•PHILOSOPHY OF MAN

•Modern philosophy

•Ancient Greek philosophy

•Contemporary Philosopy

PHILOSOPHY OF

MAN

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

PHILOSOPHY

from Greek φιλοσοφία, philosophia, literally “love of wisdom”

is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning 

matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, 

and language

PHILOSOPHY

Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument and 

systematic presentation.

Classic philosophical questions include: Is it possible to know anything and to prove it?

[ What is most real? 

However, philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as: Is there a best way to live? Is it better to be just or unjust (if one can get away with it)?

Do humans have free will?

PHILOSOPHY

Historically, "philosophy" encompassed any body of knowledge.[14] From the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, 

"natural philosophy“ encompassed  astronomy,  medicine and physics

For example, Newton's 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics. In the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize.

PHILOSOPHY

In the modern era, some investigations that were

traditionally part of philosophy became separate academic

disciplines, including psychology, sociology, 

linguistics and economics.

PHILOSOPHY

Other investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained 

part of philosophy.

For example, Is beauty objective or subjective?

Are there many scientific methods or just one?Is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless 

fantasy?

PHILOSOPHY

Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include :

metaphysics ("concerned with the fundamental nature of reality and being")

epistemology (about the "nature and grounds of knowledge [and]...its limits and validity),

ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science and the history of Western philosophy.

PHILOSOPHY

Since the 20th century professional philosophers contribute to society primarily 

as professors, researchers and writers. However, many of those who study 

philosophy in undergraduate or graduate programs contribute in the fields of law, journalism, politics, religion, science, 

business and various art and entertainment activities

PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy was traditionally divided into three major branches:

Natural philosophy

("physics") was the study of the physical world (physis, lit: nature);

("ethics") was the study of goodness, right and wrong, beauty, justice and 

virtue (ethos, lit: custom);

Moral philosophy

 

Metaphysical

philosophy

("logos") was the study of existence,causation, God, logic, forms and other abstract objects ("meta-physika" lit: "what comes after physics")

This division is not obsolete but has changed.PHILOSOPHY Natural

philosophy

has split into the various natural sciences, 

cosmology

astronomy

biology

chemistry

physics

PHILOSOPHY

This division is not obsolete but has changed.Moral

philosophy has birthed 

value theory 

Ethics

Aesthetics

political philosophy

the social sciences 

PHILOSOPHY

This division is not obsolete but has changed.

Metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as

logic

Mathematics

philosophy of science

Epistemology

cosmology

MetaphysicsEpistemologyValue theoryLogic, science and mathematics

Metaphysics

Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as

existence

Time

Objects

And their properties

wholes and their parts

Events

processes and causation

and the relationship between mind and body

Metaphysics

Metaphysics includes 

COSMOLOGY-the study of the world in its 

entirety

ONTOLOGY, -the study of being.

A major point of debate revolves between:

Metaphysics

realism•which holds that there are entities that exist independently of their mental perception

idealism

•which holds that reality is mentally constructed or otherwise immaterial

Metaphysics

 Metaphysics deals with the topic of identity.

Essence • is the set of attributes that make an 

object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity 

accident •  is a property that the object has, without which the object can still retain its identity.

Particulars  • are objects that are said to exist in space and time

abstract objects

• such as numbers

universals

• which are properties held by multiple particulars, such as redness or a gender.

Epistemology

Epistemology

is the study of knowledge (Greek 

episteme)

Epistemology

Epistemologists study the putative sources of 

knowledge, including intuition,

a priori reason

Memory

perceptual knowledge

self-knowledge

and testimony

Epistemology Epistemologists

also ask: 

What is truth? 

Is knowledge justified true 

belief? 

Are any beliefs   justified? 

Epistemology Putative knowledge includes 

propositional knowledge

(knowledge that something is the case), 

know-how 

(knowledge of how to do something) 

acquaintance 

(familiarity with someone or something). 

Epistemology

Skepticism is the position which doubts claims to knowledge.

The regress argument, • a

fundamental problem in epistemology, occurs when, in order to completely prove any statement, its justification itself needs to be supported by another justification.

This chain can go on forever, called infinitism

Epistemology

Rationalism

 

•is the emphasis on reasoning as a source of knowledge. •It is associated with a priori knowledge, which is independent of experience, such as math and logical deduction

Empiricism

 

• is the emphasis on observational evidence via sensory experience as the source of knowledge.

Among the numerous topics within metaphysics and epistemology, broadly construed are:

Philosophy of language•  explore

s the nature, the origins and the use of language

Philosophy of mind•  explores

the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body. It is typified by disputes between dualism and materialism. In recent years this branch has become related to cognitive science

Philosophy of religion•  explores

questions that arise in connection with religions, including the soul, the afterlife, God, religious experience, analysis of religious vocabulary and texts and the relationship of religion and     science.

Philosophy of human nature -analyzes the unique characteri

stics of human beings, such as

rationality, politics

and culture

Metaphilosophy -explores

the aims of philosophy,

its boundaries

and its methods.

Value theory

Value theory (or axiology)

is the major branch of philosophy that 

addresses topics such asgoodness 

Beauty

and justice

includes

Et

hics

aesthetics

political

philosophy

feminist philosophy

philosophy of law

Value theory

what is good and bad conduct

Right and wrong values

good and evil

Studies and

considers

how to live a good life

identifying standards of morality. Its

primary investigations

include

meta-investigations about whether a best way to live or related standards exists

ETHICS, OR "MORAL PHILOSOPHY"

Value theory

ETHICS, OR "MORAL PHILOSOPHY"

The main branches of ethics are 

normative ethics,  meta-ethics  and applied ethics.

Value theory

ETHICS, OR "MORAL PHILOSOPHY"

• where actions are judged by the potential results of the act,

consequentialism,

A major point of debate revolves around

Value theory

Aesthetics

is the "critical reflection on art, culture and nature

It addresses the nature of art, beauty and taste, enjoyment, emotional values, perception and with the creation and appreciation of beauty

It is more precisely defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste

It divides into art theory, literary theory, film theory and music theory

Aesthetics

Value theory

Political philosophy

Political philosophy 

the study of government and the relationship of individuals (or families

and clans) to communities including the state

It includes questions about justice, law,

property and the rights and obligations of the

citizen.

Politics and ethics are traditionally linked

subjects, as both discuss the question of what how

people should live together

Value theory

Other branches of value theory:

Philosophy of law(often called jurisprudence) explores the varying theories explaining the

nature and interpretation of laws.

Philosophy of education analyzes the definition and content of education, as

well as the goals and challenges of educators.

Feminist philosophy explores questions surrounding gender, sexuality and the body including the nature of

feminism itself as a social and philosophical movement.

Philosophy of sport analyzes sports, games and other forms of play as sociological and

uniquely human activities.

Value theory

Richard Feynman argued that the philosophy of a topic is irrelevant to its primary study, saying that "philosophy of science is as useful to scientists as ornithology is to birds."

Curtis White, by contrast, argued that philosophical tools are essential to humanities, sciences and social sciences.

[

The topics of philosophy of science are numbers, symbols and the formal methods of reasoning as employed in the social sciences and natural sciences.

Logic, science

and mathemati

cs

Value theory

Logic is the study of reasoning and argument.

An argument is "a connected series of statements intended to establish a proposition”

The connected series of statements are "premises" and the proposition is the conclusion

For example:• A

ll humans are mortal. (premise)

• Socrates is a human. (premise)

• Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)

Value theory

Deductive reasoning is when, given certain premises, conclusions are unavoidably implied.

Rules of inference are used to infer conclusions such as, modus ponens, where given “A” and “If A then B”, then “Bmust be concluded.”

Because sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences,

social sciences and humanities disciplines, logic became a formal science.

Sub-fields include mathematical logic, philosophical logic, Modal logic, computational logic and non-classical logics

END OFPHILOSOPHY

OF MAN

Modern Philosoph

y

Introduction to Modern Philosophy

Rationalism Empi

ricism

Political philosophy

Idealism

Existentialism Phen

omenology

Pragmatism

Analytic philosophy

a branch of philosophy

that originated in Western Europe in the 17th century, and

is now common

worldwide

It is not a specific doctrine or

school (and thus should not be confused with Modernism),

although there are certain

assumptions common to much of it, which helps to distinguish it

from earlier philosophy

Modern Philosophy

Modern Philosophy

The 17th and early 20th centuries

roughly mark the beginning and the end of modern

philosophy.

How much if any of the Renaissance

should be included is a matter for

dispute; likewise modernity may or

may not have ended in the

twentieth century and been replaced by postmodernity.

How one decides these questions will

determine the scope of one's use of

"modern philosophy."

Modern Philosophy

Rationalism

Modern philosoph

y traditionally begins with 

René Descartes and his dictum "I think, therefore I am

"

In the early seventeenth century the bulk of philosophy 

was dominated 

by Scholasticism, written by theologians 

and drawing 

upon Plato, Aristotle, and early Church writings.

Descartes argued that 

many predomina

nt Scholastic metaphysical doctrines 

were meaningless or false.

In short, he proposed to begin 

philosophy from 

scratch. In his most important work, 

Meditations on First Philosophy, 

he attempts just this, over six brief 

essays. 

He tries to set aside as much as he possibly can of all his

beliefs, to determine

what if anything he

knows for certain. 

He finds that he can doubt

nearly everything:

the reality of physical

objects, God, his memories,

history, science, even mathematics, but he cannot doubt that he

is, in fact, doubting

He knows what he is thinking

about, even if it is not

true, and he knows that he is there

thinking about it.

. From this basis he builds his

knowledge back up again. He

finds that some of the ideas he has could not

have originated from him alone,

but only from God; he proves

that God exists.

. He then demonstrates

that God would not allow him to be systematically deceived about everything; in

essence, he vindicates ordinary

methods of science and

reasoning, as fallible but not

false.

Rationalists

René Descartes

Baruch Spinoza

Gottfried Leibniz

Rationalists

Modern Philosophy

René Descartes

best known philosophical statement is "Cogito ergo sum" (French: Je pense, donc je suis; I think, therefore I am)

all Philosophy is like a tree, of which Metaphysics is the root, Physics the trunk, and all the other sciences the

branches that grow out of this trunk, which are reduced to three principals, namely, Medicine, Mechanics, and

Ethics.

By the science of Morals, I understand the highest and most perfect which,

presupposing an entire knowledge of the other sciences, is the last degree of

wisdom.

ethics was a science, the highest and most perfect of them.

Like the rest of the sciences, ethics had its roots in metaphysics.[45] In this way he argues for the existence of God, investigates the place of man in nature, formulates the theory

of mind-body dualism, and defends free will.

French philosopher, mathematician,

and scientist

Dubbed the father of modern western

philosophy

Rationalists

Modern Philosophy

Baruch Spinoza

born Benedito de Espinosa

Dutch philosopher of Sephardi/Portuguese

origin

argued that God exists and is abstract and impersonal.

Spinoza's view of God is what Charles Hartshorne describes as Classical Pantheism

considered one of the great rationalists of

17th-century philosophy

″the infant believes that it is by free will that it seeks the breast; the angry boy believes that by

free will he wishes vengeance; the timid man thinks it is with free will he seeks flight; the

drunkard believes that by a free command of his mind he speaks the things which when sober he wishes he had left unsaid. … All believe that they speak by a free command of the mind, whilst, in

truth, they have no power to restrain the impulse which they have to speak.″

morality and ethical judgement like choice is predicated on an illusion.

″Blame″ and ″Praise″ are non existent human ideals only fathomable in the mind because we are so acclimatized to human consciousness interlinking with our experience that

we have a false ideal of choice predicated upon this.

Rationalists

Modern Philosophy

developed differential and integral calculus independently of Isaac Newton

German polymath and philosopher who occupies a

prominent place in the history of mathematics and the

history of philosophy

In philosophy, Leibniz is most noted for his optimism, i.e. his conclusion that our Universe is, in a restricted sense, the

best possible one that God could have created, an idea that was often lampooned by others such as Voltaire. Gottfried Wilhelm (von) Leibniz

along with René Descartesand Baruch Spinoza, was one of the three great 17th-century advocates of rationalism.

anticipated modern logic and analytic philosophy

wrote works on philosophy, politics, law, ethics, theology, history, and philology

French: Godefroi Guillaume Leibnitz

made major contributions to physics and technology, and anticipated notions that

surfaced much later in philosophy, probability theory, biology, medicine, geology, psychology, linguistics, and computer science

his philosophy also looks back to the scholastic tradition, in which conclusions are produced by applying reason to first principles or prior definitions rather than to empirical evidence.

Rationalists

Modern Philosophy

EmpiricismEmpiricism is a theory of knowledge which opposes other theories of knowledge, such

as rationalism, idealism and historicism.

Empiricism asserts that knowledge comes (only or

primarily) via sensory experience as opposed to

rationalism, which asserts that knowledge comes (also) from

pure thinking. 

Both empiricism and rationalism are individualist theories of

knowledge, whereas historicism is a social epistemology. 

While historicism also acknowledges the role of experience, it differs from empiricism by

assuming that sensory data cannot be understood without considering the

historical and cultural circumstances in which observations are made.

Empiricism should not be mixed up with empirical research because different epistemologies should be considered

competing views on how best to do studies, and there is near consensus among

researchers that studies should be empirical

Today empiricism should therefore be understood as one among competing ideals of getting knowledge or how to do studies.

As such empiricism is first and foremost characterized by the ideal to let

observational data "speak for themselves", while the competing views are opposed to

this ideal

Modern Philosophy

EmpiricismThe term empiricism should thus not just be understood in relation to how this term has been used in

the history of philosophy

It should also be constructed in a way which makes it possible to distinguish empiricism among

other epistemological positions in contemporary science and

scholarship.

In other words: Empiricism as a concept has to be constructed along with other

concepts, which together make it possible to make important

discriminations between different ideals underlying contemporary

science.

Empiricism is one of several competing views that predominate in the study of human knowledge,

known as epistemology

Empiricism emphasizes the role of experience and evidence,

especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas, over the

notion of innate ideas or tradition[2]

in contrast to, for example, rationalism which relies upon

reason and can incorporate innate knowledge.

Modern Philosophy

Empiricist

s

John Locke

George Berkeley

David Hume

Empiricists

Modern Philosophy

Empiricists

John Locke

following the tradition of Sir Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract

theory

Considered one of the first of the British empiricists

most influential of Enlightenment thinkers

and commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism

His work greatly affected the development of epistemology and political philosophy

advocated governmental separation of powers and believed that revolution is not only a right but an

obligation in some circumstances. In a natural state all people were equal and

independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend his "Life, health, Liberty, or Possessions".

believed that human nature allowed people to be selfish. believed that human nature is characterised by reason

and tolerance. Locke's political theory was founded on social contract

theory. he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience

derived from sense perceptionpostulated that, at birth, the mind was a blank slate or

tabula rasafirst to define the self through a continuity of consciousness.

Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as Hume, Rousseau, and Kant

English philosopher and physician

Modern Philosophy

Empiricist

s

George Berkeley

Empiricist

s

This theory denies the existence of material substance and instead

contends that familiar objects like tables and chairs are only ideas in the

minds of perceivers, and as a result cannot exist without being perceived

also known for his critique of abstraction, an important premise in his argument for immaterialism.

The tract A Discource on Passive Obedience (1712) is "Berkeley's main contribution to moral and political

philosophy.

Berkeley defends this thesis with a deductive proof stemming from the laws of nature. First, he establishes that because God is

perfectly good, the end to which he commands humans must also be good, and that end must not benefit just one person, but the

entire human race. Because these commands—or ‘laws—if practiced, would lead to the general fitness of humankind, it follows that they can be discovered by the right reason—for

example, the law to never resist supreme power can be derived from reason because this law is “the only thing that stands

between us and total disorder”.Thus, these laws can be called the laws of nature, because they are derived from God—the creator of nature himself. “These laws of nature include duties never to resist

the supreme power, lie under oath…or do evil so that good may come of it.”

Irish philosopher whose primary achievement was the

advancement of a theory he called "immaterialism" (later

referred to as "subjective idealism" by others)

known as Bishop Berkeley (Bishop of Cloyne)

make exceptions to this sweeping moral statement, stating that we need not observe precepts of “usurpers or even madmen”[ and that people can obey different

supreme authorities if there are more than one claims to the highest authority

In A Discourse on Passive Obedience, Berkeley defends the thesis that people have “a moral duty to observe the negative

precepts (prohibitions) of the law, including the duty not to resist the execution of punishment

Modern Philosophy

Empiricist

s

Empiricist

s

David Hume

"the mind itself, far from being an independent power, is simply 'a bundle of perceptions' without unity or cohesive quality."

best known today for his highly influential system of radical philosophical empiricism, skepticism,

and naturalism.

Scottish philosopher, historian, economist,

and essayist,

(born David Home)

The self is nothing but a bundle of experiences linked by the relations of causation and resemblance; or, more accurately, that the empirically warranted idea of the self is just the idea of such a

bundle. not arguing for a bundle theory, which is a form of reductionism, but rather for an eliminative view of the self. That is, rather than

reducing the self to a bundle of perceptions, Hume is rejecting the idea of the self altogether. On this interpretation, Hume is

proposing a "no-self theory" and thus has much in common with Buddhist thought.

“Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them.”[87]

"a power of acting or not acting, according to the determinations of the will"

"moral decisions are grounded in moral sentiment." It is not knowing that governs ethical actions, but feelings.[89] Arguing that reason cannot be behind morality, he wrote:Morals excite passions, and produce or prevent actions. Reason itself is utterly impotent in this particular. The rules of morality, therefore, are not conclusions of our reason

Modern Philosophy

Political philosoph

y is the study of

such topics as

Politics

Liberty

Justice

Property

rightsLaw

the enforcement

of a legal code by authority

what rights and

freedoms it should

protect and why

what form it should take and

why

what the law is

what duties citizens owe to

a legitimate government, if any, and when

it may be legitimately

overthrown—if ever.

Political philosophy

Political philosophers

Thomas HobbesJohn LockeMontesquieuJean-Jacques RousseauKarl MarxFriedrich EngelsJohn Stuart MillJeremy BenthamJames Mill

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Thomas Hobbes

of Malmesbury

English

philosopher

best known

today for his work

on political philosophy

His 1651 book

Leviathan established

social contract

theory, the foundation

of most later Western political

philosophy

one of the founders of

modern political philosophy and political science

Hobbes also

developed some of the fundament

als of European

liberal thought

:

the right of

the individ

ual; the

natural equality of all

men

the artificial

character of the

political order

(which led to the later distinction between

civil society and the state);

the view that all

legitimate political power

must be "representa

tive" and based on

the consent of the

people;

and a liberal

interpretation of law

which leaves

people free to do

whatever the law

does not explicitly

forbid

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

John Lockemost

influential of Enlightenment thinkers and

commonly known as the

"Father of Liberalism

Considered one of the first of the British empiricists

Locke's political theory was founded on

social contract theory.

postulated that, at birth,

the mind was a blank slate or

tabula rasa he maintained that we are born

without innate ideas, and that knowledge is

instead determined only by experience derived from sense

perception

Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the

origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring

prominently in the work of later

philosophers such as Hume, Rousseau, and

Kantadvocated governmental

separation of powers and believed that revolution is not

only a right but an obligation in some

circumstances.

believed that human nature

allowed people to be selfish.

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Montesquieu

Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de

La Brède et de Montesquieu

French lawyer, man of letters, and

political philosopher who lived during

the Age of Enlightenment

He is famous for his articulation of the

theory of separation of powers, which is implemented in many constitutions

throughout the world.

He is also known for doing more than any

other author to secure the place of the word

despotism in the political lexicon

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

The first man who, having fenced in a piece of land, said

'This is mine'

“Beware of listening to this

impostor”

you are undone if you once forget that the fruits of the earth

belong to us all, and the earth itself to nobody.

looked to a hypothetical

State of Nature as a normative guide.

"uncorrupted morals" prevail in

the "state of nature"

"...Nothing is so gentle as man in his primitive state, when placed by

nature at an equal distance from the

stupidity of brutes and the fatal enlightenment

of civil man".

by joining together into civil society through the

social contract and abandoning their claims

of natural right, individuals can both preserve themselves

and remain free.

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Karl Marx

Marx's theories about society, economics and politics—collectively understood as Marxism

"the first great user of critical method in social sciences"

He criticised speculative philosophy, equating metaphysics with ideology

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Friedrich Engels

German philosoph

er

social scientist

journalist businessman

founded Marxist theory

together with

Karl Marx

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

John Stuart Mill

English philoso

pher

political

economistand

civil servan

t.

most influential thinkers

in the history of liberalism

contributed widely

to social theory

, political theory

and political economy

"the most influential

English-speaking

philosopher of the

nineteenth century."

a proponen

t of utilitarianism

, contributed significantly

to the theory of

the scientific method

first Member of Parliament to call

for women's suffrage

believed that

"equality of

taxation" meant "

equality of sacrifice

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Jeremy Bentham English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer

regarded as the founder of modern utilitarianismdefined as the "fundamental axiom" of his philosophy the principle that "it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and wrong"

a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law, and a political radical whose ideas influenced the development of welfarismadvocated individual and economic freedom, the separation of church and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, the right to divorce, and the decriminalising of homosexual actscalled for the abolition of slavery, the abolition of the death penalty, and the abolition of physical punishment, including that of children

become known in recent years as an early advocate of animal rights

in favour of the extension of individual legal rights, he opposed the idea of natural law and natural rights, calling them "nonsense upon stilts"

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

British historian, economist, political theorist, and philosopher.

is counted among the founders of Ricardian school and was the father of John Stuart Mill, the philosopher of liberalism

His influential History of British India contains a complete denunciation and rejection of Indian culture and civilisation.

He divided Indian history into three parts: Hindu, Muslim and British.

James Mill (born James

Milne)

Modern Philosophy

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Idealist philosophersImmanuel KantJohann Gottlieb FichteFriedrich Wilhelm Joseph SchellingGeorg Wilhelm Friedrich HegelArthur SchopenhauerFrancis Herbert Bradley

Modern Philosophy

Idealism

Immanuel Kant

• German philosopher who is considered the central figure of modern philosophy

Kant argue

d

• that the human mind creates the structure of human experience,

• that reason is the source of morality,

• that aesthetics arises from a faculty of disinterested judgment,

• that space and time are forms of our sensibility,

• and that the world as it is "in-itself" is unknowable

beliefs

continue to

have a

major

influence on

contemporar

y philosoph

y, especially the

fields of

• metaphysics,

• epistemology,

• ethics,

• political theory,

• and aesthetics

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Idealism

Idea of freedom

•"everything that is possible

through freedom"

Categories of freedom

• (i) to be free,• (ii) to be understood

as free and• (iii) to be morally

evaluated.

In the chapter "Analytic of the

Beautiful" of the Critique of

Judgment

• Kant states that beauty is not a property of an artwork or natural phenomenon, but is instead a consciousness of the pleasure that attends the 'free play' of the imagination and the understanding. Even though it appears that we are using reason to decide what is beautiful, the judgment is not a cognitive judgment,"and is consequently not logical, but aesthetical"

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Idealism

Johann Gottlieb Fichte

German philosopher

,

became a founding

figure of the philosophical

movement known as

German idealismappreciate

Fichte as an important

philosopher in his own right

due to his original

insights into the nature of

self-consciousness

or self-awareness

also the originator of

thesis–antithesis–synthesis

(Thesis–Antithesis–

Synthesis),[4] an idea that is often

erroneously attributed to

Hegel

Fichte was motivated by the problem

of subjectivity and

consciousness

has a reputation as

one of the fathers of

German nationalism

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Idealism

Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling

German philosopherStandard histories of philosophy make him the

midpoint in the development of German idealism

Naturphilosophie

is to exhibit the ideal as springing from the real.

The change which experience brings before us leads to the conception of duality, the polar opposition through

which nature expresses itself.

The dynamical series of stages in nature are matter, as the equilibrium of the fundamental

expansive and contractive forces; light, with its subordinate processes (magnetism, electricity, and chemical

action);

organism, with its component phases of reproduction, irritability and sensibility.

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Idealism

Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling Quotations

"Nature is visible Spirit; Spirit is invisible Nature." (Ideen, "Introduction")

"History as a whole is a progressive, gradually self-disclosing revelation of the Absolute." (System of Transcendental Idealism, 1800)

"Has creation a final goal? And if so, why was it not reached at once? Why was the consummation not realized from the beginning? To these questions there is but one answer: Because God is Life, and not merely Being."

"Only he who has tasted freedom can feel the desire to make over everything in its image, to spread it throughout the whole universe."

"As there is nothing before or outside of God he must contain within himself the ground of his existence. All philosophies say this, but they speak of this ground as a mere concept without making it something real and actual."

"God then has no beginning only insofar as there is no beginning of his beginning. The beginning in God is eternal beginning, that is, such a one as was beginning from all eternity, and still is, and also never ceases to be beginning."

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Idealism

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich

Hegel

German philosopher

and an important figure of

German idealism

he preserves

Plato's cornerstones of the

ontological

implications for self-determina

tion:ethical

reasoning

, the soul's pinnacle

in the hierarchy

of nature,. the order

of the cosmos,

and an assumptio

n with reasoned

arguments for a

prime mover

"Mind" and

"Spirit" are the

common English

translations of

Hegel's use of the German "

Geist”

Elements of the Philosophy of Right

, section 258

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Idealism

Arthur Schopenhauer• G

erman philosopher

• best known for his 1818 work The World as Will and Representation

• developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system that has been described as an exemplary manifestation of philosophical pessimism, rejecting the contemporaneous post-Kantian philosophies of German idealism

first thinkers in Western philosophy to share and affirm significant tenets of Eastern philosophy• E

instein paraphrased his views as follows: "Man can indeed do what he wants, but he cannot will what he wants."

• Fichtean principle of idealism: "The world is for a subject."

human desiring, "willing," and craving cause suffering or pain. A temporary way to escape this pain is through aesthetic contemplation (a method comparable to Zapffe's "Sublimation"). • "

Schopenhauer thought that music was the only art that did not merely copy ideas, but actually embodied the will itself."

• personal experience of an extremely great suffering that leads to loss of the will to live; or

• knowledge of the essential nature of life in the world through observation of the suffering of other people.

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Idealism

Francis

Herbert

Bradley

British idealist

philosopher

important work

was Appearance and Reality

rejected the

utilitarian

and empiricist trends

in English

philosophy

leading member of the

philosophical movement known

as British idealism

,

addressed the central

question of "Why should I

be moral?"

opposed

individualism

defending the view of self and morality

as essentially social

founded on the

need to cultivate

our ideal

"good self" in

opposition to our

"bad self".

acknowledged that

society could not be

the source of our moral life, of

our quest to realise

our ideal self.

made the best of this

admission in

suggesting[7] that the ideal self can

be realised through followin

g religion

Modern Philosophy Existentialis

m

considered to be the

philosophical and cultural movement which holds

that the starting point

of philosophical thinking must

be the individual

and the experiences

of the individual

existentialists hold that

moral thinking and

scientific thinking

together do not suffice to understand

human existence, and,

therefore, a further set of

categories, governed by the norm of

authenticity, is necessary to understand

human existence.

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Søren Kierkegaard

Friedrich Nietzsche

Jean-Paul Sartre

Simone de Beauvoir

Karl Jaspers

Gabriel Marcel

Martin Heidegger

Existential philosophers

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard 

Danish philosopher, theologian, poet, social critic and religious author who is widely considered to be the

first existentialist philosopher• Much of his philosophical

work deals with the issues of how one lives as a

"single individual"• giving priority to concrete

human reality over abstract thinking and highlighting

the importance of personal choice and commitment

He was against literary critics who defined idealist intellectuals and

philosophers of his time.• key ideas include the concept

of "Truth as Subjectivity", the knight of faith, the

recollection and repetition dichotomy

, angst, the infinite qualitative distinction,

faith as a passion, and the three stages on life's way

• Kierkegaard has been called a philosopher, a theologian, the Father of Existentialism, both

atheistic and theistic variations, a literary critic,a social theorist, a humorist, a

psychologist,and a poet

Two of his influential ideas are "subjectivity",and the notion

popularly referred to as "leap of faith"

• The leap of faith is his conception of how an

individual would believe in God or how a person would act in love. Faith is not a decision based on evidence that, say, certain beliefs about God are

true or a certain person is worthy of love. No such

evidence could ever be enough to completely justify the kind of total commitment involved

in true religious faith or romantic love. Faith involves

making that commitment anyway. Kierkegaard thought

that to have faith is at the same time to have doubt. 

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Friedrich Wilhelm

Nietzsche

German philosopher, cultural critic,

poet, philologist, and Latin and Greek scholar

whose work has exerted a profound

influence on Western philosophy

and modern intellectual

history

Some prominent

elements of his

philosophy include

his radical critique of reason and

truth in favor of

perspectivism

;

his notion of the

Apollonian and Dionysian

his genealogical critique of religion

and Christian ethics

and his related

theory of master–slave morality

his aesthetic affirmation of existence in response to

the "death of God" and the

profound crisis

of nihilism

and his characterizatio

n of the human subject

as the expression of

competing wills,

collectively understood as

the will to power

developed influential concepts

such as the Übermensch

and the doctrine of

eternal return

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre 

French philosopher, playwright, novelist, political activist, biographer, and literary critic.

one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology, and one of the leading figures in

20th-century French philosophy and Marxism

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Simone Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir 

French writer, intellectual,

existentialist philosopher

, political activist, feminist and

social theorist.

she did not consider herself a philosopher,

she had a significant

influence on both

feminist existentialism

and feminist theory.

believed that existence precedes essence; hence one is

not born a woman, but

becomes one.

asserted that women are as capable of choice as men, and

thus can choose to elevate themselves

moving beyond the 'immanence' to which they were previously resigned and reaching 'transcendence', a position in which one takes

responsibility for oneself and the world, where one chooses one's freedom.

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Karl Theodo

r Jaspers

German-Swiss psychiatrist and

philosopher

had a strong influence on modern theology,

psychiatry, and philosophy

points out that as we question reality, we

confront borders that an empirical (or scientific) method simply cannot

transcend.

point, the individual faces a choice: sink into despair

and resignation, or take a leap of faith toward what

Jaspers calls Transcendence. individuals confront their own limitless freedom,

which Jaspers calls Existenz, and can finally experience

authentic existence

Transcendence (paired with the term The

Encompassing in later works) is, for Jaspers, that which exists beyond the world of time and space

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Gabriel Honoré Marcel 

French philosopher, playwright, music critic and leading Christian existentialist

often regarded as the first French existentialist, he dissociated himself from figures such as Jean-Paul Sartre, preferring the term 'Philosophy of Existence' to define his own thought

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Martin Heidegger

German philosopher and a seminal thinker in the

Continental tradition and philosophical hermeneutics

best known for his contributions to Phenomenology

and Existentialism

"his thinking should be identified as part of such

philosophical movements only with extreme

care and qualification."

"ready to hand", and Heidegger considers it an authentic mode,

saying that the given ("past") has presence in an oversimplified way when reduced to possible future

usefulness to us.

Dasein, according to Heidegger, is care

Modern Philosophy

Phenomenologythe study of the

structure of experience.

It is a broad philosophical movement

founded in the early years of the 20th

century by Edmund Husserl,

expanded upon by a circle of his followers at

the universities of Göttingen and Munich

in Germany.

spread to France, the United States, and elsewhere, often in

contexts far removed from Husserl's early

work.

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Phenomenology

Edmund Husserl

Martin Heidegger

Maurice Merleau-Ponty

Max Scheler

Phenomenological philosophers

Modern Philosophy

Phenomenology

Edmund

Gustav Albrech

t Husserl

German

philosopher who

established the school

of phenomenology

he elaborated critiques of historicism

and of psychologism in logicbased on analyses

of intentionality

develop a systematic foundational science based on

the so-called

phenomenological reduction

Arguing that

transcendental

consciousness

sets the limits of all

possible knowledge

re-defined phenomenology as

a transcendental-idealist philosoph

y

thought profoundly influenced

the landscape of twentieth-century philosophy

, and he remains a notable figure in

contemporary philosophy and beyond.

studied mathematics under Karl Weierstrass

and Leo Königsberger,

and philosophy

under Franz Brentano

and Carl Stumpf

taught philosophy as a Privatdozent at

Halle from 1887, then as professor, first at Göttingen from 1901,

then at Freiburg from 1916 until

he retired in 1928, after which he

remained highly productive.

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Phenomenology

Martin Heidegger

German philosopher and a seminal thinker in the

Continental tradition and philosophical hermeneutics

best known for his contributions to Phenomenology

and Existentialism

"his thinking should be identified as part of such

philosophical movements only with extreme

care and qualification."

"ready to hand", and Heidegger considers it an authentic mode,

saying that the given ("past") has presence in an oversimplified way when reduced to possible future

usefulness to us.

Dasein, according to Heidegger, is care

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Phenomenology

Maurice Merleau-Ponty

French phenomenological philosopher• The constitution of

meaning in human experience was his main interest and he wrote on perception, art, and politics.

• expressed his philosophical insights in writings on art, literature, linguistics, and politics.

He was the only major phenomenologist of the first half of the twentieth century to engage extensively with the sciences and especially with descriptive psychology• emphasized the body

as the primary site of knowing the world, a corrective to the long philosophical tradition of placing consciousness as the source of knowledge, and maintained that the body and that which it perceived could not be disentangled from each other

The articulation of the primacy of embodiment led him away from phenomenology towards what he was to call “indirect ontology” or the ontology of “the flesh of the world” (la chair du monde), seen in his last incomplete work, The Visible and Invisible, and his last published essay, “Eye and Mind”.• developed the

concept of the body-subject as an alternative to the Cartesian "cogito."

Consciousness, the world, and the human body as a perceiving thing are intricately intertwined and mutually "engaged." • The phenomenal

thing is not the unchanging object of the natural sciences, but a correlate of our body and its sensory-motor functions.

• "inexhaustible" (the hallmark of any perception according to Merleau-Ponty). Things are that upon which our body has a "grip" (prise), while the grip itself is a function of our connaturality with the world's things. The world and the sense of self are emergent phenomena in an ongoing "becoming."

• Each object is a "mirror of all others."

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Phenomenology

Max Ferdinand Scheler

German philosopher known for his work in phenomenology,

ethics, and philosophical anthropology

.

developed further the philosophical method of

the founder of phenomenology,

Edmund Husserl, and was called by José Ortega y Gasset "the first man of

the philosophical paradise."

"an attitude of spiritual

seeing...something which otherwise

remains hidden...."

phenomenology "is given only in the

seeing and experiencing act

itself."theory of values. • Values are

given a priori, and are "feelable" phenomena.

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Phenomenology

Values and their corresponding disvalues are ranked according to their essential interconnections as follows:

Values of the holy vs. disvalues of the unholy

Values of the spirit (truth, beauty, vs. disvalues of their opposites)

Values of life and the noble vs. disvalues of the vulgar

Values of pleasure vs. disvalues of pain

Values of utility vs. disvalues of the useless.

Modern Philosophy

Pragmatism

a philosophical tradition centered on the linking of practice

and theory.

It describes a process where

theory is extracted

from practice, and applied

back to practice to

form what is called intellige

nt practice

Important positions

characteristic of pragmatism

include instrumentalism

, radical empiricism

, verificationism

, conceptual relativity

, and fallibilism

There is general consensus among pragmatists that

philosophy should take the methods and

insights of modern science into account.

Charles Sanders Peirce (and

his pragmatic maxim) deserves most of the

credit for pragmatism,along

with later twentieth century contributors William James and

John Dewey

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Pragmatism 

Charles Sanders Peirce

William James John Dewey Richard Rorty

Pragmatist philosophers

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Pragmatism 

Charles

Sanders

Peirce

American philosopher, logician,

mathematician

, and scientist who is

sometimes known as

"the father of

pragmatism".

Today he is appreciated

largely for his contributions

to logic, mathematics, philosophy,

scientific methodology, and semiotics,

and for his founding of pragmatism.

innovator in mathematics,

statistics, philosophy,

research methodology, and various

sciences, Peirce

considered himself, first

and foremost, a logician.

made major contributions to logic, but logic for him

encompassed much of that which is now

called epistemology

and philosophy of science

He saw logic as

the formal

branch of semiotics, of which

he is a founder,

and which foreshadowed the debate

among logical positivists

and proponents

of philosophy of language

that dominated

20th century Western

philosophy

he defined the concept of abductive

reasoning, as well as

rigorously formulated

mathematical induction

and deductive reasoning

.

As early as 1886 he saw

that logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits

; the same idea was used decades later

to produce digital

computers

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Pragmatism 

William

James

American philosophe

r and psychologist who was

also trained as

a physician

first educator to offer a psychology course

in the United States

one of the leading

thinkers of the late

nineteenth century and is

believed by many to be one of the

most influential

philosophers the United States has

ever produced

others have

labelled him the "Father

of American psycholog

y".

he is considered

to be one of the major

figures associated with the

philosophical school

known as pragmatism,

also cited as one of

the founders

of functional psychology

also developed

the philosophi

cal perspective known

as radical empiricism

.

"Anything short of

God is not rational, anything

more than God is not possible"

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Pragmatism 

John Dewey

American philosopher

, psychologist, and educational reformer

whose ideas have been influential in

education and social reform

primary figures associated with the

philosophy of pragmatism and is considered one of the founders of

functional psychology

. A well-known public intellectual,

he was also a major voice of

progressive education

and liberalism

known best for his publications about education, he also wrote about many

other topics, including

epistemology, metaphysics,

aesthetics, art, logic, social theory, and

ethics.

"Democracy and the one, ultimate, ethical ideal of

humanity are to my mind synonymous."

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Pragmatism 

Richard McKay Rorty

American philosopher

.

saw the idea of knowledge as a

"mirror of nature" as pervasive

throughout the history of

western philosophy

Rorty advocated for a novel form of

American pragmatism, sometimes called neopragmatism, in which scientific and

philosophical methods form

merely a set of contingent "

vocabularies" which people abandon or

adopt over time according to social conventions and

usefulness.

Abandoning representationalist

accounts of knowledge and language, Rorty believed, would lead to a state of

mind he referred to as "ironism," in which people

become completely aware of the

contingency of their placement in history

and of their philosophical

vocabulary

Rorty tied this brand of philosophy to the

notion of "social hope"; he believed

that without the representationalist

accounts, and without metaphors between the mind

and the world, human society

would behave more peacefully.

constitutes the crucial concept of a "

postphilosophical" culture determined to

abandon representationalist

accounts of traditional epistemology, incorporating

American pragmatist naturalism that

considers the natural sciences as an advance

towards liberalism.

Modern Philosophy

Analytic philoso

phy

came to dominate

English-speaking countries in the 20th

century

In the United States,

United Kingdom, Canada,

Scandinavia, Australia, and

New Zealand, the overwhelming

majority of university

philosophy departments

identify themselves as

"analytic" departments

The term generally refers to a broad

philosophical tradition

characterized by an emphasis on clarity

and argument (often achieved via

modern formal logic and

analysis of language) and a respect for the natural sciences

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Analytic philosophy 

Rudolf CarnapGottlob FregeGeorge Edward MooreBertrand RussellMoritz SchlickLudwig Wittgenstein

Analytic philosophers

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Analytic philosophy 

Rudolf Carna

p

German-born philosopher who

was active in Europe before 1935 and in the United States

thereafter.

He was a major member of the

Vienna Circle and an advocate of

logical positivism.

He is considered "one of the giants among twentieth-

century philosophers."

The purpose of logical syntax is to

provide a system of concepts, a

language, by the help of which the results of logical analysis will be

exactly formulable.

Philosophy is to be replaced by the logic of

science – that is to say, by the logical analysis of the concepts and sentences of the sciences, for the logic

of science is nothing other than the logical syntax of the language of science.

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Analytic philosophy 

Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege

German philosopher, logician, and

mathematician. Considered a major figure in

mathematics, he is responsible for the

development of modern logic and making

contributions to the foundations of mathematics. He is also understood by many to be the father of

analytic philosophy, where he concentrated on the

philosophy of language and mathematics.

invented axiomatic predicate logic, in large part thanks to his invention of quantified variables, which eventually became ubiquitous in mathematics and logic, and which solved the problem of multiple generality. • founders of

analytic philosophy

. His contributions to the philosophy of language include:• Function–argument

analysis of the proposition;• Distinction between

concept and object (Begriff und Gegenstand);

• Principle of compositionality;

• Context principle;• Distinction between the

sense and reference (Sinn und Bedeutung) of names and other expressions, sometimes said to involve a mediated reference theory.

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Analytic philosophy 

George Edward "G. E." Moore

English philosophe

r.

one of the founders of the

analytic tradition in philosophy

he led the turn away from

idealism in British philosophy, and

became well known for his advocacy of

common sense concepts,

his contributions

to ethics, epistemology,

and metaphysics,

and "his exceptional personality and moral character."

Moore asserted that philosophical

arguments can suffer from a

confusion between the use of a term

in a particular argument and the definition of that

term (in all arguments). He

named this confusion the

naturalistic fallacy.

Moore's argument for the

indefinability of "good" (and thus

for the fallaciousness of the "naturalistic fallacy") is often

called the open-question argument

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Analytic philosophy 

Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell,

British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, writer, social critic, political activist and Nobel laureate.

considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist, but he also admitted that he had "never been any of these things, in any profound sense".

Russell led the British "revolt against idealism".He is considered one of the founders of analytic philosophy along with his predecessor Gottlob Frege, colleague G. E. Moore, and protégé Ludwig Wittgenstein

He is widely held to be one of the 20th century's premier logicians

mostly was a prominent anti-war activist; he championed anti-imperialism

he advocated preventive nuclear war, before the opportunity provided by the atomic monopoly is gone, and "welcomed with enthusiasm" world government

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Analytic philosophy 

Friedrich Albert Moritz

Schlick

German philosopher,

physicist, and the founding father

of logical positivism

and the Vienna Circle

The truth of all other statements

must be evaluated with reference to empirical evidence

.

offered one of the most illuminating

definitions of positivism as

every view "which denies the

possibility of metaphysics"

he defined metaphysics as the doctrine of “true being”,

“thing in itself” or “transcendental

being”, a doctrine which obviously

"presupposes that a non-true, lesser or apparent being stands opposed to

it" (Ibid)

Modern Philosophy

Political philosophy

Existentialism

Analytic philosophy 

Ludwig Josef Johann

Wittgenstein

Austrian-British philosopher who worked primarily

in logic, the philosophy of mathematics

, the philosophy of mind

, and the philosophy of language

"the most perfect example I have ever known of

genius as traditionally conceived; passionate,

profound, intense, and dominating”

I won't say 'See you tomorrow' because that would be like predicting the future, and I'm

pretty sure I can't do that.

— Wittgenstein, 1949

Thomas Bernhard, more critically, wrote of this

period in Wittgenstein's life:

"the multi-millionaire as a

village schoolmaster is surely a piece of

perversity."

"I am not interested in

erecting a building, but in

[...] presenting to myself the

foundations of all possible

buildings."— Wittgenstein

Death is not an event in life: we

do not live to experience

death. If we take eternity to

mean not infinite

temporal duration but timelessness,

then eternal life belongs to those who live in the

present. Our life has no end in

the way in which our visual

field has no limits.--

Wittgenstein, Tractatus, 6.431

Modern Philosophy

END OF MODERN

PHILOSOPHY

Ancient Greek philosophy

Ancient Greek philosophy

Pre-Socratic philosophy

Milesian school

Xenophanes

Pythagoreanism

Heraclitus

Eleatic philosophy

Pluralism and atomism

Classical Greek philosophy

Hellenistic philosophy

Neoplatonism

Philosophical skepticism

Pyrrhonism

Cynicism

 

Ancient Greek philosophy

arose in the 6th century BCE and

continued throughout the Hellenistic period

and the period in which Ancient Greece

was part of the Roman Empire.

It dealt with a wide variety of

subjects, including 

political philosophy

, ethics, metaphysics,

ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric,

and aesthetics

Many philosophers today concede that Greek philosophy

has influenced much of Western culture since its

inception

Alfred North Whitehead once noted: "The safest

characterization general of the European

philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series

of footnotes to Plato

Clear, unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers to Early Islamic philosophy, the European Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.

Some claim that Greek philosophy, in turn,was influenced by the older

wisdom literature and mythological cosmogonies of the ancient Near East. Martin Litchfield West gives qualified assent to this view, stating, "contact with oriental cosmology and theology helped to liberate the early Greek philosophers' imagination

it certainly gave them many suggestive ideas.

But they taught themselves to reason. Philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation."

Pre-Socratic philosophy

considered philosophically

useful because what came to be known as

the "Athenian school" (composed of Socrates, Plato,

and Aristotle) signaled a profound shift in the subject

matter and methods of philosophy

The pre-Socratics were primarily concerned with cosmology, ontology and mathematics

They were distinguished from "non-philosophers" insofar as they rejected mythological explanations in favor of reasoned discourse

Pre-Socratic philosophyDemocritus

Dēmókritos, meaning "chosen of the people"; c. 460 – c. 370 BC)

was an influential Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher primarily remembered today for his

formulation of an atomic theory of the universeThe theory of Democritus held that everything is composed

of "atoms", which are physically, but not geometrically, indivisible; that between atoms, there lies empty space; that atoms are indestructible, and have always been and always will be in motion; that there is an infinite number of atoms

and of kinds of atoms, which differ in shape and size. Of the mass of atoms, Democritus said, "The more any

indivisible exceeds, the heavier it is". But his exact position on atomic weight is disputed.

Pre-Socratic philosophyDemocritus QUOTES

Pre-Socratic philosophyProtagoras

a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher and is numbered as one of the sophists by Plato. In his

dialogue, Protagoras, Plato credits him with having invented the role of the professional

sophist.He also is believed to have created a major controversy during

ancient times through his statement that, "Man is the measure of all things", interpreted by Plato to mean that there is no absolute truth, but that which individuals deem to be the truth

: "Man is the measure of all things: of the things that are, that they are, of the things that are not, that they

are not."". The truth, according to Protagoras, is relative, and differs according to each individual.”

Pre-Socratic philosophyProdicus of Ceos 

was a Greek philosopher, and part of the first generation of Sophists.

He came to Athens as ambassador from Ceos, and became known as a speaker and a teacher.

Prodicus was part of the first generation of Sophists"He was a Sophist in the full sense of a professional freelance

educator."Prodicus required that the speech should be neither long nor short, but of the proper measure, and it is only as associated with other sophists that he is charged with endeavouring to make the weaker cause appear strong by

means of his rhetoric (thereby inspiring, e.g., Milton's description of Belial). "His theory was that primitive man was so impressed with the gifts nature

provided him for the furtherance of his life that he believed them to be the discovery of gods or themselves to embody the godhead. This theory was not only remarkable for its rationalism but for its discernment of a close

connection between religion and agriculture."

Pre-Socratic philosophyGorgias

a Greek sophist, Italiote, pre-Socratic philosopher and rhetorician who was a native of Leontini in Sicily.

"Like other Sophists he was an itinerant, practicing in various cities and giving public exhibitions of his skill at the great pan-Hellenic centers of

Olympia and Delphi, and charged fees for his instruction and performances. A special feature of his displays was to invite

miscellaneous questions from the audience and give impromptu replies."He has been called "Gorgias the Nihilist" although the degree to which this epithet adequately describes his philosophy is

controversial

Nihilism is the belief that all values are baseless and that nothing can be known or communicated. It is associated with pessimism and a radical skepticism that condemns existence.

Pre-Socratic philosophyGorgias

the work developed a skeptical argument, which has been extracted from the sources and translated as below:

•Nothing exists;•Even if something exists, nothing can be known

about it; and•Even if something can be known about it, knowledge

about it can't be communicated to others.

• Even if it can be communicated, it cannot be understood.

Pre-Socratic philosophyPericles 

a prominent and influential Greek statesman, orator and general of Athens during

the Golden Age—specifically the time between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars.

“For men can endure to hear others praised only so long as they can severally persuade

themselves of their own ability to equal the actions recounted:

when this point is passed, envy comes in and with it incredulity.”

Pre-Socratic philosophy

Sir Richard C. Jebb concludes that "unique as an Athenian statesman, Pericles must have been in two respects unique also as an Athenian orator; first,

because he occupied such a position of personal ascendancy as no man before or after him attained; secondly, because his thoughts and his moral force won him such renown for eloquence as no one else

ever got from Athenians"

Pericles 

Ancient Greek writers call Pericles "Olympian" and extol his talents; referring to him "thundering and

lightening and exciting Greece" and carrying the weapons of Zeus when

orating

Pre-Socratic philosophyMarcus Tullius Ciceroa Roman philosopher, politician, lawyer, orator,

 political theorist, consul,

and constitutionalist.

He came from a wealthy municipal family of

the Roman equestrian order, and is considered one of Rome's

greatest orators and prose stylists

Milesian school

regarded by Aristotle as the first philosopher, held that all things arise from water. It is not because he gave a cosmogony that John Burnet calls him the "first man of science," but because he gave a naturalistic explanation of the cosmos and supported it with reasons.

Thales of Miletus,

Milesian schoolThales of Miletus,

According to tradition, Thales was able to predict an eclipse and taught the Egyptians how to measure the height of the pyramids

Thales inspired the Milesian school  of philosophy and was followed by Anaximander

Anaximander

Milesian school

who argued that the substratum or arche could not be water or any of the classical elements but was instead something "unlimited" or "indefinite" (in Greek, the apeiron ).

He began from the observation that the world seems to consist of opposites (e.g., hot and cold), yet a thing can

become its opposite (e.g., a hot thing cold).

Milesian school

Anaximander

Therefore, they cannot truly be opposites but rather must both be manifestations of some

underlying unity that is neither. This underlying unity (substratum, arche) could not be any of the classical elements, since they were one

extreme or another. For example, water is wet, the opposite of dry, while fire is dry, the opposite of wet

Milesian school

 in turn held that the arche was air,

although John Burnet argues that by this he

meant that it was a transparent mist,

the aether.

Anaximenes

Milesian schoolDespite their varied answers, the

Milesian school was searching for a natural substance that would remain

unchanged despite appearing in different forms, and thus represents one of the first scientific attempts to

answer the question that would lead to the development of modern atomic

theory; "the Milesians," says Burnet, "asked for the φύσις of all things."

XenophanesXenophanes was born in Ionia, where the

Milesian school was at its most powerful, and may have picked up some of the Milesians'

cosmological theories as a resultWhat is known is that he argued that each of

the phenomena had a natural rather than divine explanation in a manner reminiscent of

Anaximander's theories and that there was only one god, the world as a

whole, and that he ridiculed the anthropomorphism of the

Greek religion by claiming that cattle would claim that the gods looked like cattle, horses like horses, and

lions like lions, just as the Ethiopians claimed that the gods were snubnosed and black and the Thracians claimed

they were pale and red-haired

Burnet says that Xenophanes was not, however, a scientific man, with many of his "naturalistic"

explanations having no further support than that they render the Homeric gods superfluous or foolish.

Xenophanes

He has been claimed as an influence on Eleatic philosophy, although that is disputed, and a

precursor to Epicurus, a representative of a total break between science and religion.

Pythagoreanism

 lived at roughly the same time that Xenophanes did and, in contrast to the latter, the school that he founded sought to

reconcile religious belief and reason.

Pythagoras

Little is known about his life with any reliability, however, and no writings of his survive, so it is

possible that he was simply a mystic whose successors introduced rationalism into

Pythagoreanism, that he was simply a rationalist whose successors

are responsible for the mysticism in Pythagoreanism, or that he was actually the author of the doctrine; there is no way to know for certain

PythagoreanismPythagoras

Pythagoras is said to have been a disciple of Anaximander and to have imbibed the cosmological concerns of the

Ionians, including the idea that the cosmos is constructed of spheres, the importance of the infinite, and that air or aether is

the arche of everything

 Pythagoreanism also incorporated ascetic ideals, emphasizing purgation, metempsychosis, and

consequently a respect for all animal life; much was made of the correspondence between mathematics and the cosmos in a musical

harmony

HeraclitusHeraclitus must have lived after Xenophanes and

Pythagoras, as he condemns them along with Homer as proving that much learning cannot teach a man to think;

since Parmenides refers to him in the past tense, this would place him in the 5th century BCEContrary to the Milesian school, who would have one

stable element at the root of all, Heraclitus taught that "everything flows" or "everything is in flux," the

closest element to this flux being fire; he also extended the teaching that seeming opposites in fact are

manifestations of a common substrate to good and evil itself

Parmenides of Elea

Eleatic philosophy

cast his philosophy against those who held "it is and is not the same, and all things travel in opposite

directions,"—presumably referring to Heraclitus and those who followed himWhereas the doctrines of the Milesian school, in

suggesting that the substratum could appear in a variety of different guises, implied that everything that

exists is corpuscular, Parmenides argued that the first principle of being was One, indivisible, and unchanging.

Eleatic philosophyParmenides of Elea

Being, he argued, by definition implies eternality, while only that which is can be

thought; a thing which is, moreover, cannot be more or less, and so the rarefaction and

condensation of the Milesians is impossible regarding Being; lastly, as movement requires

that something exist apart from the thing moving (viz. the space into which it moves), the

One or Being cannot move, since this would require that "space" both exist and not exist

Eleatic philosophyParmenides of Elea

While this doctrine is at odds with ordinary sensory experience, where things

do indeed change and move, the Eleatic school followed Parmenides in denying

that sense phenomena revealed the world as it actually was; instead, the only thing

with Being was thought, or the question of whether something exists or not is one of

whether it can be thought

Eleatic philosophyParmenides of Elea

In support of this, Parmenides' pupil  Zeno of Elea attempted to prove that the concept

of motion was absurd and as such motion did not exist. He also attacked the subsequent

development of pluralism, arguing that it was incompatible with Being.His arguments are

known as Zeno's paradoxes.

Pluralism and atomismThe power of Parmenides' logic was such that some

subsequent philosophers abandoned the monism of the Milesians, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, and Parmenides,

where one thing was the arche, and adopted pluralism, such as Empedocles and Anaxagoras.

There were, they said, multiple elements which were not reducible to one another and these were set in motion by

love and strife (as in Empedocles) or by Mind (as in Anaxagoras)Agreeing with Parmenides that there is no coming

into being or passing away, genesis or decay, they said that things appear to come into being and pass

away because the elements out of which they are composed assemble or disassemble while

themselves being unchanging.

Leucippus also proposed an ontological pluralism with a

cosmogony based on two main elements: the vacuum and atoms

Pluralism and atomism

These, by means of their inherent movement, are crossing the void and creating the real material bodies. His theories were not well known by the time of Plato, however, and they were ultimately

incorporated into the work of his student, Democritus

SophistrySophistry arose from the juxtaposition

of physis (nature) and nomos (law). John Burnet posits its origin in the scientific progress of the previous centuries which suggested that Being was radically

different from what was experienced by the senses and, if comprehensible at all, was not comprehensible in terms of order;

the world in which men lived, on the other hand, was one of law and order, albeit of humankind's own

makingAt the same time, nature was constant, while what was by law differed from one place to another and

could be changed.

SophistryThe first man to call himself a sophist, according to Plato, was Protagoras, whom he presents as

teaching that all virtue is conventionalIt was Protagoras who claimed that "man is the

measure of all things, of the things that are, that they are, and of the things that are not, that they are not,"

which Plato interprets as a radical perspectivism, where some things seem to be one way for one

person (and so actually are that way) and another way for another person (and so actually are that way

as well); the conclusion being that one cannot look to nature for guidance regarding how to live one's life

Classical Greek philosophySocrates

Socrates

Classical Greek philosophySocrateswas a classical Greek (Athenian) philosopher credited

as one of the founders of Western philosophy. He is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon and the plays of

his contemporary Aristophanes. Plato's dialogues are among the most comprehensive

accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity, though it is unclear the degree to which Socrates

himself is "hidden behind his 'best disciple', Plato".

Classical Greek philosophySocrates

Through his portrayal in Plato's dialogues, Socrates has become renowned for his contribution to the field of ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method, or elenchus.

The latter remains a commonly used tool in a wide range of discussions, and is a type of pedagogy in which a series of questions is asked not only to draw individual answers, but also to encourage fundamental

insight into the issue at hand. Plato's Socrates also made important and lasting contributions to the field

of epistemology, and his ideologies and approach have proven a strong foundation for much Western philosophy that has followed.

Classical Greek philosophySocrates

Socratic paradoxesMany of the beliefs traditionally attributed to the

historical Socrates have been characterized as "paradoxical" because they seem to conflict with common sense. The following are among the so-called Socratic paradoxes:•No one desires evil.•No one errs or does wrong willingly or knowingly.

•Virtue—all virtue—is knowledge.•Virtue is sufficient for happiness.

The term, "Socratic paradox" can also refer to a self-referential paradox, originating in Socrates' utterance, "what I do not know I do not think I know", often paraphrased as "I know that I know

nothing."

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Classical Greek philosophyPlatophilosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the most pivotal figure in the development of philosophy, especially the Western traditionPlato's entire œuvre  is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400

years.In addition to being a foundational figure for Western science, philosophy, and mathematics, Plato has also often been cited as one of

the founders of Western religion and spirituality.Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic

forms in philosophy, which originate with him.

Classical Greek philosophy

PlatoThe Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes Plato as "...one of the most dazzling writers in the Western literary tradition and one of the most

penetrating, wide-ranging, and influential authors in the history of philosophy. ... He was not the first thinker or writer to whom the word

“philosopher” should be applied. But he was so self-conscious about how philosophy should be conceived, and what its scope and ambitions

properly are, and he so transformed the intellectual currents with which he grappled, that the subject of philosophy, as it is often conceived—a

rigorous and systematic examination of ethical, political, metaphysical, and epistemological issues, armed with a distinctive method—can be called

his invention. Few other authors in the history of Western philosophy approximate him in depth and range: perhaps only Aristotle (who studied with him), Aquinas and Kant would be generally agreed to be of the same

rank.

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AristotleClassical Greek philosophy

a Greek  philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery of Classical

Greece. Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal.

Aristotle's ontology, however, finds the universal in particular things, which he calls the essence of things, while in Plato's ontology, the universal exists

apart from particular things, and is related to them as their prototype or exemplar.epistemology is based on the study of particular phenomena and rises to the

knowledge of essences, while for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular

imitations of theseFor Aristotle, "form" still refers to the unconditional basis of phenomena but is "instantiated" in a particular substance

Aristotle's method is both inductive and deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive from a priori principles

Classical Greek philosophyAristotleIn Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences.

Aristotle makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science"

For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). By practical science, he means

ethics and politics; by poetical science, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; by theoretical science, he means

physics, mathematics and metaphysics.

Classical Greek philosophyAristotle

If logic (or "analytics") is regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, the divisions of Aristotelian philosophy would consist of:

and (4) Poetical Philosophy.(3) Practical Philosophy

(2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics and Mathematics;

(1) Logic;

Classical Greek philosophyAristotle

Aristotle's metaphysics contains observations on the nature of numbers but he

made no original contributions to mathematics.

Aristotle proposed a fifth element, aether, in addition to the four proposed earlier by Empedocles

•Earth, which is cold and dry; this corresponds to the modern idea of a solid.•Water, which is cold and wet; this corresponds to the modern idea of a liquid.•Air, which is hot and wet; this corresponds to the modern idea of a gas.•Fire, which is hot and dry; this corresponds to the modern ideas of plasma and

heat.•Aether, which is the divine substance that makes up the heavenly spheres and

heavenly bodies (stars and planets).

Classical Greek philosophyAristotleAristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about

can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active causal factors

1. Material cause---- describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood, and the material cause of a car is rubber and steel.

It is not about action. It does not mean one domino knocks over another domino.

Classical Greek philosophyAristotleAristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about

can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active causal factors

2. The formal cause---- is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea existing in the first place as exemplar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the second place as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied in the matter. Formal cause could only refer to the essential quality of causation. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create his drawings.

Classical Greek philosophyAristotleAristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about

can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active causal factors

3. The efficient cause---- is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. So, take the two dominoes, this time of equal weighting, the first is knocked over causing the second also to fall over.

Classical Greek philosophyAristotleAristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about

can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active causal factors

4. The final cause----- is its purpose, or that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or teleos is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition, need, desire, ethics, or spiritual beliefs.

Classical Greek philosophyAristotlemetaphysics as "the knowledge of immaterial being," or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction." He refers to metaphysics as "first philosophy", as well as "the theologic science."

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Classical Greek philosophyThe most notable schools of Hellenistic philosophy were:Hellenistic philosophy

•Neoplatonism: Plotinus(Egyptian), Ammonius Saccas, Porphyry (Syrian), Zethos (Arab), Iamblichus (Syrian), Proclus

•Academic Skepticism: Arcesilaus, Carneades, Cicero (Roman)•Pyrrhonian Skepticism: Pyrrho, Sextus Empiricus•Cynicism: Antisthenes, Diogenes of Sinope, Crates of Thebes (taught Zeno of

Citium, founder of Stoicism)

•Stoicism: Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes, Chrysippus, Crates of Mallus (brought Stoicism to Rome c. 170

BCE), Panaetius, Posidonius, Seneca (Roman), Epictetus (Greek/Roman), Marcus Aurelius (Roman)

•Epicureanism: Epicurus (Greek) and Lucretius(Roman)

•Eclecticism: Cicero (Roman)

Classical Greek philosophyHellenistic philosophy

During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many different schools of thought developed in the Hellenistic

world and then the Greco-Roman world.

There were Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Syrians and Arabs w

ho contributed to the development of Hellenistic philosophy. Elements of Persian philosophy and Indian

philosophy also had an influence.

Classical Greek philosophyHellenistic philosophy

The spread of Christianity throughout the Roman world, followed by the spread of Islam,

ushered in the end of Hellenistic philosophy and the beginnings of Medieval philosophy,

which was dominated by the three Abrahamic traditions: Jewish

philosophy, Christian philosophy, and early Islamic philosophy.

Classical Greek philosophyTransmission of Greek philosophy under Islam

During the Middle Ages, Greek ideas were largely forgotten in Western Europe (where, between the fall of Rome and the East-West

Schism, literacy in Greek had declined sharply). Not long after the first major expansion of Islam, however, the Abbasid caliphs authorized the gathering of Greek manuscripts and hired translators to increase their prestige. Islamic philosophers such as Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Al-

Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) reinterpreted these works, and during the High Middle

Ages Greek philosophy re-entered the West through translations from Arabic to Latin. The re-introduction of these philosophies, accompanied

by the new Arabic commentaries, had a great influence on Medieval philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas.

Neoplatonismis a modern term used to designate a tradition

of philosophy that arose in the 3rd century AD and persisted until shortly after the closing of the Platonic

Academy in Athens in AD 529 by Justinian I. Neoplatonists were heavily influenced by Plato, but also

by the Platonic tradition that thrived during the six centuries which separated the first of the Neoplatonists

from Plato. It refers to the dynamic philosophical tradition that Neoplatonism was over the course of its history: to the work of Plotinus, who is traditionally identified as the founder of Neoplatonism, and to the many thinkers

after him, who developed, responded to and criticized his ideas.

Hellenistic philosophy

Plotinusa major Greek-

speaking philosopher of the ancient worldIn his philosophy there are

three principles: the One, 

the Intellect,

and the Soul

Hellenistic philosophy

Philosophical skepticism(UK spelling scepticism; from Greek σκέψις skepsis, "inquiry") is both a philosophical school of thought and a method that crosses disciplines and cultures.

It is generally agreed that knowledge requires justification. It is not enough to have a true belief: one must also have good reasons for that belief. Skeptics claim that it is not possible

to have an adequate justification.

Hellenistic philosophy

Skepticism is not a single position but covers a range of different positions. In the ancient world there were two main skeptical traditions.

Academic skepticism took the dogmatic position that knowledge was not possible; 

Pyrrhonian skeptics refused to take a dogmatic position on any issue—including skepticism.

 Radical skepticism ends in the paradoxical claim that one cannot know anything—including

that one cannot know about knowing anything.

Philosophical skepticismHellenistic philosophy

Philosophical skepticismSkepticism can also be classified according to its

method. In the Western tradition there are two basic approaches to skepticism. 

Cartesian skepticism, named somewhat misleadingly after René Descartes who was not a

skeptic but used some traditional skeptical arguments in his Meditations to help establish his rationalist approach to

knowledge, attempts to show that any proposed knowledge claim can be doubted. 

Agrippan skepticism focuses on the process of justification rather than the possibility of

doubt.

Hellenistic philosophy

Philosophical skepticismPhilosophical skepticism is distinguished

from methodological skepticism in that philosophical skepticism is an approach that

questions the possibility of certainty in knowledge, whereas methodological skepticism is an approach that subjects all knowledge claims to

scrutiny with the goal of sorting out true from false claims.

Hellenistic philosophy

Philosophical skepticismSkepticism can be classified according to its scope.

Local skepticism involves being skeptical about particular areas of knowledge, e.g. moral

skepticism, skepticism about the external world, or skepticism about other minds,

whereas global skepticism is skeptical about the possibility of any knowledge at all.

Hellenistic philosophy

Pyrrhonism, or Pyrrhonian skepticism

Hellenistic philosophy

was a school of skepticism founded by Aenesidemus in the 1st century BCE and

recorded by Sextus Empiricus in the late 2nd century or early 3rd century CE. It was named after Pyrrho, a philosopher who lived from c. 360 to c. 270 BCE,

although the relationship between the philosophy of the school and that of the historical figure is unclear. A revival of the use of the term occurred during the

17th century.

Fallibilism

a modern, fundamental perspective of the scientific method, as put forth by Karl Popper and Charles Sanders Peirce, that all knowledge is, at best, an

approximation, and that any scientist must always stipulate this in his or her research and findings. It

is, in effect, a modernized extension of Pyrrhonism. Indeed, historic Pyrrhonists are sometimes described by modern authors as

fallibilists. Modern fallibilists also are sometimes described as pyrrhonists.

Pyrrho a Greek philosopher of Classical Antiquity, was a student of Eastern

philosophy and is credited as being the first Greek skeptic philosopher and the inspiration for the school known

as Pyrrhonism, founded by Aenesidemus in the 1st century BC.

Pyrrho is renowned for creating the first formal approach to skepticism in Western Philosophy: Pyrrhonism.Pyrrho summarized his philosophy as follows: "Whoever wants to be happy

(eudaimonia) must consider these three questions: First, how are pragmata (ethical matters, affairs, topics) by nature? Secondly, what attitude should we adopt towards them? Thirdly, what will be the outcome for those who have this attitude?"

Pyrrho's answer is that "As for pragmata they are all adiaphora (undifferentiated by a logical differentia), astathmēta (unstable, unbalanced, not measurable),

and anepikrita (unjudged, unfixed, undecidable). Therefore, neither our sense-perceptions nor our doxai (views, theories, beliefs) tell us the truth or lie; so we certainly should not rely on them. Rather, we should be adoxastous(without views), aklineis (uninclined toward this

side or that), and akradantous (unwavering in our refusal to choose), saying about every single one that it no more is than it is not or it both is and is not or it neither is nor is

not.

Pyrrho Adiaphora, astathmēta, and anepikrita

are strikingly similar to the Buddhist Three marks of

existence, suggesting that Pyrrho's teaching is based on what he learned in India, which is what Diogenes Laertius

reported.

The main principle of Pyrrho's thought is expressed by the

word acatalepsia, which connotes the ability to withhold

assent from doctrines regarding the truth of things in their own nature; against every statement its contradiction may be

advanced with equal justification.

Sextus Empiricus was a physician and philosopher, and has been variously reported to have

lived in Alexandria, Rome, or Athens. His philosophical work is the most

complete surviving account of ancient Greek and Roman skepticism.

Pyrrhonism is more a mental attitude or therapy than a theory. It involves setting things in opposition and owing

to the equipollence of the objects and reasons, one suspends judgement.

"We oppose either appearances to appearances or objects of thought to objects of thought or alternando."

Sextus Empiricus The ten modes of Pyrrhonism

These ten modes or tropes were originally listed by Aenesidemus.

• "Based on positions, distances, and locations; for owing to each of these the same objects appear different." The same tower appears rectangular at close distance and round from far away. The moon looks like a perfect sphere to the

human eye, yet cratered from the view of a telescope

• The same impressions are not produced by the same objects owing to the differences among the senses.

• Owing to the "circumstances, conditions or dispositions," the same objects appear different. The same temperature, as established by instrument, feels very

different after an extended period of cold winter weather (it feels warm) than after mild weather in the autumn (it feels cold). Time appears slow when young and fast as aging proceeds. Honey tastes sweet to most but bitter to someone

with jaundice. A person with influenza will feel cold and shiver even though she is hot with a fever.

.

•"The same impressions are not produced by the same objects owing to the differences in animals."

• The same impressions are not produced by the same objects owing to the differences among human beings.

Sextus Empiricus The ten modes of Pyrrhonism

These ten modes or tropes were originally listed by Aenesidemus.

•“We deduce that since no object strikes us entirely by itself, but along with something else, it may perhaps be possible to say what the mixture compounded out of the external object

and the thing perceived with it is like, but we would not be able to say what the external object is like by itself."

• "Based, as we said, on the quantity and constitution of the underlying objects, meaning generally by "constitution" the manner of composition." So, for example, goat horn

appears black when intact and appears white when ground up. Snow appears white when frozen and translucent as a liquid.

• "Since all things appear relative, we will suspend judgement about what things exist absolutely and really existent.Do things which exist "differentially" as opposed to those

things that have a distinct existence of their own, differ from relative things or not? If they do not differ, then they too are relative; but if they differ, then, since everything which

differs is relative to something..., things which exist absolutely are relative."• "Based on constancy or rarity of occurrence." The sun is more amazing than a

comet, but because we see and feel the warmth of the sun daily and the comet rarely, the latter commands our attention.[

• "There is a Tenth Mode, which is mainly concerned with Ethics, being based on rules of conduct, habits, laws, legendary beliefs, and dogmatic conceptions."

Sextus Empiricus 

Superordinate to these ten modes stand three other modes:

•I: that based on the subject who judges (modes 1, 2, 3 & 4).

•II: that based on the object judged (modes 7 & 10).

•III: that based on both subject who judges and object judged (modes 5, 6, 8 & 9)

Superordinate to these three modes is the mode of relation.[25]

Cynicism (philosophy)a school of Ancient Greek philosophy as practiced by the

Cynics (Greek: Κυνικοί, Latin: Cynici). For the Cynics, the purpose of life was to live in virtue, in agreement

with nature. As reasoning creatures, people could gain happiness by rigorous training and by living in a way

which was natural for themselves, rejecting all conventional desires for wealth, power, sex and fame.

Instead, they were to lead a simple life free from all possessions

Cynicism is one of the most striking of all the Hellenistic philosophies. It offered people the

possibility of happiness and freedom from suffering in an age of uncertainty.

Cynicism (philosophy)Although there was never an official Cynic doctrine, the fundamental

principles of Cynicism can be summarised as follows•The goal of life is eudaimonia and mental clarity or lucidity (ἁτυφια) - freedom

from smoke (τύφος) which signified ignorance, mindlessness, folly, and conceit.•Eudaimonia is achieved by living in accord with Nature as understood by

human reason.•Arrogance (τύφος) is caused by false judgments of value, which cause

negative emotions, unnatural desires, and a vicious character.• Eudaimonia, or human flourishing, depends on self-sufficiency

(αὐτάρκεια), equanimity, arete, love of humanity, parrhesia and indifference to the vicissitudes of life (ἁδιαφορία).

•One progresses towards flourishing and clarity through ascetic practices (ἄσκησις) which help one become free from influences – such as wealth, fame, and power –

that have no value in Nature. Examples include Diogenes' practice of living in a tub and walking barefoot in winter.

•A Cynic practices shamelessness or impudence (Αναιδεια) and defaces the nomos of society; the laws, customs, and social conventions which people take for granted.

Cynicism (philosophy)Antisthenes 

was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. Antisthenes first learned rhetoric under Gorgias before

becoming an ardent disciple of Socrates. He adopted and developed the ethical side of Socrates' teachings,

advocating an ascetic life lived in accordance with virtue. Later writers regarded him as the founder of Cynic

philosophy."He would prove that virtue can be taught; and that nobility belongs to none other than the virtuous. And he held virtue to be sufficient in itself to ensure happiness, since it needed nothing else except the strength of a Socrates.

And he maintained that virtue is an affair of deeds and does not need a store of words or learning; that the wise man is self-sufficing, for all the goods of

others are his; that ill repute is a good thing and much the same as pain; that the wise man will be guided in his public acts not by the established laws but

by the law of virtue; that he will also marry in order to have children from union with the handsomest women; furthermore that he will not disdain to

love, for only the wise man knows who are worthy to be loved"

Cynicism (philosophy)Antisthenes 

he imbibed the fundamental ethical precept that virtue, not pleasure, is the end of existence.

Everything that the wise person does, Antisthenes said, conforms to perfect virtue, and pleasure is not only unnecessary, but a positive evil. He is reported

to have held pain and even ill-repute (Greek: ἀδοξία) to be blessings, and said that "I'd

rather be mad than feel pleasure".The supreme good he placed in a life lived according to virtue, – virtue consisting in action, which when obtained is never lost, and exempts the wise person from error.It is closely connected with reason, but to enable it to develop itself in action, and to be sufficient for happiness,

it requires the aid of Socratic strength (Greek: Σωκρατικὴ ἱσχύς

Cynicism (philosophy)Diogenes of Sinope 

a Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Cynic philosophy. Also known as Diogenes the

Cynic (Ancient Greek: Διογένης ὁ Κυνικός, Diogenēs ho Kunikos), he was born in Sinope (modern-day

Sinop, Turkey), an Ionian colony on the Black Sea, in 412 or 404 BC and died at Corinth in 323 BC.Diogenes is considered one of the founders

of CynicismDiogenes maintained that all the artificial growths of society were incompatible with happiness and that morality implies a return to

the simplicity of nature. "Humans have complicated every simple gift of the gods."

Cynicism (philosophy)

Crates of Thebeswas a Cynic philosopher. Crates gave away his money to live a life

of poverty on the streets of Athens. He married Hipparchia of Maroneia who lived in the same manner that he did. Respected by

the people of Athens, he is remembered for being the teacher of Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism. Various fragments of Crates' teachings survive, including his description of the ideal

Cynic state.

"What will be in it for me after I become a philosopher?" "You will be able," he said, "to open your wallet easily and with your hand scoop out and dispense lavishly instead of, as you do now, squirming and hesitating and trembling like those with paralyzed hands. Rather, if the wallet is full, that is how you will view it; and if you see that it is empty, you will not be distressed. And once you have elected to use

the money, you will easily be able to do so; and if you have none, you will not yearn for it, but you will live satisfied with what you

have, not desiring what you do not have nor displeased with whatever comes your way."

rnfEND OF ANCIENT GREEK PHILOSOPHY

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY

the present period in the history of Western philosophy beginning at the end of the 19th century with

the professionalization of the discipline and the rise of analytic and continental philosophy

The phrase "contemporary philosophy" is a piece of technical terminology in philosophy that refers to a specific period in the history of Western philosophy. However, the phrase is often confused with modern

philosophy (which refers to an earlier period in Western philosophy), postmodern philosophy (which refers to continental

philosophers' criticisms of modern philosophy), and with a non-technical use of the phrase referring to any recent philosophic work.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY

The term ‘contemporary philosophy’ refers to the current era of philosophy, generally dealing with philosophers from the late nineteenth century

through to the twenty-first.

The nineteenth century also began to see a division in the approach to philosophy being taken in different areas of western philosophy. In the United Kingdom and North America, a focus

on logic, language and the natural sciences was becoming predominent in philosophy, and this tradition was

labeled analytic philosophy. Those who did not find themselves in this analytic trend were mostly based in Europe, and the idea

of continental philosophy was born. The names are already considered obsolte, in some senses, but many philosophers still observe a difference between the logical and scientific approach of analytic philosophy and the existentialism, phenomenology

and other approaches of continental philosophy.

Contempora

ry philosopher

s

Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910)

Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914)

Friedrich

Nietzsche (1844–1900)

Gottlob Frege (1848–1925)

Alexius Meinong (1853–1920)

Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932)

Edmund Husserl (1859–1938)

Henri Bergson (1859–1941)

Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947)

Bertrand Russell (1872–1970)

Henry M. Sheffer (1882–1964)

Franz Kafka (1883–1924)

Karl Jaspers (1883–1969)

Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951)

Gabriel Marcel (1889–1973

)

Martin Heidegger (1889–1976)

Rudolf Carnap (1891–1970)

Gilbert Ryle (1900–1976)

Alfred Tarski (1901–1983)

Karl Popper (1902–1994)

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980)Kurt G

ödel (1906–1978)

Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986)

W. V. O. Quine (1908–2000)

Albert Camus (1913–1960)

John Rawls (1921–2002)

Thomas Kuhn (1922–1996)Hilary

Putnam (1926— )

Edmund Gettier (1927— )

Jürgen

Habermas (1929– )

Harry Frankfurt (1929— )

Jaakko

Hintikka (1929— )Jacqu

es Derrida (1930–2004)

Carl Ginet

(1932— )

Alvin Plantinga (1932– )

John Searle (1932—)

Thomas Nagel (1937— )

Robert Nozick (1938–2002)Alvin

Goldman (1938– )

Saul Kripke (1940— )

Frank Jackson (1943— )

Peter Singer (1946— )

David Chalmers (1966— )

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Tolstoy strongly believed in nonviolence, and promoted nonviolent resistance to political opression.

Tolstoy also contributed to disccusions of aesthetics. Tolstoy believed that the purpose of art was to convey the emotions felt by the artist. Artistic expressions

that fail to inspire similar feelings in their audience fails to truly be a work of art.

was a Russian novelist, essayist and playwright, most famous for his works War and Peace and Anna

Karenina.

Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910)

Tolstoy was a Christian and a strong believer in literal interpretations of Jesus' teachings. His interpretations, however, focused on an internal devotion to God, and a personal struggle for perfection, rather than a following of the

Church or a quest for guidance elsewhere.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was an American logician, mathematician and scientist. British

philosopher Bertrand Russell said that Peirce was “certainly the greatest

American thinker ever”.

CHARLES SANDERS PEIRCE (1839–1914)

PRAGMATICISMAlong with William James, Peirce is considered a father of pragmatism. However, this view actually comes from

a misinterpretation of Peirce’s early writings. As Bertrand Russell puts it, the current conception of pragmatism “stems not from Peirce, but from what

William James thought Peirce was saying”. Peirce later clarified his position and gave it the label of

‘pragmaticism’ to try and separate his own position from James’ interpretation.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was a philosopher and philogist from Germany. He wrote mainly critical works that attacked the

prevailing religious, cultural and philosophical views of his time.

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844–1900)

Nietzsche’s work has contributed greatly to the development of existentialism and so-

called continental philosophy.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was a German mathematician, philosopher and logician who contributed greatly to the

development of symbolic logic and the launch of analytic philosophy.

Gottlob Frege (1848–1925)

LogicFrege's contributions to logic, which began with his 1879 work Begriffsschrift, brought the first major advancement in logic since Aristotle. Frege described a new system of first-order predicate logic that introduced quantification

functions and variables for the first time in a symbolic logic.

Frege, who began as a mathematician, wanted to show the logical roots of mathematics. His system replaced Aristotelean syllogistic logic with a wider range of

capabilities that allowed the expression of mathematical truths, as well as the symbolization of informal linguistic

reason.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

An Austrian philosopher, is best known for his theory of objects, a detailled

ontology that expresses the organization of objects, both those in and apart from

existence.

Alexius Meinong (1853–1920)

Meinong’s theory considers anything to be an object (Gegenstand) if it can be considered and examined by the mind. Therefore, Meinong counts as objects

not only physical things, but also abstract objects, such as numbers, and even things that are impossible, such as

round squares.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Alexius Meinong (1853–1920)

In general, Meinong divides objects into three categories:

• Existent objects (Existenz), which are actual objects in the

physical, temporal world

• Subsistent objects (Bestand), such as numbers, which are objects that have

non-temporal, unextended being

• Being-given (Gegebenheit) or absistent objects, which are objects without being, such as a round square

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was an Italian mathematician and logician.

Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932)

Peano's Formulario Mathematico

was an encyclopedia of mathematical formulae and theorems expressed in a symbolic

language. Many of the symbols that Peano used in the Formulario are still in use today.

In 1903, Peano announced that he had developed an auxiliary language, Latino

sine flexione, which was a version of Latin with heavily simplified grammar. Peano wrote some of his works in Latino sine

flexione afterwords.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932)

The Peano axioms, a set of axioms for natural

numbers that Peano published, is named for him. Peano's

descriptions of mathematics maintained a separation of mathematical and logical

symbolization, and made use of the symbolization developed

by Gottlob Frege.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was a German philosopher and professor who founded the school of phenomenonology.

Edmund Husserl (1859–1938)

Husserl was born in what is now the Czech Republic. He earned a Ph.D. in mathematics before attending lectures by Franz Brentano, which lured him into

philosophy.

Husserl was a teacher of Martin Heidegger, who also served as Husserl's assistant.

Heidegger's main work, Being and Time was originally dedicated to Husserl, although

this dedication was removed in 1941 out of fear that the Nazi party would ban it. The

relationship between the two worsened after Heidegger began to support the Nazi party.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was a French philosopher.

Henri Bergson (1859–1941)

Bergson expressed the importance of experience and intuition in thought and the search for truth, as

companions no lesser than rational means of inquiry. He sought a union between the notions of

free will and causality, rejecting the rigidity of scientific views on the matter, insisting that free

will provokes a creative novelty that is not predetermined.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Henri Bergson (1859–1941)

DurationIn order to articulate his view, Bergson presents a concept of Duration, a theory of time, free will and consciousness.

He criticizes Immanuel Kant for the view that free will must exist outside of time and space in order to be possible.

Instead, Bergson says that Kant treats time improperly. For Bergson, time is not an extended, ordered progression, but a fluid, dynamic medium that can be traversed by the will.

Because of the mobility of the Duration, it is not capable of being fully understood by the rigid concepts of space —

such as reason and related inquiry. Instead, intuition plays a key role in the understanding that cannot be

accomplished merely by reasoning from experiential data.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was an English mathematician, logician and philosopher, perhaps best

known as co-author of Principia Mathematica with Bertrand Russell, and for his own Process and Reality.

Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947)

Process and RealityIn Process and Reality, Whitehead describes his metaphysical system, which he calls “philosophy of organism”. Whitehead says that the fundamental components of reality are occasions of experience. All things are a series of experiences, and those experiences form out of reactions that depend on previous experiences. However, these experiences are not deterministic. Instead, process philosophy states that free will is the inherent process of the universe, with experiences dictating what is, rather than the other way around.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Process and Reality

Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947)

Whitehead's metaphysics can be compared to that of Spinoza, who claims that God is the single substance of which all things are made. However, for Whitehead, God consists of all experiences, as well as all potential experiences. Rather than being an omnipotent, all-powerful being, God's role in Whitehead's philosophy is to provide possibilities for the universe, which are then either accepted into experience or denied existence. God is still omnipresent, as God experiences all of

the things that come into being, or “becoming” as process philosophers often say.

Whitehead's stance in metaphysics is somewhat surprising for a prominent logician. However, as he was well-versed in

physics, Whitehead developed his version of process philosophy in part as a reaction to the rapidly changing

landscape of physics. Witnessing the challenge to Newtonian physics brought by Albert Einstein's relativity, as well as the bizzare new theories of quantum mechanics,

Whitehead's speculation that reality may itself bend to experience may be seen, in part, as a reaction to the

alarming developments in the scientific world.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was a British philosopher and logician of the twentieth century. He

is considered one of the founders of analytic philosophy.

Bertrand Arthur William Russell (1872–1970)

As a social philosopher, Russell is best known for being a strong pacificst, offering criticism of various governments from World War I to the

Vietnam War.

LogicBertrand Russell was considered one of the top

logicians of the twentieth century. In addition to his own work, he is largely responsible for bringing

attention to the works of Gottlob Frege, which largely reshaped the systems of logic, and their notation, in use today. Russell also famously highlighted a flaw in

the set theory developed by Frege, in which he discovered a contradiction known as Russell's Paradox.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was an American logician, perhaps best known for the Sheffer stroke, a logical operator named

in his honour.

Henry M. Sheffer (1882–1964)

Sheffer was born in Ukraine and came to the United States as a child. He studied philosophy at Harvard University,

and spent most of his career as a professor there.

Sheffer strokeIn 1913, Sheffer showed that an alternative denial, otherwise known as

a nand operation can be used to define every other truth-functional logical operator.

The symbol for the alternative denial ( |  or ↑) is known as the Sheffer stroke after Henry M. Sheffer.

Sheffer also demonstrated that an joint denial could be used for the same purpose, though Charles Sanders Peirce had also made the same discoveries in 1880, but his work was not published until 1933. The symbol for the joint

denial ( ↓ ) is called the Peirce arrow.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Novelist ,came from a middle-class Jewish family in Prague. He lived with his parents for most of his life, despite his hyper-sensitivity

to noise.

Franz Kafka (1883–1924)

Kafka's works are known for his blunt style and absurd situations, particularly in

The Metamorphosis.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was a German psychiatrist and philosopher.

Karl Jaspers (1883–1969)

Jaspers' philosophy centered around what he called the "encompassing". This transcendent reality, as he described, transcended that which we

could percieve naturally, and contained within it human existence. Jaspers, like Kierkegaard, recognized the missing logic of his religious

conclusion, but explained that his "leap of faith" was a choice—which is, of course, an expression of his right.

.,

Jaspers also valued the scientific process, and felt that it was a necessary stage in coming to understand the encompassing. He saw understading the freedom of the individual in the concrete

world—and the obvious limits to that freedom—as the most important part of existence, which led him to be classified as

an existentialist (a classifcation he rejected due to its apparent limitations). Jasper's limits included mortality, conscience,

conflict and chance.

Jaspers was also friends with Martin Heidegger, although they became distant due to differences of philosophy, as well as Heidegger's involvement with the Nazi party.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was a highly influential philosopher (or, as some may say, an anti-philosopher) in the areas of mathematics, language and mind.

Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951)

His first major work, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, was his only work published during his lifetime. His other lectures and essays all appeared after

his death in 1951.

Wittgenstein is also famous for having largely revised his philosophy later in his life. In his

later Philosophical Investigations, he reverses many of the opinions that he had in

the Tractatus. Thus, when discussing Wittgenstein’s positions, philosophers usually

refer to either early Wittgenstein or late Wittgenstein.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Late Wittgenstein believed that philosophical problems did not represent real problems, but

problems of language. The major questions that philosophers have pondered over for hundreds of years were caused by confusion in language. By examining the sources of confusion, Wittenstein

suggests that the problems themselves disappear, without the need of a solution within the

framework of language.

Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951)

As for the assignment of meaning to words, Wittgenstein points out that the relationship between uses of some

words is analogous to the relationship of family resemblance.

Wittgenstein famously says in Philosophical Investigations that his efforts in philosophy are to show “the fly the way out of the fly bottle” — to help philosophy escape the traps of language in

which it is currently caught.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was a french philosopher and christian existentialist. He dubbed

himself as a "concrete philosopher", stressing becoming more involved in one's existence

rather than forming abstract ideas. Marcel viewed philosophy as an inner reflection rather than

the formation of a doctrine.

Gabriel Marcel (1889–1973)

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was a German philosopher and student of Edmund Husserl. Heidegger made

contributions to phenomenonology and existentialism.

Martin Heidegger (1889–1976)

Being and TimeHeidegger spent most of his career dealing with the concept of being, and his most famous work, Being and Time, is an exploration of the nature of being.

Being, Heidegger thought, has been neglected since the birth of Western philosophy. The ancient Greek philosophers began a tradition, according to Heidegger, by describing being only by objects that are beings, rather than

attempting to understand the nature of being — that is, what it means to be

Heidegger explains that being, unlike other verbs which are, in language,

treated equally, is something entirely different. He describes being as a

phenomenological construct, highly dependant on human understanding,

saying famously, "Only as phenomenology, is ontology possible."

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Being and TimeMartin Heidegger (1889–1976)

Whereas more traditional accounts of being, and of existence, describe objects with properties as

independant from conciousness, Heidegger argues that our understanding of being is fundamental to

it.

A major part of Heidegger's account of being is Dasein. The German word Dasein means "existence", but in

Heidegger's use it more specifically refers to the understanding of beings that understand being.

Heidegger rejects the objects and subjects of previous philosophers, such as Kant and Descartes, and describes

Dasein as being-in-the-world, (In-der-Welt-sein). Heidegger explains that previous philosophers have

mistakenly viewed the concious thinker as a subject on its own. Instead, he says, people (or thinkers, or Dasein) are always in the world, interacting with it, influenced by

their mood and generally concerned about being, whether actively or "dimly".

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHERMartin Heidegger (1889–1976)

Heidegger and the Nazi Party

Heidegger's contributions were largely disregarded in the years during and after World War II due to his activity in the German Nazi party from

1933 to 1945. While his political actions may not be honorable or respected today, many of his philiophical works are valuable

contributions when seperated from the man himeself. (Heidegger's support of the Nazi party even seems to contradict some of his existentialist views). Heidegger objected to being labeled as an existentialist because the title put him in the same category as

Albert Camus and Heidegger's former student Jean-Paul Sartre, whom he did not want to be associated with due to their French political standings.

Although Being and Time is dedicated to him, Heidegger eventually rejected the phenomenology developed by Husserl, mostly due to his

Jewish lineage. Heidegger gave a series of lectures on Friedrich Nietzsche, although many saw this as a perversion of Nietzsche's work used to

support Nazi doctrine.

Still, many of the concepts were shared between all of these writers. Heidegger particularly believed in freedom of

choice, and the responsibility for one's actions that naturally followed. Even under pressure, man is still

capable of choice, he explains, and outside influence cannot be blamed for the actions of an individual.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was a German philosopher, best known for his views of logical positivism.

Rudolf Carnap (1891–1970)

Logical positivism is generally the epistemological view that knowledge is gained through empiricism along with

logical (including mathematical) deduction. Carnap rejects metaphysics,

believing that it is to be replaced by proper scientific inquiry, armed with

logical deductions from observation alone. Carnap originally claimed that

metaphysics was a meaningless pursuit, but later refined his view to state that it

was lacking in cognitive content, and thus provides no meaning to science.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was a British philosopher who focused on philosophy of mind, and of language.

Gilbert Ryle (1900–1976)

He famously coined the term “the ghost in the machine” to refer to the soul in the dualism promoted by René Descartes. Ryle believed that the mind is not a distinct entity, seperate

from the body, and that mental processes are merely a description of the physical processes within the physical

brain.

Ryle also introduced the term “category mistake” when describing the problems of dualism. He saw mind-body dualism as redundant in its description, and that when

speaking of mind as a seperate entity, philosophers were making a mistake of category by placing mental events on the

same level as physical ones.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Gilbert Ryle (1900–1976)

In The Concept of Mind, Ryle provides other examples of category mistakes to illustrate his point. He supposes that someone is being shown around a university. During the tour, the person is shown the various academic departments, libraries, museums, sports fields, classrooms and offices. The person then responds, “I've seen the departments, libraries, museums, sports fields, classrooms and offices … but where is the university?”. In this example, the person commits a category mistake by supposing that the abstract concept of the university is something separate, in the same category (or on an equal level of existence) as the classrooms, libraries, etc.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was a Polish logician and mathematician, most famous in philosophy for his semantics of logic

and development of set theory. He is considered to be one of the most important logicians of all

time.

Alfred Tarski (1901–1983)

Tarski developed a system by which a semantics from a metalanguage (such as English) can be applied to an object language of symbolic logic, allowing

logicians to examine not only the syntactic relationship between logical expressions, but the semantics as well.

Tarski's model theory provides the ability for notions that are symbolized by logic and mathematics to themselves be derived from the object languages of logic. His method involves creating models for logical expressions, in which certain propositions or predicate symbols are considered to be true or false

on a given model or interpretation.

From this, Tarski developed the notion of logical consequence as a relation between some premises and a conclusion, stating that the conclusion is the

logical consequence of its premises if and only if every model of those premises (that is, every interpretation which makes those premises true) is

also a model of the conclusion (one which makes the conclusion true).

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

is best known as one of the most prominent philosophers of science.

Karl Popper (1902–1994)

Popper says that in order for a theory to be scientific in nature, it must be potentially falsifiable — that is, any

hypothesis is only scientific in nature if it there is some logical possibility that would falsify that hypothesis. On the other hand,

unfalsifiable things, such as logical truths or religious claims, are not scientific in nature — there is no way to prove them to be false.According to Popper, scientific claims are never fully verified, they are only corroborated very consistently by experience. As long as

there remains a logical possibility that any claim is false, it cannot be claimed to be true with perfect confidence. Hence, science must

admit, and always be aware of, the problem of induction. Rather than making claims which may turn out to be false, it is the duty of science to propose falsifiable hypothesis and then, over the course

of time, test them and adjust theories accordingly.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was a French writer and philosopher who is one of the leading figures in 20th-century 

existentialism. He imagines men as lonely creatures in a meaningless world. He

emphasizes the importance of choice and responsibility. Sartre's influences

include many of the German philosophers, especially Heidegger, of

whom he was a student. He also had a close relationship with femenist writer 

Simone de Beauvoir.

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980)

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was an Austrian-American mathematician and philosopher, and one of the most

important logicians in history.

Kurt Gödel (1906–1978)

Incompleteness TheoremsGödel is perhaps best known for his two incompleteness theorems

which demonstrate the limits of existing systems of logic and mathematics.

The first theorem states that any sound axiomatic system of number theory is incomplete — that is, there are true things that

can be expressed in the system but are unprovable (or undecidable).

The second theorem states that any theory sophisticated enough to formally express its own soundness (i.e., consistency) within

its system can do so if and only if it is unsound (i.e., inconsistent).

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was a French author and philosopher.

Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986)

Simone de Beauvoir was also close friend and lover to Jean-Paul Sartre and was a frequent

editor of his works.

In addition to Sartre, de Beauvoir had a great interest in the works of many other

philosophical thinkers of her time, including Albert Camus. On her own, she is most

recognized for her work The Second Sex which most clearly establishes de Beauvoir’s

feminist views.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was an analytic philosopher and logician. Quine made contributions to the discussion of epistemology, philosophy of language,

philosophy of mind and logic.

Willard Van Orman Quine 

(1908–2000)

Quine is best known for his naturalism, namely his physicalist theory of mind and his behaviourism with regards to language. He is known for his naturalized epistemology in particular, in which he rejects traditional methods of epistemology in favour of examining

the empirical data around human stimulation and formation

“Two Dogmas of Empiricism”In a 1951 paper, Quine asserted that there is no important

distinction between analytic and synthetic statements, arguing that there is no real distinction between those beliefs which are believed and asserted confidently, and those statements which are said to be necessarily true.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

A French writer from Algeria, was famous for his deep, yet concise, literary pieces. In addition to his

novels, essays and plays, Camus was a journalist, and during World War II, a

member of the French resistance against German occupation. His

philosophy, which is described in his essay,

The Myth of Sisyphus, centers around the absurdity

of the human condition. Camus was labeled as an

existentialist but rejected the title.

Albert Camus

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Camus brings a certain humanism to the existing existentialism of his time. While all of his characters are aware (or quickly become aware) of

the absurd, they all rebel against their circumstances. Camus

illustrates his views with his stories of

characters who live by that philosophy.

Albert Camus

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

John Rawls (1921–2002)

was an American political philosopher, and a professor at Cornell, MIT and Harvard.

Rawls is most famous for A Theory of Justice, in which he argues for a version of the social contract

which defines “justice as fairness”.

The Original PositionRawls believed that the social contract must be drawn up from an original position in which everyone decides on the

rules for society from behind a veil of ignorance. The veil of ignorance is essentially a manner of blinding oneself from ones own social status. It is only from behind this veil that

one can truly develop a fair society. When considering whether or not slavery is permissible, for example, one must not know whether one is going to be a slave or a

slave-owner.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

The Original PositionFrom this original position, Rawls believes that two principles of justice

arise. The first is the liberty principle, the idea that all people should have access to their basic liberties — freedom of speech, political

freedoms, personal property and freedom from arbitrary arrest — insofar as those liberties are compatible with the same liberties of other people.

The second principle, the difference principle, states that inequalities in social and economic distribution must be arranged so that they provide the greatest benefit to those with the least advantage. That is, if goods are being distributed in a society, those who need them most should be

given priority to receieve them.

Rawls claims that we must arrive at this conclusion from the original position because we do not want factors beyond our control to dictate

the opportunities we have in life. If we are born at a disadvantage, into a poor family, for example, we must be given the opportunity to overcome it in a way that puts us on equal ground with those who did not have to

overcome the same obstacles.

An asteroid in the solar system's main belt was named in honour of John Rawls, called 16561 Rawls.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was an American professor of history and philosophy, who wrote and lectured

about the history and philosophy of science.

Thomas Kuhn 

His most important work, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1964), focuses on the notion of paradigm shifts in

science. According to Kuhn, science does not progress in a linear fashion, but rather through a series of revolutions in which our

understanding of science abruptly and radically changes. Revolutions inspired by Copernicus, Newton and Einstein are

examples of paradigm shifts.

During the periods between paradigm shifts, scientists are engaged in the more mundane exercise of applying the knowledge

of the current paradigm to current situations, and finding new data to enforce it. Data that seem to contradict the paradigm are seen as errors on the part of the everyday scientist, rather than

anything that may be wrong with the paradigm itself.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

is an American philosopher, best known for his work in epistemology, philosophy of

language and philosophy of science.

Hilary Putnam (1926– )

Mind: Brain in a Vat

Putnam offers a well-known thought experiment on the issue of scepticism: the brain in a vat. In it, he supposes that a brain in a vat, which is fed sensory data identical to that it would normally receive, has

now way of knowing whether it is a brain in a vat or a brain in a skull. Essentially, the problem highlights

the epistemic problem of confirming the existence of an external world.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

is an American philosopher and professor. He is best known for his contribution to epistemology.

Edmund L. Gettier III (1927– )

Gettier is best known for a very short but surprisingly groundbreaking article, “Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?”. In this article, he presents what

would become known as the Gettier counterexamples, which challenged the accepted definition of knowledge.

Since Plato, philosophers have generally considered knowledge to be justified true belief. The

counterexamples presented by Gettier are those of beliefs that seem to have justification in their belief, and

inferences based on those beliefs which turn out to be true by some degree of chance.

The Gettier counterexamples sparked a renewed interest in epistemology and a new question of epistemic luck, as many began the attempt to either save the defininition of knowledge from Gettier, or expand it. Others, still, have found further counterexamples which question further

the definition of knowledge.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

is a German philosopher and sociologist.

Jürgen Habermas (1929– )

Habermas is perhaps best known for his theory of communicative reason, a

theory of human rationality which credits communication as the original

cause of reason. Communicative reason places the human faculty and

conception of reason within the structures of communication, rather

than as something immediately inherent to the individual or present

as a feature of the universe.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

is perhaps best known to the public for his recent books, On Bullshit and On Truth. On Bullshit was originally written in 1986 as a paper, and was published in 2005 as a book. The brief text became a bestseller, and Frankfurt wrote On Truth as a follow up. The first book is a philosophical investigation into the specific sort of deception, while the follow-up discusses the apparent decline in society’ value of the truth. Frankfurt received some fame by appearing on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart twice as a guest, once for each of these books.

Harry Frankfurt (1929— )

Free will and responsibilityIn philosophy, Frankfurt is perhaps best known for his ideas on the topic of free will and moral

responsibility. He provided the Frankfurt counterexamples to the principle of alternative

possibilities (PAP). These examples featured people who had no real choice of whether or

not they would perform some morally impermissible act, but nevertheless

demonstrated some sense of free will in their decision.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

is a Finnish logician and philosopher, and professor of philosophy at Boston University.

Jaakko Hintikka (1929– )

Epistemic LogicHintikka presented a method of doing epistemic

logic, a contextual logic meant to symbolize sentences about knowledge and belief. In his 1962

book Knowledge and Belief, he provides new operators which closely resemble those of

modal logic:•Ka := a knows that…

•Pa := It is possible, for all a knows, that…•Ba := a believes that…

•Ca := It is compatible with everything a knows that…

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Born in French Algeria, became a

prominent figure in continental philosophy,

and is known as the founder of

deconstruction.

Jacques Derrida (1930–2004)

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

is an American philosopher.

Carl Ginet (1932— )

Carl Ginet is also credited with the barn-façades counterexample to both the

traditional and causaldefinitions of knowledge. The barn example first appears in Alvin Goldman’s paper,

“Discrimination and Perceptual Knowledge” as a challenge to Goldman’s

own causal theory.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

is an American philosopher, and professor at the University of Notre Dame. He is known for his

contributions to epistemology and metaphysics, and, as a Christian, for his philosophy of religion and defense of

Christian beliefs.

Alvin Plantinga (1932– )

Christian philosophyPlantinga argues that one can have knowledge of God without

justification, in the same way that one can have knowledge of the existence of other minds. He argues that one may doubt both from

scepticism, but ultimately one must accept both in order to be consistent.

Additionally, Plantinga also argues that there is no “problem of evil”, and that there is no logical contradiction between the

existence of an omnipoetent, benevolent god and the evil that occurs in the world. Plantinga argues that God created human beings with free will, and that free will is necessary for good to

exist. Thus, in order for there to be good, God must allow some evil to exist in the world, otherwise there would be no free creatures

capable of moral good.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Alvin Plantinga (1932– ) Modal Ontological Argument

Plantinga has offered one of many formalizations of Anselm’s ontological argument in modal logic, the logic of neccessity and possibility. His argument may be summarized as

follows:•Premise: In some possible world, Δ, a being has maximal excellence if, and

only if, that being is omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent at Δ•Premise: A being has maximal greatness if it has maximal excellence at every

possible world.•Premise: Maximal greatness is possible.

•So, it is possibly neccessary that an omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent being exists.

•So, it is necessary that an omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent being exists.

•Therefore, an omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent exists.

Plantinga’s argument assumes a modal logic of S5, in which (4) is possible—that is, things that are possibly neccessary are necessary. The main objection to his argument, however,

is with (3), that maximal greatness is possible as Plantinga has defined it.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

is an analytic philosopher and professor of philosophy at the

University of California, Berkeley. He is known for his contributions to

the philosophy of mind and philosophy of language.

John Searle (1932—)

Chinese RoomJohn Searle is well known for producing

the chinese room argument against strong artificial intelligence (AI). Strong AI theorists often suggest that if an artificial intelligence

were created that could perform all of the functions of a human being, it would have

experiences and understanding, just as humans do.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

John Searle (1932—) Chinese Room

To argue against this, Searle first gives the example of a computer that has been built to read

Chinese characters. The computer then takes these characters, and following its programming,

produces a meaningful output in Chinese. The computer is sophisticated enough to fool any Chinese speaker into believing that they are

communicating with another Chinese-speaking human. A strong AI theorist would argue that the

computer's ability to take Chinese characters, interperet them and produce meaningful results implies that the computer understands Chinese.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

John Searle (1932—) Chinese Room

Searle challenges this assertion by giving an alternative version of the machine. This time, an English-speaking person is sitting in a closed room, and has a book, written in English, with the same instructions that the computer's program has. The person is supplied with all of the materials they would need to write Chinese characters, and the book instructs them, based on the shapes of the characters provided to them, how to draw the forms of Chinese characters as a response. Chinese-speakers are then able to slip messages through or under the door, where the English speaker follows his English instructions based on the character and, properly following them, produces meaningful responses in Chinese, just as the computer does. A Chinese-speaker is similarly fooled into believing that the room (or the person in it) speaks Chinese.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

John Searle (1932—) Chinese Room

Searle points out the obvious: that the person performing the task in the Chinese Room does

not understand Chinese, despite the fact that the procedures he

follows are essentially equivalent to those of the computer.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

is an American philosopher and professor at New York University. He has made

contributions to philosophy of mind, ethics and political philosophy.

Thomas Nagel (1937—)

Nagel is perhaps most famous for his 1974 paper, “What Is it Like to Be a Bat?”. In it,

Nagel argues that there is something fundamentally important about

conciousness that is often overlooked — namely, that an organism has mental states and is conscious if there is something it is

like to be that organism. A pure reduction of mental states to physical brain states is

therefore incomplete — we must account for what it is like to be in mental states.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

was an American social and political philosopher and a professor at Harvard.

Robert Nozick (1938–2002)

Political PhilosophyNozick's most influential work is Anarchy, State and

Utopia. This 1974 book is largely a response to A Theory of Justice from John Rawls.

While Rawls sought an egalitarian view of justice that saw the government correcting arbitrary social inequalities, Nozick strongly argued that the role of a government should be minimal. All the state should be concerned with is “the narrow functions of protection against force, theft, fraud, enforcement of contracts, and so on” (“Anarchy, State and Utopia”, xi). Nozick claimed that human beings rights were so strong that the idea of a government having any power over people was highly questionable. As a result, the only thing a government ought to be able to do is to provide protection for certain individual rights from other people.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Robert Nozick (1938–2002) Political Philosophy

Nozick argues for a libertarian political philosophy in which people are generally free, and the government's only role, and

the only reason against anarchy, is for the protection of people. Such a state would arise naturally out of anarchy, but

nothing beyond this minimalist agency could be justified.

EpistemologyNozick also contributed to epistemology with his

tracking theory of knowledge. Nozick offered conditions for knowledge that deal with Gettier counterexamples to the traditional definition of

knowledge by ensuring that knowledge reliably keeps track of the truth.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

is an American professor of philosophy, best known for his contributions to

epistemology.

Alvin Goldman (1938–

EpistemologyGoldman contributed to epistemology a

causal theory of knowledge, which provided a new account of what knowledge is, in response to the

Gettier counterexamples.Goldman also presented a commonly-used

counterexample invented by Carl Ginet, which, unlike Gettier’s examples, does not rely on an inference from

a false premise. Ginet’s example is known as the barn-façades example, and presented Goldman’s

causal theory with a counterexample.Goldman is also interested in the social aspects of

epistemology, and currently serves as editor of Episteme, A Journal of Social Epistemology.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

is a logician and professor of philosophy best known for his contributions to logic, epistemology and philosophy of language.

Saul Kripke (1940—)

Kripke semanticsKripke semantics is a method of providing semantics for non-classical logical systems. In the 1930s, Alfred Tarski provided a model theory for classical logics, but until Kripke, no such theory existed for modal logic. To remedy this, Kripke created the possible world semantics, which described the modal operators of neccessity and possibility in the context of truth in multiple possible worlds.Kripke described a model in modal logic as an object consisting of a set of possible worlds, W, a set of binary relations between them, R and a relation between individual worlds and formulae that are true in those worlds, ⊩. Such a model is expressed through the notation 〈W, R, ⊩ 〉 .

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Saul Kripke (1940—)

Thus, necessity and possibility can be semantically defined: Something is necessarily true in some world when it is true in all worlds

accessible to that world, and something is possibly true in a world when it is true in at least

one possible world accessible to it.

Kripke's semantics have drawn a renewed interest in modal logic and many developments in their study. It has also brought questions from those such as Quine, who ask to what one is referring

when discussing possible worlds, and whether or not such semantics commit one to affirming their

existence.

Kripke semantics

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Australian philosopher, has contributed to the areas of philosophy of mind, epistemology and

metaphysics.

Frank Jackson (1943— )

Mary’s RoomJackson is often cited for his knowledge argument against physicalism in philosophy of mind.

Mary’s Room thought experiment in philosophy of mind.

The argument supposes that a woman, Mary, spends her life in a room where she was unable to see any colour, but nevertheless learns all of the physical facts about colour and colour perception.

Jackson then considers what happens when Mary leaves the room and sees colour for the first time. Since it seems obvious that Mary learns something knew upon seeing colour, the existence of

something apart from the physical world is demonstrated.

Initially, Jackson used Mary’s Room in order to support his dualist response to the mind-body problem, but later decided that the knowledge argument is more intuitive than it is

scientific, and it is actually misleading.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

is a well-known moral philosopher, best known for his utilitarian stance

on ethics.

Peter Singer (1946— )

The central idea of Peter Singer’s utilitarian moral philosophy is as follows: If you can prevent the misery of others without causing similar misery or sacrifice for yourself, you ought to.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Peter Singer (1946— ) World poverty

Singer is known in part for his stance against world poverty. Singer criticizes the gap between the wealthy and the poor, claiming that the fact that some people live with great wealth while others are unable to meet their basic needs is

morally impermissible. It is well within the means of the developed, wealthy people of the world to prevent the widespread poverty in other areas,

and the wealthy would not have to make a sacrifice anywhere near the level that the poor

currently endure. Singer holds that our prefrence of our own comfort over everyone else’s is

unethical, and perhaps even irrational.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

Peter Singer (1946— )

Animal LiberationSinger’s 1975 book Animal Liberation has become an important text outside of the philosophical community among those promoting animal welfare. In Animal Liberation, Singer says that society is

guilty of “speciesism”—in that it favours the well-being of the human species, with nearly universal disregard for all of the

other species on the planet.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

David Chalmers (1966— )The Australian philosopher , is best known for his work in philosophy of mind. He is a

professor at the Australian National University.

Chalmers first addresses the difference between the two types of problems in the science of the mind. The easy problems, he says, are the ones that have to do with how the brain functions and handles specific tasks. The hard problem, however, is how and why the brain gives rise to consciousness at all. Although many theories address the weak problems, Chalmers does not agree that the hard problem is addressed at all by the scientific community.

He then argues for a version of property dualism. In making is his point, Chalmers invokes the Mary’s Room thought experiment from Frank Jackson. He supposes that if someone (Mary, in the example) spends her whole life without seeing colour, yet learns all of the physical and neurological facts about it, she still learns something new about colour when she sees it for the first time with her own eyes.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

David Chalmers (1966— )Chalmers believes that this argument proves the existence of a non-physical fact about consciousness. Therefore, there must be something beyond the physical world as it is known that must account for consciousness. He points out that physics attempts to provide a “theory of everything”, but it will continually fail to do so as long as it fails to include consciousness in its considerations.

As with previous unexplained phenomena, Chalmers supposes that the solution is to add a fundamental feature in order to close the explanatory gap between physics and consciousness. He argues that there must be some new mental properties, what he calls “psychophysical laws”, that must be accounted for, and that those properties must not be reducible to the physical properties of the brain.

CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHER

David Chalmers (1966— )Chalmers doesn”t suppose to know what

those things are, however. He speculates that it may be the case that information theory will come into play — that information-bearing systems give rise to a certain experiential property. The more complex the system, the greater that experiential property becomes, until it becomes conscious.

A potential problem with this speculation, which Chalmers acknowledges, is that it may imply the consciousness of things that we would not normally consider to have consciousness at all. For instance, Chalmers wonders if this means that a thermostat may have some experiential properties, even if they are especially dull. He does not commit to the notion that they do, but the possibility remains in the more speculative area of his thought.

END OFCONTEMPORARY

PHILOSOPHY

This Power Point Presentation is a pre-requisite for completion of requirements in Philo1 (Introduction

to Philosophy with Logic)

BESTLINK COLLEGE OF THE PHILIPPINES1071 Brgy. Kaligayahan, Quirino Highway, Novaliches, Quezon City

Professor: Mr. Ferdinand Pantorilla

Created by: BSED 22011st SemesterA.Y. 2016-2017

This Power Point Presentation is a pre-requisite for completion of requirements in Philo1 (Introduction

to Philosophy with Logic)

BESTLINK COLLEGE OF THE PHILIPPINES1071 Brgy. Kaligayahan, Quirino Highway, Novaliches, Quezon City

CREATED BY :Mamaril, Rose Fatima L.