled” or “handicapped”

Recently, there has been a change in social attitudes toward those who cannot participate in “regular” sports, as a result of the following factors:– Determination and commitment shown by Terry Fox, Rick Hansen,

and others has led to highlighted attention of achievements of disabled athletes

– More attention now being paid to disabled athletes– More sporting events are being offered– More accessibility options that provide independence– Others?


Gay Athletes and the Gay Games

For the most part, professional sport is highly male, heterosexual, and homophobic

“Coming out” in a sporting environment puts individual’s social status, family, fan affection, and even success at risk

Dave Kopay (1976) - First North American athlete to “come out”

Martina Navratilova

Greg Louganis


Gay Games– Formed in 1982, since then continued to

grow– People of all sexual orientations are

welcomed– To enable gay athletes to participate in

their own culturally defined sports– Key philosophy: PARTICIPATION,

SUPPORT, INCLUSIVENESS, AND ENJOYMENT

– This philosophy is opposite to conventional international competitions, which stress exclusion and ranking

Gay Athletes and the Gay Games


Older Adults in Sport

Older adults were discouraged from participating in sport due to:1. Developmental theory2. Old Medical practice

Today:– Physical activity = part of an overall healthy lifestyle in persons of all

ages– Sports for older adults = social activities– Older people put more stress on sports being inclusive

The World Masters Games– Participants 27 to 90 years of age– 1st games in 1985 in Toronto– Every four years


Physical Activity and Sport Trends


Heath and Fitness Concerns Will Continue to Increase

Greater emphasis on illness prevention versus treatment– Physical activity will become an integral part of illness

prevention

Wellness movement in North America– Emphasis on involvement in participation sports versus

performance sports

Educational curricula– Aggressive promotion of health and fitness – More emphasis on physical activities that involve lifetime

skills versus performance sports


Groups Seeking Alternative Sports

Rejection of traditional performance sports for alternative sports

Youths will continue to form own sport in order to avoid the constraints of traditional sports

Less attention on commercialization and competition

Maintaining alternative sports as overall participation increases will be a challenge


Spectators and Spectator Sports

More people will choose to watch versus participate in sports leading to:– Increased rates of obesity in North America– Increase in professional athletes’ salaries

Unexpected shifts in interests– Example: more soccer, less baseball

Increasing variation in the sports to watch– Example: alternative sports, fishing channel


Virtual Sports

Television and the Internet will help to shape how sports are imagined, created, and played around the world

More fans in fantasy leagues

More virtual sports in video game format

Less actual physical participation

physical activity & sport issuesphysical activity & sport issues chapter 20 sport books...

Documents