photovoltaics eenrgy genertaion basics
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PhotovoltaicsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Nellis Solar Power Plantat Nellis Air Force Base in the USA. These panels track the sun in one axis.
Photovoltaic SUDI shade is an autonomous and mobile station in France that replenishes energy for electric vehicles using
solar energy.
Solar panels on theInternational Space Station
Photovoltaics (PV) is a method ofgenerating electrical powerby convertingsolar radiationintodirect
currentelectricityusingsemiconductorsthat exhibit thephotovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic power generation
employssolar panelscomposed of a number ofsolar cellscontaining a photovoltaic material. Materials
presently used for photovoltaics includemonocrystalline silicon,polycrystalline silicon,amorphous
silicon,cadmium telluride, andcopper indium gallium selenide/sulfide.[1]Due to the growing demand
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siliconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monocrystalline_siliconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_panelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_generationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Stationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nellis_Solar_Power_Plant 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forrenewable energysources, the manufacturing of solar cells andphotovoltaic arrayshas advanced
considerably in recent years.[2][3][4]
Solar photovoltaics is growing rapidly, albeit from a small base, to a total global capacity of
67,400megawatts(MW) at the end of 2011, representing 0.5% of worldwide electricity demand.[5]The total
power output of the worlds PV capacity run over a calendar year is equal to some 80 billion kWh of electricity.
This is sufficient to cover the annual power supply needs of over 20 million households in the world.[5]More
than 100 countries use solar PV.[6]Installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with
farming and grazing)[7]or built into the roof or walls of a building (building-integrated photovoltaics).
Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and sophistication, the cost of
photovoltaics has declined steadily since the first solar cells were manufactured [8]and the levelised cost of
electricity (LCOE) from PV is competitive with conventional electricity sources in an expanding list of
geographic regions.[9]Net meteringand financial incentives, such as preferentialfeed-in tariffsfor solar-
generated electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries.[10]With current technology,
photovoltaics recoup the energy needed to manufacture them in 1 to 4 years.[11]
Contents
[hide]
1 Solar cells
2 Current developments
3 Economics
4 Applications
o 4.1 Power stations
o 4.2 In buildings
o 4.3 In transport
o 4.4 Standalone devices
o 4.5 Rural electrification
o 4.6 Solar roadways
o 4.7 Solar Power satellites
5 Advantages
6 Disadvantages
7 See also
8 References
[edit]Solar cells
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Solar cells produce electricity directly from sunlight
Average solar irradiance, watts per square metre. Note that this is for a horizontal surface, whereas solar panels are
normally mounted at an angle and receive more energy per unit area. The small black dots show the area of solar panels
needed to generate all of the world's energy using 8% efficient photovoltaics.
Solar cell productions by region[12]
Main article:Solar cell
Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric power by using solar cells to convert energy
from the sun into a flow of electrons. Thephotovoltaic effectrefers to photons of light exciting electrons into a
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higher state of energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for an electric current. The photovoltaic effect
was first observed byAlexandre-Edmond Becquerelin 1839.[13][14]The term photovoltaic denotes the unbiased
operating mode of aphotodiodein which current through the device is entirely due to the transduced light
energy. Virtually all photovoltaic devices are some type of photodiode.
Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sun light, which can be used to power equipment or
torecharge a battery. The first practical application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting satellites and
otherspacecraft, but today the majority ofphotovoltaic modulesare used for grid connected power generation.
In this case aninverteris required to convert the DC to AC. There is a smaller market for off-grid power for
remote dwellings,boats,recreational vehicles, electric cars, roadside emergency telephones,remote sensing,
andcathodic protectionofpipelines.
Photovoltaic power generation employssolar panelscomposed of a number ofsolar cellscontaining a
photovoltaic material. Materials presently used for photovoltaics includemonocrystalline silicon,polycrystalline
silicon,amorphous silicon,cadmium telluride, andcopper indium gallium selenide/sulfide.[1]Due to the growing
demand forrenewable energysources, the manufacturing of solar cells andphotovoltaic arrayshas advanced
considerably in recent years.[2][3][4]
Cells require protection from the environment and are usually packaged tightly behind a glass sheet. When
more power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically connected together to form
photovoltaic modules, or solar panels. A single module is enough to power an emergency telephone, but for a
house or a power plant the modules must be arranged in multiples asarrays.
A significant market has emerged in off-grid locations for solar-power-charged storage-battery based solutions.
These often provide the only electricity available.[15]The first commercial installation of this kind was in 1966 on
Ogami Island in Japan to transitionOgami Lighthousefrom gas torch to fully self-sufficient electrical power.
Due to the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacture of solar cells andphotovoltaic
arrayshas advanced dramatically in recent years.[2][3][4]
Solar photovoltaics is growing rapidly, albeit from a small base, to a total global capacity of
67,400megawatts(MW) at the end of 2011, representing 0.5% of worldwide electricity demand.[5]The total
power output of the worlds PV capacity run over a calendar year is equal to some 80 billion kWh of electricity.
This is sufficient to cover the annual power supply needs of over 20 million households in the world.
[5]
Morethan 100 countries use solar PV.[6]World solar PV capacity (grid-connected) was 7.6 GW in 2007, 16 GW in
2008, 23 GW in 2009, and 40 GW in 2010.[16][17][18]More than 100 countries use solar PV.[6]Installations may be
ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing)[7]or built into the roof or walls of a
building (building-integrated photovoltaics).
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Photovoltaic power capacity is measured as maximum power output under standardized test conditions (STC)
in "Wp" (Watts peak).[19]The actual power output at a particular point in time may be less than or greater than
this standardized, or "rated," value, depending on geographical location, time of day, weather conditions, and
other factors.[20]Solar photovoltaic arraycapacity factorsare typically under 25%, which is lower than many
other industrial sources of electricity.[21]
The EPIA/GreenpeaceAdvanced Scenario shows that by the year 2030, PV systems could be generating
approximately 1.8 TW of electricity around the world. This means that, assuming a serious commitment is
made toenergy efficiency, enough solar power would be produced globally in twenty-five years time to satisfy
the electricity needs of almost 14% of the worlds population.[22]
[edit]Current developments
Map of solar electricity potential in Europe. Germany is the current leader in the use of photovoltaics, even though it has
lowerinsolationlevels than some other parts of Europe.
Photovoltaic panels based oncrystalline siliconmodules are encountering competition in the market by panels
that employthin-film solar cells(CdTe[23]CIGS,[24]amorphous Si,[25]microcrystalline Si), which had been rapidly
evolving and are expected to account for 31 percent of the global installed power by 2013.[26]However,
precipitous drops in prices for polysilicon and their panels in late 2011 have caused some thin-film makers to
exit the market and others to experience severely squeezed profits.[27]Other developments
includecastingwafers instead of sawing,[28]concentrator modules,'Sliver' cells, andcontinuous
printingprocesses.
TheSan Jose-based company Sunpower produces cells that have an energy conversion ratio of 19.5%, well
above the market average of 1218%.[29]The most efficient solar cell so far is a multi-junction concentrator
solar cell with an efficiency of 43.5%[30]produced by theNational Renewable Energy Laboratoryin April 2011.
The highest efficiencies achieved without concentration includeSharp Corporationat 35.8% using a proprietary
triple-junction manufacturing technology in 2009,[31]and Boeing Spectrolab (40.7% also using a triple-layer
design). A March 2010 experimental demonstration of a design by a Caltech group led byHarry Atwaterwhich
has an absorption efficiency of 85% in sunlight and 95% at certain wavelengths is claimed to have near perfect
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quantum efficiency.[32]However, absorption efficiency should not be confused with the sunlight-to-electricity
conversion efficiency.
For best performance, terrestrial PV systems aim to maximize the time they face the sun.Solar
trackersachieve this by moving PV panels to follow the sun. The increase can be by as much as 20% in winter
and by as much as 50% in summer. Static mounted systems can be optimized by analysis of thesun path.
Panels are often set to latitude tilt, an angle equal to the latitude, but performance can be improved by
adjusting the angle for summer or winter. Generally, as with other semiconductor devices, temperatures above
room temperature reduce the performance of photovoltaics.[33]
A number of solar panels may also be mounted vertically above each other in a tower, if thezenith distanceof
theSunis greater than zero, and the tower can be turned horizontically as a whole and each panels
additionally around a horizontical axis. In such a tower the panels can follow exactly the Sun. Such a device
may be described as aladdermounted on a turnable disk. Each step of that ladder is the middleaxisof a
rectangularsolar panel. In case the zenith distance ofthe Sun gets zero, the ladder may be rotated to the
north or the south to avoid that a solar panel produces a shadow on a lower mounted solar panel. Instead of an
exactly vertical tower one can choose a tower with an axis directed to thepolar star, meaning that it is parallel
to the rotation axis of theEarth. In this case the angle between the axis and the Sun is always larger than 66
degrees. During a day it is only necessary to turn the panels around this axis to follow the Sun.
The 2011 European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) report predicted that, "The future of the PV
market remains bright in the EU and the rest of the world," the report said. "Uncertain times are causing
governments everywhere to rethink the future of their energy mix, creating new opportunities for a competitive,
safe and reliable electricity source such as PV."[34]2012 could see the installation of 2030 GW of PV about
the same as in 2011. Unfortunately, the industry's capacity continues to expand, to perhaps as much as
38 GW. The resulting glut of supply has crushed prices and profits.[35]By 2015, 131196 GW of photovoltaic
systems could be installed around the globe.[34]
[edit]Economics
Photovoltaic power
worldwideGWp[5]
2005 5.4
2006 7.0
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2007 9.4
2008 15.7
2009 22.9
2010 39.7
2011 67.4
Year end capacities
The output of a photovoltaic array is a product of the area, the efficiency, and the insolation. Thecapacity
factor, or duty cycle, of photovoltaics is relatively low, typically from 0.10 to 0.30, as insolation ranges, by
latitude and prevailing weather, and is location specific from about 2.5 to 7.5 sun hours/day. Panels are rated
under standard conditions by their output power. The DC output is a product of the rated output times the
number of panels times the insolation times the number of days. The sunlight received by the array is affected
by a combination of tilt, tracking and shading. Tracking increases the yield but also the cost, both installation
and maintenance. A dual axis tracker can increase the effective insolation by roughly 35-40%, while
temperature effects can reduce efficiency by 10%. The AC output is roughly 25% lower due to various losses
including the efficiency of the inverter.[36]For example, for a 4 kW array in Paris, where the average insolation is
3 kWh/m/day, the annual (AC) output would be approximately 4kWx3x365x0.75=3285 kWh,[37]and the
monthly output, from the following chart, would range from 67 kWh in December to 498 kWh in July.[38]The
weather strongly affects the output and from year to year monthly and annual outputs can vary substantially.
Published insolation values are normally 10 year averages. There are many live data sites that can
bemonitored, and compared.[39]
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Source: Apricus[40]
Financial incentives for photovoltaics, such asfeed-in tariffs, have often been offered to electricity consumers
to install and operate solar-electric generating systems. Government has sometimes also offered incentives in
order to encourage the PV industry to achieve theeconomies of scaleneeded to compete where the cost of PV-
generated electricity is above the cost from the existing grid. Such policies are implemented to promote
national or territorialenergy independence,high techjob creation and reduction ofcarbon dioxide
emissionswhich cause global warming. Due to economies of scale solar panels get less costly as people use
and buy more as manufacturers increase production to meet demand, the cost and price is expected to drop
in the years to come.
NRELcompilation of best research solar cell efficiencies from 1976 to 2010
According toShi Zhengrong, in 2012 unsubsidized PV systems already produce electricity in some parts of the
world, more cheaply than coal and gas-fired power plants.[41][42]As PV system prices decline it is inevitable that
subsidies will end. "Rapid decline or outright disappearance has already been seen in all the major solar
markets except China and India".[42]
As of 2011, the price of PV modules per MW has fallen by 60 percent since the summer of 2008, according to
Bloomberg New Energy Finance estimates, putting solar power for the first time on a competitive footing with
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the retail price of electricity in a number of sunny countries. There has been fierce competition in the supply
chain, and further improvements in the levelised cost of energy for solar lie ahead, posing a growing threat to
the dominance of fossil fuel generation sources in the next few years.[43]As time progresses, renewable energy
technologies generally get cheaper,[44][45]while fossil fuels generally get more expensive:
The less solar power costs, the more favorably it compares to conventional power, and the more attractive it
becomes to utilities and energy users around the globe. Utility-scale solar power can now be delivered in
California at prices well below $100/MWh ($0.10/kWh) less than most other peak generators, even those
running on low-cost natural gas. Lower solar module costs also stimulate demand from consumer markets
where the cost of solar compares very favorably to retail electric rates.[46]
As of 2011, the cost of PV has fallen well below that of nuclear power and is set to fall further. The average
retail price of solar cells as monitored by the Solarbuzz group fell from $3.50/watt to $2.43/watt over the course
of 2011, and a decline to prices below $2.00/watt seems inevitable:[47]
For large-scale installations, prices below $1.00/watt are common. In some locations, PV has reached grid
parity, the cost at which it is competitive with coal or gas-fired generation. Photovoltaic power is also generated
during a time of day that is close to peak demand (precedes it). More generally, it is now evident that, given a
carbon price of $50/ton, which would raise the price of coal-fired power by 5c/kWh, solar PV will be cost-
competitive in most locations. The declining price of PV has been reflected in rapidly growing installations,
totaling about 23 GW in 2011. Although some consolidation is likely in 2012, as firms try to restore profitability,
strong growth seems likely to continue for the rest of the decade. Already, by one estimate, total investment in
renewables for 2011 exceeded investment in carbon-based electricity generation.[47]
[edit]Applications
80 MWOkhotnykovo Solar Parkin Ukraine.
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PresidentBarack Obamaspeaks at theDeSoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center.
[edit]Power stations
Main articles:Solar parks and solar farmsandList of photovoltaic power stations
Many solarphotovoltaic power stationshave been built, mainly in Europe.[48]As of December 2011, the largest
photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are theGolmud Solar Park(China, 200 MW),Sarnia Photovoltaic
Power Plant(Canada, 97 MW),Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic Power Station(Italy, 84.2 MW),FinsterwaldeSolar Park(Germany, 80.7 MW),Okhotnykovo Solar Park(Ukraine, 80 MW),Lieberose Photovoltaic
Park(Germany, 71.8 MW),Rovigo Photovoltaic Power Plant(Italy, 70 MW),Olmedilla Photovoltaic
Park(Spain, 60 MW), and theStrasskirchen Solar Park(Germany, 54 MW).[48]
There are also many large plants under construction. TheDesert Sunlight Solar Farmunder construction
inRiverside County, CaliforniaandTopaz Solar Farmbeing built inSan Luis Obispo County, Californiaare both
550MWsolar parksthat will use thin-film solarphotovoltaicmodules made byFirst Solar.[49]TheBlythe Solar
Power Projectis a 500 MW photovoltaic station under construction inRiverside County, California. TheAgua
Caliente Solar Projectis a 290 megawatt photovoltaic solar generating facility being built inYuma County,
Arizona. TheCalifornia Valley Solar Ranch(CVSR) is a 250megawatt(MW)solar photovoltaicpower plant,
which is being built bySunPowerin theCarrizo Plain, northeast ofCalifornia Valley.[50]The 230 MWAntelope
Valley Solar Ranchis aFirst Solarphotovoltaic project which is under construction in the Antelope Valley area
of the Western Mojave Desert, and due to be completed in 2013.[51]TheMesquite Solar projectis a photovoltaic
solar power plant being built inArlington,Maricopa County,Arizona, owned bySempra Generation.[52]Phase 1
will have anameplate capacityof 150megawatts.[53]
Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use innovative tracking systems that follow the
sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than conventional fixed-mounted systems. There
are no fuel costs or emissions during operation of the power stations.
[edit]In buildings
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Photovoltaic wall at MNACTEC Terrassa in Spain
Main article:List of rooftop photovoltaic installations
Photovoltaic arrays are often associated with buildings: either integrated into them, mounted on them or
mounted nearby on the ground.
Arrays are most often retrofitted into existing buildings, usually mounted on top of the existing roof structure or
on the existing walls. Alternatively, an array can be located separately from the building but connected by cable
to supply power for the building. In 2010, more than four-fifths of the 9,000 MW of solar PV operating in
Germany were installed on rooftops.[54]Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are increasingly incorporated
into new domestic and industrial buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power.[55]Typically, an
array is incorporated into the roof or walls of a building. Roof tiles with integrated PV cells are also common. A
2011 study using thermal imaging has shown that solar panels, provided there is an open gap in which air can
circulate between them and the roof, provide a passive cooling effect on buildings during the day and also keep
accumulated heat in at night.[56]
The power output of photovoltaic systems for installation in buildings is usually described inkilowatt-peakunits
(kWp).
[edit]In transport
Main article:Photovoltaics in transport
PV has traditionally been used for electric power in space. PV is rarely used to provide motive power in
transport applications, but is being used increasingly to provide auxiliary power in boats and cars. A self -
containedsolar vehiclewould have limited power and low utility, but asolar-charged vehiclewould allow use of
solar power for transportation. Solar-powered cars have been demonstrated.[57]
[edit]Standalone devices
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Solar parking paystation.
Until a decade or so ago, PV was used frequently to power calculators and novelty devices. Improvements in
integrated circuits and low powerliquid crystal displaysmake it possible to power such devices for several years
between battery changes, making PV use less common. In contrast, solar powered remote fixed devices have
seen increasing use recently in locations where significant connection cost makes grid power prohibitively
expensive. Such applications include water pumps,[58]parking meters,[59][60]emergency telephones,[61]trash
compactors,[62]temporary traffic signs, and remote guard posts and signals.
[edit]Rural electrification
Unlike the past decade, which saw solar solutions purchased mainly by international donors, it is now the locals
who are increasingly opening their wallets to make the switch from their traditional energy means. That is
because solar products prices in recent years have declined to become cheaper than kerosene and batteries.
In Cambodia, for example, villagers can buy a solar lantern at US$25 and use it for years without any extra
costs, where their previous spending on kerosene for lighting was about $2.5 per month, or $30 per year. In
Kenya a solar kit that provides bright light or powers a radio or cell phone costs under $30 at retail stores. By
switching to this kit Kenyans can save $120 per year on kerosene lighting, radio batteries and cell phone
recharging fees.[63]
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Developing countries where many villages are often more than f ive kilometers away from grid power are
increasingly using photovoltaics. In remote locations in India a rural lighting program has been providing solar
powered LED lighting to replace kerosene lamps. The solar powered lamps were sold at about the cost of a
few months' supply of kerosene.[64][65]Cuba is working to provide solar power for areas that are off
grid.[66]These are areas where the social costs and benefits offer an excellent case for going solar though the
lack of profitability could relegate such endeavors to humanitarian goals.
[edit]Solar roadways
The 104kW solar highway along the interchange ofInterstate 5andInterstate 205nearTualatin, Oregonin December 2008.
Main article:Solar roadway
In December 2008, the Oregon Department of Transportation placed in service the nations first solar
photovoltaic system in a U.S. highway right-of-way. The 104-kilowatt (kW) array produces enough electricity to
offset approximately one-third of the electricity needed to light the Interstate highway interchange where it is
located.[67]
A 45 mi (72 km) section of roadway in Idaho is being used to test the possibility of installing solar panels into
the road surface, as roads are generally unobstructed to the sun and represent about the percentage of land
area needed to replace other energy sources with solar power.[68]
[edit]Solar Power satellites
Main article:Solar power satellite
Space-based solar power (SBSP) is the concept of collecting solar power inspacefor use onEarth. It has
been in research since the early 1970s. SBSP would differ from current solar collection methods in that the
means used to collect energy would reside on anorbitingsatelliteinstead of on Earth's surface. Some
projected benefits of such a system are: higher collection rate, longer collection period, and elimination
ofweatherconcerns. SBSP also introduces several new hurdles, primarily the problem of transmitting energy
from orbit to Earth's surface for use.
[edit]Advantages
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The 89PWof sunlight reaching the Earth's surface is plentiful almost 6,000 times more than the 15 TW
equivalent of average power consumed by humans.[69]Additionally, solar electric generation has the highest
power density (global mean of 170 W/m) among renewable energies.[69]
Solar power is pollution-free during use. Production end-wastes and emissions are manageable using existing
pollution controls. End-of-use recycling technologies are under development[70]and policies are being
produced that encourage recycling from producers.[71]
PV installations can operate for many years with little maintenance or intervention after their initial set-up, so
after the initialcapital costof building any solar power plant,operating costsare extremely low compared to
existing power technologies.
Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing transmission/distribution losses (transmission
losses in the US were approximately 7.2% in 1995).[72]
Compared to fossil and nuclear energy sources, very little research money has been invested in the
development of solar cells, so there is considerable room for improvement. Nevertheless, experimentalhigh
efficiency solar cellsalready have efficiencies of over 40% in case of concentrating photovoltaic cells[73]and
efficiencies are rapidly rising while mass-production costs are rapidly falling.[74]
[edit]Disadvantages
In some states of the United States of America, much of the investment in a home-mounted system may be lost
if the home-owner moves and the buyer puts less value on the system than the seller. The city of Berkeley
developed an innovative financing method to remove this limitation, by adding a tax assessment that is
transferred with the home to pay for the solar panels.[75]Now known asPACE, Property Assessed Clean
Energy, 28 U.S. states have duplicated this solution.[76]
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