personality & individuality. psychological testing all psychological tests have one...

Personality & Personality & IndividualityIndividuality

Psychological TestingPsychological Testing

All psychological All psychological tests have one tests have one characteristic that characteristic that makes them both makes them both fascinating and fascinating and remarkably remarkably practical – they try practical – they try to make it possible to make it possible to find out a great to find out a great deal about a person deal about a person in a very short in a very short period of time.period of time.

Psychological TestingPsychological Testing

Tests can be useful in Tests can be useful in predicting how well a person predicting how well a person might do in a particular career; might do in a particular career; in assessing one’s individual in assessing one’s individual desires, interests, and desires, interests, and attitudes; and in revealing attitudes; and in revealing psychological problems.psychological problems.

These tests can also show how These tests can also show how an individual compares to an individual compares to others.others.

In some cases, tests can even In some cases, tests can even be used to predict future be used to predict future behavior (though these are very behavior (though these are very controversial.)controversial.)

Psychological TestingPsychological Testing There are also some There are also some

dangers to testing.dangers to testing. One of these dangers is One of these dangers is

that we tend to forget that that we tend to forget that tests are merely tools for tests are merely tools for measuring and predicting measuring and predicting human behavior.human behavior.

In some cases, society In some cases, society starts to think of these starts to think of these tests (such as IQ tests), are tests (such as IQ tests), are the FINAL fact, but the FINAL fact, but nothing could be further nothing could be further from the truth.from the truth.

Test ReliabilityTest Reliability Reliability: Reliability: The ability of a test to give The ability of a test to give

the same results under similar the same results under similar conditions.conditions.

There are 3 basic ways of determining a There are 3 basic ways of determining a tests reliability:tests reliability: 1. Test-Retest Reliability: 1. Test-Retest Reliability: If a person If a person

retakes the test or takes a similar test within retakes the test or takes a similar test within a short time after the first testing, does he or a short time after the first testing, does he or she receive approximately the same score?she receive approximately the same score?

2. Interscorer Reliability: 2. Interscorer Reliability: Does the test yield Does the test yield the same results when scored at different the same results when scored at different times by different people?times by different people?

3. Split-Half Reliability: 3. Split-Half Reliability: Randomly dividing Randomly dividing the test items in half and scoring each half the test items in half and scoring each half separately. The two scores should be separately. The two scores should be approximately the same.approximately the same.

Test ValidityTest Validity Any test may be reliable but Any test may be reliable but

still not valid.still not valid. Validity: Validity: The ability of a test The ability of a test

to measure what it is to measure what it is intended to measure.intended to measure.

For example; For example; a test that a test that consists primarily of Spanish consists primarily of Spanish vocabulary lists will not vocabulary lists will not measure ability for measure ability for engineering. A history test engineering. A history test will not measure general will not measure general learning ability. A test you learning ability. A test you take in physical education take in physical education will not measure your ability will not measure your ability to do math, etc…to do math, etc…

Test ValidityTest Validity Determining the validity of Determining the validity of

a test is more complex than a test is more complex than assessing its reliability.assessing its reliability.

One of the main methods One of the main methods for measuring validity is to for measuring validity is to find out how well a test find out how well a test predicts performance –predicts performance – Predictive validity.Predictive validity.

For example; a group of For example; a group of psychologists design a test psychologists design a test to measure management to measure management ability. They ask questions ability. They ask questions about management about management systems, attitudes towards systems, attitudes towards employees, and other employees, and other relevant information.relevant information.

Will the people who score Will the people who score high on the test really make high on the test really make good managers?good managers?

StandardizationStandardization

Tests must be Tests must be standardized.standardized.

Standardization refers Standardization refers to two things.to two things.

First, standardized First, standardized tests must be tests must be administered and administered and scored the same way scored the same way every time.every time.

Establishing NormsEstablishing Norms

Once a test result is obtained, the Once a test result is obtained, the examiner must translate the score into examiner must translate the score into something useful. something useful.

Suppose you score a 32 out of 50 on a Suppose you score a 32 out of 50 on a test…What does that score mean? test…What does that score mean?

Well, if it is a reliable test, it means that Well, if it is a reliable test, it means that you should be able to understand a you should be able to understand a certain amount of information on every certain amount of information on every test, regardless of the way in which it is test, regardless of the way in which it is written. written.

In other words, this score should predict In other words, this score should predict how you will perform at a given level.how you will perform at a given level.

Establishing NormsEstablishing Norms When psychologists design a test to be used When psychologists design a test to be used

in a variety of settings, they usually set up a in a variety of settings, they usually set up a scale for comparison by establishing norms.scale for comparison by establishing norms.

This is usually done by transforming raw This is usually done by transforming raw test scores into a percentile system.test scores into a percentile system.

What is a percentile system?What is a percentile system? Percentile SystemPercentile System: Ranking of test scores : Ranking of test scores

that indicates the ratio of scores lower and that indicates the ratio of scores lower and higher than a given score.higher than a given score.

In other words, you are all ranked from In other words, you are all ranked from highest to lowest…Congratulations.highest to lowest…Congratulations.

Establishing NormsEstablishing Norms In order to make comparisons, tests In order to make comparisons, tests

are first given to a large number of are first given to a large number of people in a sample group – let’s say people in a sample group – let’s say 66thth graders or army privates. graders or army privates.

Percentiles are then established on Percentiles are then established on the basis of the scores that these the basis of the scores that these people receive. (so, in other words, people receive. (so, in other words, tests get harder as more people tests get harder as more people take them.)take them.)

These percentiles are called These percentiles are called “norms.”“norms.”

Norms: Norms: Standard of comparison for Standard of comparison for test results developed by giving the test results developed by giving the test to large, well-defined, groups of test to large, well-defined, groups of people.people.

Establishing NormsEstablishing Norms Your percentile on an Your percentile on an

aptitude test, such as aptitude test, such as Scholastic Assessment Scholastic Assessment Tests (SAT), reflects your Tests (SAT), reflects your standing among people of standing among people of your age and grade who your age and grade who have taken these exams.have taken these exams.

Though, you should Though, you should remember that norms are remember that norms are not standards, they not standards, they merely represent what merely represent what the majority of a given the majority of a given group will do.group will do.

Word…

Intelligence Testing Intelligence Testing Psychologists do not agree on the Psychologists do not agree on the

meaning of meaning of intelligence.intelligence. Yet, the most common definition Yet, the most common definition

for intelligence is…for intelligence is… Intelligence: Intelligence: The ability to The ability to

acquire new ideas and new acquire new ideas and new behavior, and to adapt to new behavior, and to adapt to new situations.situations.

Yet, others believe that Yet, others believe that intelligence is what allows you to intelligence is what allows you to do well on intelligence tests and do well on intelligence tests and in school.in school.

The concept of intelligence The concept of intelligence however, continues to be difficult however, continues to be difficult to pin down.to pin down.

Two-Factor Theory of Two-Factor Theory of IntelligenceIntelligence

British psychologist British psychologist Charles Charles SpearmanSpearman proposed his two-factor proposed his two-factor theory of intelligence in 1904.theory of intelligence in 1904.

Two-Factor Theory:Two-Factor Theory: Proposes that Proposes that two factors contribute to an two factors contribute to an individual’s intelligence.individual’s intelligence.

According to Spearman’s theory, two According to Spearman’s theory, two factors contribute to a person’s factors contribute to a person’s intelligence.intelligence.

The first factor “g,” represents a The first factor “g,” represents a person’s general intelligence.person’s general intelligence.

This involves a person’s ability to This involves a person’s ability to perform complex mental work, such perform complex mental work, such as problem solving.as problem solving.

Two-Factor Theory of Two-Factor Theory of IntelligenceIntelligence

A A second factor, “s,” second factor, “s,” represents a person’s specific represents a person’s specific mental abilities, such as mental abilities, such as verbal or math skills.verbal or math skills.

Spearman believed that every Spearman believed that every individual had a certain level individual had a certain level of general intelligence.of general intelligence.

Many critics argue that “g” Many critics argue that “g” does not measure many other does not measure many other kinds of mental abilities such kinds of mental abilities such as motor, musical, or creative as motor, musical, or creative abilities.abilities.

These critics argue that These critics argue that intelligence cannot be intelligence cannot be reduced to just “g” and reduced to just “g” and expressed by a single IQ score.expressed by a single IQ score.

Thurston’s Theory of Thurston’s Theory of IntelligenceIntelligence

A major opponent of Spearman’s A major opponent of Spearman’s theory was theory was L.L. ThurstoneL.L. Thurstone (1938). (1938).

After testing a large number of After testing a large number of people on more than 50 different people on more than 50 different ability tests , Thurstone concluded ability tests , Thurstone concluded that there was no evidence for the that there was no evidence for the general intelligence that general intelligence that Spearman had identified.Spearman had identified.

Instead, Thurstone proposed that Instead, Thurstone proposed that intelligence is composed of seven intelligence is composed of seven primary mental abilities.primary mental abilities.

He believed that a person’s He believed that a person’s intelligence needed to be a intelligence needed to be a measurement of all seven mental measurement of all seven mental abilities and not jut a abilities and not jut a measurement of one factor.measurement of one factor.

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Gardner’s Theory of Multiple IntelligencesIntelligences

Psychologist Howard Gardner Psychologist Howard Gardner rejected the traditional idea of rejected the traditional idea of intelligence as primarily the intelligence as primarily the ability to think logically.ability to think logically.

Gardner believes this view is Gardner believes this view is inadequate because it omits many inadequate because it omits many important skills.important skills.

Gardner argues for a broader Gardner argues for a broader perspective that includes eight perspective that includes eight types of intelligence.types of intelligence.

Gardner’s Multiple Gardner’s Multiple IntelligencesIntelligences

1. 1. Verbal/Linguistic Verbal/Linguistic Ability:Ability: The ability The ability to utilize to utilize language. Skill at language. Skill at learning, using, learning, using, and understanding and understanding language.language.


2. 2. Logical Logical Mathematical Skills:Mathematical Skills: Ability to process and Ability to process and compute logical compute logical problems and problems and equations. Skill at equations. Skill at solving algebra solving algebra problems.problems.


3. 3. Spatial ability:Spatial ability: The The ability to find your ability to find your way around the way around the environment and to environment and to form mental images of form mental images of it. The ability to it. The ability to comprehend shapes comprehend shapes and images into three and images into three dimensions. Skill at dimensions. Skill at putting puzzles putting puzzles together or molding together or molding sculptures.sculptures.


4. 4. Musical Ability:Musical Ability: The ability to The ability to create and create and receive pitch and receive pitch and rhythm patterns. rhythm patterns. In other words, In other words, skills at skills at performing and performing and comprehending comprehending music.music.


5. 5. Body – Kinesthetic:Body – Kinesthetic: Skill at fine motor Skill at fine motor movements required movements required for tasks such as gem for tasks such as gem cutting, surgery, or cutting, surgery, or athletics. Basically, a athletics. Basically, a sense of how one’s sense of how one’s body should act and body should act and react in a physically react in a physically demanding situation.demanding situation.


6. 6. Interpersonal Interpersonal Skills:Skills: Involves Involves understanding the understanding the feelings of others. feelings of others. The ability to interact The ability to interact with and understand with and understand others and to others and to interpret their interpret their behavior. Skill at behavior. Skill at gauging others’ gauging others’ moods and moods and motivations.motivations.


77. Intrapersonal . Intrapersonal Skills:Skills: Knowledge Knowledge of oneself. Skill at of oneself. Skill at using self-esteem, using self-esteem, self enhancement, self enhancement, and strength of and strength of character to solve character to solve internal problems.internal problems.


8. 8. Naturalist:Naturalist: The The ability to identify ability to identify and classify and classify patterns and patterns and relationships in relationships in natural natural surroundings. Skill surroundings. Skill at distinguishing at distinguishing differences among differences among large numbers of large numbers of similar objects.similar objects.


Critics of Gardner’s theory Critics of Gardner’s theory argue that some of what argue that some of what Gardner called “intelligence” Gardner called “intelligence” are really just skills.are really just skills.

For instance, someone with For instance, someone with exceptional musical abilities exceptional musical abilities or bodily kinesthetic abilities or bodily kinesthetic abilities is really just talented.is really just talented.

These critics claim that These critics claim that intelligence and talent (or intelligence and talent (or skill) are two different skill) are two different things.things.

Intelligence

VS.

Skill

Sternberg’s Theory of Sternberg’s Theory of IntelligenceIntelligence

In 1985, Robert In 1985, Robert Sternberg Sternberg proposed the proposed the Triarchic Theory.Triarchic Theory.

Triarchic Theory: Triarchic Theory: Proposes that Proposes that intelligence can be intelligence can be divided into 3 ways divided into 3 ways of processing of processing information.information.

Sternberg’s Theory of Sternberg’s Theory of IntelligenceIntelligence

The first way is using The first way is using analyticalanalytical thinkingthinking skills, or the ability to solve problems. skills, or the ability to solve problems. These kinds of skills are the ones that These kinds of skills are the ones that are traditionally measured on are traditionally measured on intelligence tests.intelligence tests.

The second way is applying The second way is applying creative creative thinkingthinking to solving problems and to solving problems and dealing with new situations.dealing with new situations.

The third way is using The third way is using practical thinkingpractical thinking skills to help adjust to and cope with skills to help adjust to and cope with one’s environment.one’s environment.

Emotional IntelligenceEmotional Intelligence Another type of intelligence is called Another type of intelligence is called

emotional intelligence.emotional intelligence. Emotional Intelligence: Emotional Intelligence: Includes four Includes four

major aspects of interpersonal and major aspects of interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences.intrapersonal intelligences. One: One: The ability to perceive and express The ability to perceive and express

emotions accurately and appropriately.emotions accurately and appropriately. Two: Two: The ability to use emotions while The ability to use emotions while

thinking.thinking. Three: Three: The ability to understand The ability to understand

emotions and use the knowledge emotions and use the knowledge effectively.effectively.

Four: Four: The ability to regulate one’s The ability to regulate one’s emotions to promote personal growth.emotions to promote personal growth.

Emotional IntelligenceEmotional Intelligence This view of intelligence has This view of intelligence has

intrigued many psychologists.intrigued many psychologists. Major proponents of this view Major proponents of this view

have linked emotional have linked emotional intelligence to success in the intelligence to success in the workplace.workplace.

Some psychologists, however, Some psychologists, however, argue that emotional argue that emotional intelligence is simply a intelligence is simply a measurement of extraversion.measurement of extraversion.

The Development of The Development of Intelligence TestsIntelligence Tests

Among the most widely Among the most widely used and widely disputed used and widely disputed tests in the United States tests in the United States and Canada today are those and Canada today are those that are designed to that are designed to measure intelligence in measure intelligence in terms of an IQ score.terms of an IQ score.

Are they fair?Are they fair? Do they actually judge a Do they actually judge a

person’s intelligence?person’s intelligence? What makes you intelligent?What makes you intelligent?

The Stanford-Binet The Stanford-Binet Intelligence ScaleIntelligence Scale

Binet’s intelligence test has been revised Binet’s intelligence test has been revised many times since he developed it.many times since he developed it.

This test groups test items by age level.This test groups test items by age level. To stimulate and maintain the child’s interest, To stimulate and maintain the child’s interest,

several tasks are included, ranging from several tasks are included, ranging from defining words to drawing pictures and defining words to drawing pictures and explaining events in daily life.explaining events in daily life.

Children are tested one at a time.Children are tested one at a time. Examiners must carry out standardized Examiners must carry out standardized

instructions while putting the child at ease, instructions while putting the child at ease, getting him to pay attention, and encouraging getting him to pay attention, and encouraging him to try as hard as he can.him to try as hard as he can.

The IQ, or Intelligence The IQ, or Intelligence QuotientQuotient

Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Standardized Standardized measure of intelligence based on a scale in measure of intelligence based on a scale in which 100 is average.which 100 is average.

In other words… In other words… IQ = IQ = Mental AgeMental Age X 100 X 100

Chronological AgeChronological Age

- So an 8-year-old child who scored at the - So an 8-year-old child who scored at the mental age of 8 would have an IQ of 100.mental age of 8 would have an IQ of 100.

The IQ or Intelligence The IQ or Intelligence QuotientQuotient

Although the basic principles behind the Although the basic principles behind the calculation of IQ remain, scores are calculation of IQ remain, scores are figured in a slightly different manner figured in a slightly different manner today.today.

Researchers assign a score of 100 to the Researchers assign a score of 100 to the average performance at any given age.average performance at any given age.

Then, IQ values are assigned to all the Then, IQ values are assigned to all the other test scores for this age group. other test scores for this age group.

If you have an IQ of 100, for example, If you have an IQ of 100, for example, this means that 50 percent of the test this means that 50 percent of the test takers who are your age performed takers who are your age performed worse than you.worse than you.

The Uses and Meaning of The Uses and Meaning of IQ ScoresIQ Scores

In general, the norms for In general, the norms for intelligence tests are established intelligence tests are established in such a way that most people in such a way that most people score near 100.score near 100.

This means that about 95% of This means that about 95% of people score between 70 and people score between 70 and 130.130.

Only a little more than 2% score Only a little more than 2% score at or above 130.at or above 130.

Those who score below a 70 have Those who score below a 70 have traditionally been considered as traditionally been considered as mentally handicapped.mentally handicapped.

The Uses and Meaning of The Uses and Meaning of IQ ScoresIQ Scores

More specific categories include:More specific categories include:

Mildly handicapped but educable (55-69)Mildly handicapped but educable (55-69)

Moderately handicapped but trainable Moderately handicapped but trainable (40-54)(40-54)

Severely handicapped (25-39)Severely handicapped (25-39)

Profoundly handicapped (0-25)Profoundly handicapped (0-25)

So, What do IQ scores So, What do IQ scores mean?mean?

What exactly do IQ tests measure?What exactly do IQ tests measure? IQ scores seam to be the most useful IQ scores seam to be the most useful

when related to school achievement.when related to school achievement. They are quite accurate in They are quite accurate in

predicting which people will do well predicting which people will do well in schools, colleges, and universities.in schools, colleges, and universities.

Generally, IQ tests measure your Generally, IQ tests measure your ability to solve certain types of ability to solve certain types of problems…Not problems in general.problems…Not problems in general.

Is this good?Is this good?

Heredity and Cultural Heredity and Cultural BiasBias

Hereditability: Hereditability: The degree to which The degree to which a characteristic is related to a characteristic is related to inherited genetic factors.inherited genetic factors.

In other words, is your intelligence In other words, is your intelligence nature or nurture? Discuss…ok, we nature or nurture? Discuss…ok, we have talked about it before, so let’s have talked about it before, so let’s move on.move on.

So what does Intelligence, Heredity, So what does Intelligence, Heredity, and where you come from have to do and where you come from have to do with Cultural Bias.with Cultural Bias.

Cultural BiasCultural Bias

A major criticism of A major criticism of intelligence tests is that intelligence tests is that they have a cultural bias.they have a cultural bias.

Cultural Bias: Cultural Bias: An aspect An aspect of an intelligence test in of an intelligence test in which the wording used which the wording used in questions may be more in questions may be more familiar to people of one familiar to people of one social group than to social group than to another group.another group.

Cultural BiasCultural Bias

Example:Example: On one intelligence test, the correct response On one intelligence test, the correct response

to the question, “what would you do if you to the question, “what would you do if you were sent to buy a loaf of bread and the were sent to buy a loaf of bread and the grocer said he did not have anymore”…Was grocer said he did not have anymore”…Was “try another store.”“try another store.”

A significant number of minority students A significant number of minority students from lower income areas however, responded from lower income areas however, responded that they would just “go home.”that they would just “go home.”

When questioned why the students marked When questioned why the students marked what was deemed to be the wrong answer, what was deemed to be the wrong answer, they stated that “there was no other store in they stated that “there was no other store in their neighborhood.”their neighborhood.”

Warning: This has NO Warning: This has NO point!point!

Measuring Achievement, Abilities, Measuring Achievement, Abilities, and Interestsand Interests

Aptitude Tests: Aptitude Tests: Estimates the Estimates the probability that a probability that a person will be person will be successful in learning successful in learning a specific skill.a specific skill.

Test results are used Test results are used to determine whether to determine whether a person shows a person shows promise for each of a promise for each of a large number of large number of occupations.occupations.

Measuring Achievement, Abilities, Measuring Achievement, Abilities, and Interestsand Interests

Achievement Tests: Achievement Tests: Measures how much a Measures how much a person has learned in person has learned in a given subject or a given subject or area.area.

Such tests not only Such tests not only enable an instructor enable an instructor to assess a student’s to assess a student’s knowledge, but they knowledge, but they also help students also help students assess their progress assess their progress for themselves.for themselves.

Interest InventoriesInterest Inventories

Interest Inventory: Interest Inventory: Measure’s Measure’s a person’s preferences and a person’s preferences and attitudes in a wide variety of attitudes in a wide variety of activities to identify areas of activities to identify areas of likely success.likely success.

The more a person’s interest The more a person’s interest patterns correspond to those patterns correspond to those of people in a certain of people in a certain occupation, the more likely occupation, the more likely that person is to enjoy and that person is to enjoy and succeed in that profession.succeed in that profession.

The purpose of these tests is The purpose of these tests is to help people find the career to help people find the career that is right for them.that is right for them.

Interest InventoriesInterest Inventories It is important to note It is important to note

that although interest that although interest inventories can be of inventories can be of great value to people great value to people who are undecided who are undecided about the career path about the career path they should take, they they should take, they provide only one source provide only one source of information.of information.

Along with interests, a Along with interests, a student’s abilities student’s abilities should be taken into should be taken into account.account.

A person should not A person should not make an important make an important decision, such as that of decision, such as that of a career, on the basis of a career, on the basis of a test.a test.

Personality TestingPersonality Testing Personality Tests: Personality Tests: Assesses an Assesses an

individuals characteristics and individuals characteristics and identifies possible problems and identifies possible problems and psychological disorders.psychological disorders.

These tests also predict how a person These tests also predict how a person might behave in the future.might behave in the future.

Some of these tests are objective Some of these tests are objective tests, while others are projective tests, while others are projective tests.tests.

So what does that mean?So what does that mean?

Personality TestingPersonality Testing

Objective Test: Objective Test: A limited, or forced A limited, or forced choice test in which a person must choice test in which a person must select one of several answers.select one of several answers.

The Myers-Briggs test you took.The Myers-Briggs test you took. See the Handout!See the Handout!

Personality TestingPersonality Testing

Projective Test: Projective Test: An An unstructured test in unstructured test in which a person is which a person is asked to respond asked to respond freely, giving his or freely, giving his or her own her own interpretation of interpretation of various ambiguous various ambiguous stimuli.stimuli.

An example of this An example of this test is the Rorschach test is the Rorschach test.test.

Theories of PersonalityTheories of Personality

It’s in the PersonalityIt’s in the Personality- Katie and Christy both failed their semester Katie and Christy both failed their semester

examinations in psychology, but they reacted examinations in psychology, but they reacted in very different ways.in very different ways.

- When Katie first saw her grade, she felt sick When Katie first saw her grade, she felt sick to her stomach and had to fight back tears. to her stomach and had to fight back tears. She rushed home, and shut herself up in her She rushed home, and shut herself up in her room to lie in bed, stare at the ceiling, and room to lie in bed, stare at the ceiling, and feel inadequate.feel inadequate.

- Christy, on the other hand, was not upset at Christy, on the other hand, was not upset at all. She ran to the cafeteria to join her all. She ran to the cafeteria to join her friends and make loud jokes about the stupid friends and make loud jokes about the stupid questions on the test.questions on the test.

- Why did Katie and Christy react so Why did Katie and Christy react so differently to a similar situation?differently to a similar situation?

Soooo….Soooo….

The reason that the The reason that the 2 girls acted so 2 girls acted so differently is that differently is that they each have a they each have a different different “personality.”“personality.”

Personality:Personality: The The consistent, enduring, consistent, enduring, and unique and unique characteristics of a characteristics of a person.person.

Sigmund Freud and the Sigmund Freud and the UnconsciousUnconscious

It was Sigmund Freud who first It was Sigmund Freud who first suggested that the phrase “a suggested that the phrase “a slip of the tongue,” was actually slip of the tongue,” was actually much more than that…much more than that…

Freud believed that there was Freud believed that there was something behind these something behind these “mistakes,” even though people “mistakes,” even though people claimed they were just claimed they were just accidental and quickly corrected accidental and quickly corrected themselves.themselves.

Freud was the first modern Freud was the first modern psychologist to suggest that psychologist to suggest that every person has a large every person has a large unconscious.unconscious.

Freud and the Freud and the UnconsciousUnconscious

Unconscious:Unconscious: The part of the mind The part of the mind that contains material of which we are that contains material of which we are unaware but that strongly influences unaware but that strongly influences conscious processes and behaviors.conscious processes and behaviors.

For Freud, these experiences include For Freud, these experiences include feelings and thoughts as well as actual feelings and thoughts as well as actual events.events.

As we have stated before, Freud As we have stated before, Freud believed that all of these unconscious believed that all of these unconscious thoughts and desires directly effected thoughts and desires directly effected the ways in which people think and the ways in which people think and act.act.

The Id, Ego, and The Id, Ego, and SuperegoSuperego

Freud explained human Freud explained human personality by saying that it personality by saying that it was a kind of energy was a kind of energy system, like a steam engine.system, like a steam engine.

According to Freud’s According to Freud’s theory, the “Id” is the theory, the “Id” is the reservoir or container of the reservoir or container of the instinctual and biological instinctual and biological urges.urges.

Id:Id: The part of the The part of the unconscious personality unconscious personality that contains our needs, that contains our needs, drives, instincts, and drives, instincts, and repressed material.repressed material.

More about the Id…More about the Id… According to Freud, the According to Freud, the

“Id” is the lustful, “Id” is the lustful, impulsive, fun, or drive-impulsive, fun, or drive-ridden part of the ridden part of the unconscious.unconscious.

Example: Example: Cookie Cookie Monster… “Me want Monster… “Me want Cookie.”Cookie.”

You are searching You are searching immediate gratification immediate gratification and pleasure from an and pleasure from an action or desire, regardless action or desire, regardless of the consequences.of the consequences.

Mr. EgoMr. Ego The personality process that The personality process that

is mostly conscious is called is mostly conscious is called the “ego.”the “ego.”

Ego:Ego: The part of the The part of the personality that is in touch personality that is in touch with reality and strives to with reality and strives to meet the demands of the “Id” meet the demands of the “Id” and the “Superego” in socially and the “Superego” in socially acceptable ways.acceptable ways.

So, let’s say your “Id” says… So, let’s say your “Id” says… “give me cookie now.” Your “give me cookie now.” Your “ego” would recognize that “ego” would recognize that the body needs food, and will the body needs food, and will continue to need food in the continue to need food in the future.future.

The SuperegoThe Superego Suppose you thought of stealing the food from Suppose you thought of stealing the food from

someone else.someone else. Your “superego” is the part of your personality that Your “superego” is the part of your personality that

would stop you.would stop you. Superego: Superego: The part of the personality that is the The part of the personality that is the

source of conscience and counteracts the socially source of conscience and counteracts the socially undesirable impulses of the “id.”undesirable impulses of the “id.”

In other words, think of it as your “conscience.”In other words, think of it as your “conscience.”

ConfrontationsConfrontations The “Id” represents what a person wants to The “Id” represents what a person wants to

do.do. The “Ego” plans what a person can do.The “Ego” plans what a person can do. The “Superego” advocates what a person The “Superego” advocates what a person

shouldshould do. do.________________________________________________________________________________________- The “Id” and the “Superego” frequently come The “Id” and the “Superego” frequently come

into conflict with one another.into conflict with one another.- Because neither is concerned with reality, Because neither is concerned with reality,

they may both come into conflict with the they may both come into conflict with the outside world as well.outside world as well.

- Freud saw the “Ego” as the part of the person Freud saw the “Ego” as the part of the person that must satisfy the “Id” without offending that must satisfy the “Id” without offending the “Superego.”the “Superego.”

Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms What is a defense mechanism?What is a defense mechanism? Defense Mechanism: Defense Mechanism: Certain specific means Certain specific means

by which the ego unconsciously protects itself by which the ego unconsciously protects itself against unpleasant impulses or circumstances.against unpleasant impulses or circumstances.

Freud believed that these defense mechanisms Freud believed that these defense mechanisms stem from the unconscious part of the “ego.”stem from the unconscious part of the “ego.”

According to Freud, these defense mechanisms According to Freud, these defense mechanisms are necessary for psychological well-being.are necessary for psychological well-being.

They can help to relieve confusion and stress.They can help to relieve confusion and stress.

Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms If you explained your If you explained your

poor performance on poor performance on the last test by saying, the last test by saying, “the test questions were “the test questions were bad; they didn’t make bad; they didn’t make sense,” rather than sense,” rather than admitting that you did admitting that you did not study for the test, not study for the test, you are practicing you are practicing rationalization.rationalization.

Rationalization: Rationalization: making making up acceptable excuses up acceptable excuses for behaviors that cause for behaviors that cause us to feel anxious.us to feel anxious.

Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms When a person has painful When a person has painful

memories and memories and unacceptable thoughts and unacceptable thoughts and motives that cause the ego motives that cause the ego too much anxiety, he or she too much anxiety, he or she may push those thoughts may push those thoughts out of their consciousness out of their consciousness down into the unconscious.down into the unconscious.

The person simply pushes The person simply pushes the disturbing thoughts the disturbing thoughts and memories out of and memories out of awareness without ever awareness without ever realizing it.realizing it.

This is calledThis is called Repression! Repression!

Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms Denial…Not just a river in Denial…Not just a river in

Egypt!Egypt! Denial: Denial: refusing to accept refusing to accept

the reality of something that the reality of something that makes you anxious.makes you anxious.

For example: For example: it is a stormy it is a stormy and frightening night, and and frightening night, and the local television and radio the local television and radio announcers are advising that announcers are advising that citizens take cover and citizens take cover and observe the tornado observe the tornado warnings in effect.warnings in effect.

Michael does not believe Michael does not believe that his town will get hit (he that his town will get hit (he is in denial) and is severely is in denial) and is severely injured by a tornado.injured by a tornado.

Denial Denial

Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms Projection: Projection: Believing that Believing that

impulses coming from within are impulses coming from within are really coming from other people.really coming from other people.

Example: Example: A boy who is A boy who is extremely jealous of his extremely jealous of his girlfriend but does not want to girlfriend but does not want to admit to himself that he is admit to himself that he is threatened by her independence threatened by her independence may claim, “I’m not jealous – may claim, “I’m not jealous – she’s the one who is always she’s the one who is always asking where I’ve been, and who asking where I’ve been, and who was that girl I was talking to. was that girl I was talking to. She’s the one who’s jealous.”She’s the one who’s jealous.”

Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms

This mechanism is called This mechanism is called projection because inner projection because inner feelings are thrown, or feelings are thrown, or projected, outside of the projected, outside of the self and assigned to self and assigned to others.others.

If a person thinks, for If a person thinks, for example, that others example, that others dislike him when in reality dislike him when in reality he dislikes himself, he is he dislikes himself, he is said to be projecting.said to be projecting.

Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms Reaction Formation: Reaction Formation:

Replacing an unacceptable Replacing an unacceptable feeling or urge with an feeling or urge with an opposite one.opposite one.

Example: Example: A divorced father A divorced father may resent having his child may resent having his child for the weekend. for the weekend. Unconsciously, he believes it Unconsciously, he believes it is terribly wrong for a father is terribly wrong for a father to react that way, so he to react that way, so he showers the child with showers the child with expressions of love, toys, and expressions of love, toys, and exciting trips.exciting trips.

Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms A woman who finds A woman who finds

her powerful ambitions her powerful ambitions unacceptable, may unacceptable, may play the role of a play the role of a weak, helpless, passive weak, helpless, passive female who wants to female who wants to do nothing more than do nothing more than to please the men in to please the men in her life – her life – unconsciously covering unconsciously covering up her true feelings.up her true feelings.

Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms Regression: Regression: Going back to Going back to

an earlier and less mature an earlier and less mature pattern of behavior.pattern of behavior.

When a person is under When a person is under severe pressure, he may severe pressure, he may start acting in ways that start acting in ways that helped him in the past.helped him in the past.

Example: Example: He may throw a He may throw a temper tantrum, make faces, temper tantrum, make faces, cry loudly, or revert to eating cry loudly, or revert to eating and sleeping all the time like and sleeping all the time like he did when he was a child.he did when he was a child.

Have you ever stuck out your Have you ever stuck out your lower lip and pouted? Even lower lip and pouted? Even if you were just joking?if you were just joking?

Regression Regression

Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms Displacement: Displacement: Occurs when Occurs when

you cannot take out your anger you cannot take out your anger on the source of your on the source of your frustrations, so you displace it frustrations, so you displace it or take it out, on a less or take it out, on a less powerful person.powerful person.

Example: Example: If for some reason, If for some reason, you wanted to hit your father you wanted to hit your father but were afraid to, you might but were afraid to, you might hit your little brother instead.hit your little brother instead.

Your poor brother gets slapped Your poor brother gets slapped around, partly because he around, partly because he reminds you of your father and reminds you of your father and partly because he is not likely partly because he is not likely to hit you back.to hit you back.

Displacement Displacement

Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms Sublimation: Sublimation: Redirecting Redirecting

a forbidden desire into a a forbidden desire into a socially acceptable desire.socially acceptable desire.

Example: Example: You may be so You may be so frustrated with your frustrated with your friends arrogant attitude friends arrogant attitude that you work extra hard that you work extra hard at football practice, at football practice, pushing yourself to your pushing yourself to your physical limits.physical limits.

You have channeled your You have channeled your aggressive feelings into aggressive feelings into physical activities.physical activities.

Carl JungCarl Jung Carl Jung (1875-1961) was Sigmund Carl Jung (1875-1961) was Sigmund

Freud’s closest associate at one time.Freud’s closest associate at one time. They began to argue over Freud’s They began to argue over Freud’s

theories of the psyche, and 7 years theories of the psyche, and 7 years later, they never spoke again.later, they never spoke again.

Jung disagreed with Freud on 2 Jung disagreed with Freud on 2 major points:major points: 1. Jung took a positive view of human 1. Jung took a positive view of human

nature, believing that people try to nature, believing that people try to develop their potential as well as handle develop their potential as well as handle their instinctive urges.their instinctive urges.

2. He distinguished between the 2. He distinguished between the personal unconscious, which was similar personal unconscious, which was similar to Freud’s idea of the unconscious, and to Freud’s idea of the unconscious, and the collective unconscious, which is a the collective unconscious, which is a storehouse of instincts, urges and storehouse of instincts, urges and memories of the entire human species memories of the entire human species throughout history.throughout history.

Carl JungCarl Jung Archetype: Archetype: An inherited idea, based on An inherited idea, based on

the experiences of one’s ancestors, the experiences of one’s ancestors, which shapes one’s perception of the which shapes one’s perception of the world.world.

According to Jung, the same archetypes According to Jung, the same archetypes are present in every person. They are present in every person. They reflect the common experiences of all of reflect the common experiences of all of society (war, nature, sex, and so on.)society (war, nature, sex, and so on.)

Jung went on to identify these Jung went on to identify these archetypes by studying dreams and archetypes by studying dreams and visions, paintings, poetry, folk, myths, visions, paintings, poetry, folk, myths, and religions.and religions.

Carl JungCarl Jung He found that most cultures share He found that most cultures share

certain beliefs, myths, and symbols certain beliefs, myths, and symbols that are all separated by time.that are all separated by time.

For example: For example: The story of Jack and The story of Jack and the beanstalk is essentially the same the beanstalk is essentially the same as the story of David and Goliath. as the story of David and Goliath. Both tell how a small, weak, good Both tell how a small, weak, good person, triumphs over a big, strong, person, triumphs over a big, strong, bad person.bad person.

Jung believed that such stories have Jung believed that such stories have been described and have occurred been described and have occurred throughout human history and are throughout human history and are stored in the unconscious of every stored in the unconscious of every human being.human being.

According to Jung, we then use these According to Jung, we then use these concepts to develop our concepts to develop our personalities.personalities.

Alfred AdlerAlfred Adler Alfred Adler (1870-1937) was Alfred Adler (1870-1937) was

another associate of Freud who another associate of Freud who left to develop his own approach left to develop his own approach to the personality theory.to the personality theory.

Alfred believed that the driving Alfred believed that the driving force in peoples lives is the force in peoples lives is the desire to overcome feelings of desire to overcome feelings of inferiority.inferiority.

Example: Example: Napoleon, inferior Napoleon, inferior due to his stature and was due to his stature and was highly aggressive and angry due highly aggressive and angry due to this. Eventually conquering to this. Eventually conquering most of Europe.most of Europe.

Alfred AdlerAlfred Adler

According to Adler, everyone According to Adler, everyone struggles with inferiority.struggles with inferiority.

Inferiority Complex: Inferiority Complex: A pattern of A pattern of avoiding feelings of inadequacy rather avoiding feelings of inadequacy rather than trying to overcome their source.than trying to overcome their source.

According to Adler, children first feel According to Adler, children first feel inferior due to their size and abilities, inferior due to their size and abilities, if this feeling is reinforced, it can lead if this feeling is reinforced, it can lead to an inferiority complex.to an inferiority complex.

Inferiority Complex Inferiority Complex

Study for Your Test!Study for Your Test!

Or the Monkey will throw his poo at you!

personality & individuality. psychological testing all psychological tests have one...

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