Perspectives on Perspectives on Research Research

MethodologyMethodology

Darleen OpferDarleen Opfer

Behind the welter of names – positivism, naturalism, Behind the welter of names – positivism, naturalism, post-positivism, relativism, feminist standpoint post-positivism, relativism, feminist standpoint

epistemology, foundationalism, postmodernism, epistemology, foundationalism, postmodernism, each with an array of sub-species – lie important each with an array of sub-species – lie important questions: Is there a single, absolute truth about questions: Is there a single, absolute truth about

educational phenomena, or are there multiple educational phenomena, or are there multiple truth? (Or is the concept of truth itself so truth? (Or is the concept of truth itself so

problematic as to be of no value in understanding problematic as to be of no value in understanding the world?) Can we count on our senses or on the world?) Can we count on our senses or on

reason, to distinguish that which is true about the reason, to distinguish that which is true about the world from that which is false? Are there methods world from that which is false? Are there methods

that can lead us close to understanding, or are that can lead us close to understanding, or are there inherent indeterminancies in all methods? Is there inherent indeterminancies in all methods? Is

knowledge of the world discovered, or constructed? knowledge of the world discovered, or constructed? Can knowledge of the world be evaluated Can knowledge of the world be evaluated

independent of the social and historical contexts in independent of the social and historical contexts in which it exists, or is it always contingent upon, or which it exists, or is it always contingent upon, or

relative to, particular circumstances?relative to, particular circumstances? (Pallas, 2003, p.6)(Pallas, 2003, p.6)

Why Understand Research Why Understand Research Epistemology and Ontology?Epistemology and Ontology?

to understand the interrelationship to understand the interrelationship of the key components of research of the key components of research (including methodology and (including methodology and methods);methods);

to avoid confusion when discussing to avoid confusion when discussing theoretical debates and approaches theoretical debates and approaches to social phenomena; andto social phenomena; and

to be able to recognize others’, and to be able to recognize others’, and defend our own, positions.defend our own, positions.

OntologyOntology

claims and assumptions that are claims and assumptions that are made about the nature of social made about the nature of social reality, claims about what exists, reality, claims about what exists, what it looks like, what units make it what it looks like, what units make it up and how these units interact with up and how these units interact with each other. In short, ontological each other. In short, ontological assumptions are concerned with assumptions are concerned with what we believe constitutes social what we believe constitutes social reality.’reality.’Blaikie, 2000, p. 8Blaikie, 2000, p. 8

EpistemologyEpistemology

the possible ways of gaining the possible ways of gaining knowledge of social reality, whatever knowledge of social reality, whatever it is understood to be. In short, it is understood to be. In short, claims about how what is assumed to claims about how what is assumed to exist can be known.exist can be known. Blaikie, 2000, p. Blaikie, 2000, p. 88

Epistemological Epistemological AssumptionsAssumptions

ObjectivityObjectivity believes that knowledge believes that knowledge exists whether we are conscious of it exists whether we are conscious of it or not.or not.

ConstructionistConstructionist believes that we come believes that we come to “know” through our interactions.to “know” through our interactions.

SubjectivitySubjectivity believes that everyone believes that everyone has a different understanding of what has a different understanding of what we know.we know.

Epistemological ContinuumEpistemological Continuum

Post-Positivism

Positivism

Interpretivism

Pragmatism

Participatory

Postmodern

Objectivity Subjectivity

Epistemological HistoryEpistemological History

Post-Positivism

Positivism

Interpretivism

Pragmatism

Participatory

Postmodern

Assumptions of Post - Assumptions of Post - PositivismPositivism

Absolute truthAbsolute truth can never be found. can never be found. Research is a process of making claims and Research is a process of making claims and

then testing, refining or abandoning some of then testing, refining or abandoning some of them for other claims more strongly warranted.them for other claims more strongly warranted.

Data, Data, evidenceevidence and rational considerations and rational considerations shape knowledge.shape knowledge.

Research seeks to develop relevant, Research seeks to develop relevant, truetrue statements that can serve to explain the statements that can serve to explain the situation that is of concern or that describes the situation that is of concern or that describes the causalcausal relationship of interest. relationship of interest.

Researchers must examine their methods and Researchers must examine their methods and conclusions and control or conclusions and control or limit biaslimit bias..

Assumptions of Assumptions of InterpretivismInterpretivism

Meanings are constructedMeanings are constructed by humans by humans as they engage with the world they are as they engage with the world they are interpretinginterpreting..

Humans make sense of the world based Humans make sense of the world based on their historical and social perspective. on their historical and social perspective. They They seek to understandseek to understand the the contextcontext and then make and then make an interpretationan interpretation of of what they find which is shaped by their what they find which is shaped by their own experiences and backgrounds.own experiences and backgrounds.

The basic generation of meaning is The basic generation of meaning is always social.always social.

Assumptions of ParticipatoryAssumptions of Participatory

Participatory research is recursive Participatory research is recursive and dialectical and is focused on and dialectical and is focused on bring about changebring about change in practices. in practices.

Begins with a stance about the Begins with a stance about the problems in society.problems in society.

It is emancipatory.It is emancipatory. It is inquiry It is inquiry completed with completed with

othersothers rather than on or to others. rather than on or to others. The research process is The research process is cyclicalcyclical..

Assumptions of PragmatismAssumptions of Pragmatism Is not committed to any one system of Is not committed to any one system of

philosophy or reality.philosophy or reality. Individual researchers have Individual researchers have freedom of freedom of

choicechoice to select procedures that best to select procedures that best meet their needs.meet their needs.

Pragmatists do not see the world as an Pragmatists do not see the world as an absolute unity.absolute unity.

Truth is Truth is what works at the timewhat works at the time.. We need to stop asking questions about We need to stop asking questions about

reality and the laws of nature and reality and the laws of nature and start start solving problemssolving problems..

Activity 1: Language Use in Activity 1: Language Use in AbstractsAbstracts

Read the abstracts provided and Read the abstracts provided and underline words which you think may underline words which you think may illustrate the epistemological and illustrate the epistemological and theoretical assumptions of the theoretical assumptions of the researcher.researcher.

What What methodsmethods do you propose to do you propose to use?use?

What What methodologymethodology governs your governs your choice and use of the methods?choice and use of the methods?

What What theoretical perspectivetheoretical perspective lies lies behind the methodology in question?behind the methodology in question?

What What epistemologyepistemology informs this informs this theoretical perspective?theoretical perspective?

Methods – the techniques or procedures used to Methods – the techniques or procedures used to gather and analyze data related to some research gather and analyze data related to some research question of hypothesisquestion of hypothesis

Methodology – the strategy, plan of action, Methodology – the strategy, plan of action, process or design lying behind the choice and use process or design lying behind the choice and use of particular methods and linking the choice and of particular methods and linking the choice and use of methods to desired outcomes.use of methods to desired outcomes.

Theoretical perspective: the philosophical stance Theoretical perspective: the philosophical stance informing the methodology and thus providing a informing the methodology and thus providing a context for the process and grounding its logic context for the process and grounding its logic and criteria.and criteria.

Epistemology: the theory of knowledge Epistemology: the theory of knowledge embedded in the theoretical perspective and embedded in the theoretical perspective and thereby in the methodology. (how we know what thereby in the methodology. (how we know what we know)we know)

epistemology

theoretical perspective

methodology

methods

Ontology Epistemology Methodology Methods Sources

What’s out there to know?

What and how can we know about it?

How can we go about acquiring knowledge?

What procedures can we use to acquire it?

Which data can we collect?

Adapted from Hay, 2002, pg. 64

EpistemologEpistemologyy

Theoretical Theoretical PerspectivePerspective

MethodologyMethodology MethodsMethods

ObjectivismObjectivismConstructioniConstructionismsmSubjectivismSubjectivism(and their (and their variants)variants)

Positivism Positivism Post-positivismPost-positivismInterpretivismInterpretivism

Symbolic Symbolic interactionsiminteractionsimPhenomenologyPhenomenologyHermeneuticsHermeneutics

PragmatismPragmatismParticipatoryParticipatory

–Critical inquiryCritical inquiry–FeminismFeminism

PostmodernismPostmodernism(etc.)(etc.)

Experimental Experimental researchresearchSurvey researchSurvey researchEthnographyEthnographyPhenomenologicPhenomenological researchal researchGrounded theoryGrounded theoryHeuristic inquiryHeuristic inquiryAction researchAction researchDiscourse Discourse analysisanalysisFeminist Feminist standpoint standpoint researchresearchCase StudyCase Study(etc.)(etc.)

SamplingSamplingMeasurement and Measurement and scalingscalingQuestionnaireQuestionnaireObservationObservation

ParticipantParticipantNon-participantNon-participant

InterviewInterviewFocus groupFocus groupCase studyCase studyLife historyLife historyNarrativeNarrativeVisual ethnographic Visual ethnographic methodsmethodsStatistical analysisStatistical analysisData reductionData reductionTheme identificationTheme identificationComparative analysisComparative analysisCognitive mappingCognitive mappingInterpretative Interpretative methodsmethodsDocument analysisDocument analysisContent analysisContent analysisConversation analysisConversation analysis(etc.)(etc.)

Objectivist

Post - Positivist

Survey Research

Statistical Analysis

Putnam’s Social Capital

Constructionist

Interpretive

Case Study

Interviews

Coleman’s Social Capital

Activity 2: Your Own Research Activity 2: Your Own Research DiagramDiagram

Use the blank Crotty Diagram to Use the blank Crotty Diagram to identify the chain that seems to identify the chain that seems to underlie your own research interests. underlie your own research interests. We will share these when finished.We will share these when finished.

EpistemoloEpistemologygy

Theoretical Theoretical PerspectivePerspective

MethodologyMethodology MethodsMethods

ObjectivismObjectivismConstructionConstructionismismSubjectivismSubjectivism(and their (and their variants)variants)

Positivism Positivism Post-positivismPost-positivismInterpretivismInterpretivism

Symbolic Symbolic interactionsiminteractionsimPhenomenologyPhenomenologyHermeneuticsHermeneutics

PragmatismPragmatismParticipatoryParticipatory

–Critical inquiryCritical inquiry–FeminismFeminism

PostmodernismPostmodernism(etc.)(etc.)

Experimental Experimental researchresearchSurvey researchSurvey researchEthnographyEthnographyPhenomenologicPhenomenological researchal researchGrounded theoryGrounded theoryHeuristic inquiryHeuristic inquiryAction researchAction researchDiscourse Discourse analysisanalysisFeminist Feminist standpoint standpoint researchresearch(etc.)(etc.)

SamplingSamplingMeasurement and Measurement and scalingscalingQuestionnaireQuestionnaireObservationObservation

ParticipantParticipantNon-participantNon-participant

InterviewInterviewFocus groupFocus groupCase studyCase studyLife historyLife historyNarrativeNarrativeVisual ethnographic Visual ethnographic methodsmethodsStatistical analysisStatistical analysisData reductionData reductionTheme identificationTheme identificationComparative analysisComparative analysisCognitive mappingCognitive mappingInterpretative Interpretative methodsmethodsDocument analysisDocument analysisContent analysisContent analysisConversation analysisConversation analysis(etc.)(etc.)