Peoples of the DesertsPeoples of the Deserts

Populations of Namibia and NevadaPopulations of Namibia and Nevada

Introduction to Desert Bands: The !Introduction to Desert Bands: The !KungKung

The !Kung are simple foragers in the Kalahari The !Kung are simple foragers in the Kalahari desertdesert

They range from Namibia to Botswana and They range from Namibia to Botswana and parts of South Africa (see map, next panel)parts of South Africa (see map, next panel)

Because of the seasonality of both game and Because of the seasonality of both game and plant food sources, they are nomadicplant food sources, they are nomadic

For a similar reason, they comprise small For a similar reason, they comprise small bands of related families between 40 and 100 bands of related families between 40 and 100 peoplepeople

Location of the !Kung SanLocation of the !Kung San

Shaded area: major !Kung and related peoples. Shaded area: major !Kung and related peoples. Most of the !Kung live in Namibia and BotswanaMost of the !Kung live in Namibia and Botswana

Introduction to the Desert Bands: Introduction to the Desert Bands: The ShoshoneThe Shoshone

In many respects, the Shoshone lived in an In many respects, the Shoshone lived in an environment similarly harsh to the Kalaharienvironment similarly harsh to the Kalahari

However, unlike the !Kung, they did exploit a However, unlike the !Kung, they did exploit a variety of zones, from forested mountains to variety of zones, from forested mountains to desertsdeserts

They were also seasonally nomadicThey were also seasonally nomadic Like the !Kung, they were organized into Like the !Kung, they were organized into

family-based bandsfamily-based bands

Location of the ShoshoneLocation of the Shoshone The Western Shoshone extended The Western Shoshone extended

from S. Idaho and W/ Utah from S. Idaho and W/ Utah through the Nevada basin to S.E. through the Nevada basin to S.E. California California

Their ecological zones included Their ecological zones included dry desert of the Nevada basindry desert of the Nevada basin

To the Eastern SierraTo the Eastern Sierra Eastern Shoshone extended well Eastern Shoshone extended well

into Utah and northern parts of into Utah and northern parts of Arizona. Arizona.

Foraging among the !KungForaging among the !Kung

Hunters use spears and bows and arrows Hunters use spears and bows and arrows with tips of weak poison (upper left)with tips of weak poison (upper left)

Main animals: kudu, eland (antelope), Main animals: kudu, eland (antelope), wildebeest, giraffeswildebeest, giraffes

They also rely on small game like They also rely on small game like porcupinesporcupines

Gatherers (always women) dig up roots, Gatherers (always women) dig up roots, gather berries and leaves, and pick nutsgather berries and leaves, and pick nuts

Here, two women are digging out an Here, two women are digging out an edible root (lower left)edible root (lower left)

Property—Or Lack ThereofProperty—Or Lack Thereof Hunting territory is open to anyone within the band—Hunting territory is open to anyone within the band—

but other bands often cross itbut other bands often cross it Water holes are owned by each band—but Water holes are owned by each band—but

neighboring band may use them with the headman’s neighboring band may use them with the headman’s permission—which is always grantedpermission—which is always granted

Arrows may be owned by anyone, and part of the Arrows may be owned by anyone, and part of the game is owned by the persons whose arrow first game is owned by the persons whose arrow first entered the animalentered the animal

Foraging families own the food they have gatherersForaging families own the food they have gatherers

Sharing GameSharing Game

After a successful hunt, bushmen share their After a successful hunt, bushmen share their game—in this instance an oryxgame—in this instance an oryx

The meat is “owned” only to be given awayThe meat is “owned” only to be given away Rules of sharing involve distribution within Rules of sharing involve distribution within

the family and individuals outside the familythe family and individuals outside the family Here a hunter carries a portion of an oryx to Here a hunter carries a portion of an oryx to

his familyhis family Owners of an arrow that first penetrates an Owners of an arrow that first penetrates an

animal also gets a portionanimal also gets a portion This is a typical example of generalized This is a typical example of generalized

reciprocity (see reciprocity (see Band Level of Integration)Band Level of Integration)

Gift Giving as ObligatoryGift Giving as Obligatory

As described in As described in Band Level of Integration, Band Level of Integration, this series, this series, sharing game is an example of Mauss’s obligation to sharing game is an example of Mauss’s obligation to givegive

Meat cannot be preserved, so hoarding makes no Meat cannot be preserved, so hoarding makes no sensesense

It must be consumed quicklyIt must be consumed quickly Sharing is social insurance; the unsuccessful hunter Sharing is social insurance; the unsuccessful hunter

still has meatstill has meat Eventually, he will bag an animal and share it, Eventually, he will bag an animal and share it,

according to Mauss’s third obligation to repayaccording to Mauss’s third obligation to repay

!Kung Social Organization!Kung Social Organization

!Kung typically form bands !Kung typically form bands comprising familiescomprising families

Links between family may Links between family may be parent-child, sibling, or be parent-child, sibling, or even unrelated personseven unrelated persons

Families like this one live in Families like this one live in small, temporary huts called small, temporary huts called shermssherms

Camps may comprise five or Camps may comprise five or six families and their hutssix families and their huts

Upper Limits To Social Upper Limits To Social OrganizationOrganization

The carrying capacity of an environment is the The carrying capacity of an environment is the general cause of population limit.general cause of population limit.

Efficient cause of out-migration is quarrels Efficient cause of out-migration is quarrels between or within familiesbetween or within families

When families leave, they typically stay within When families leave, they typically stay within easy access to water holes and food sourceseasy access to water holes and food sources

Egalitarianism Among the !KungEgalitarianism Among the !Kung

Egalitarianism marks !Kung relations.Egalitarianism marks !Kung relations. Often, if a man bags large game, he often faces Often, if a man bags large game, he often faces

ridicule in a process called “insulting the ridicule in a process called “insulting the meat”meat”

Richard Lee was greeted with ridicule when he Richard Lee was greeted with ridicule when he gave “his” band a large oxgave “his” band a large ox

He later acknowledge that he was behaving He later acknowledge that he was behaving like a white intruderlike a white intruder

An Incident with an Ethnographer An Incident with an Ethnographer among the Dobe !Kungamong the Dobe !Kung

This incidents described in “Eating This incidents described in “Eating Christmas in the Kalahari” by Christmas in the Kalahari” by Richard LeeRichard Lee

Lee conducted an ethnographic study Lee conducted an ethnographic study of the Dobe !Kung or Ju/’hoansi of the Dobe !Kung or Ju/’hoansi (left)(left)

He gave the band a fattened ox to He gave the band a fattened ox to thank themthank them

Reaction: Dobe ridiculed this giftReaction: Dobe ridiculed this gift Lesson: the !Kung Lesson: the !Kung typically typically ridicule ridicule

valuable game.valuable game. This is “insulting the meat” This is “insulting the meat”

Why This Bizarre Behavior?Why This Bizarre Behavior?

Tomazo’s answer: “Arrogance.”Tomazo’s answer: “Arrogance.” ““When a young man kills much meat,When a young man kills much meat, He thinks himself as a chief or big manHe thinks himself as a chief or big man And the rest of us as his servants.And the rest of us as his servants. We cannot accept this. We cannot accept this. Someday his pride will make him kill somebody.Someday his pride will make him kill somebody. So we always speak of his meat as worthless.So we always speak of his meat as worthless. That way, we cool his heart and make him gentle.”That way, we cool his heart and make him gentle.”

Lessons from This TaleLessons from This Tale

Even bandsmen know about inequalityEven bandsmen know about inequality They fear domination by one manThey fear domination by one man Unusual gifts always involve some ulterior Unusual gifts always involve some ulterior

motivemotive So they denigrate this giftsSo they denigrate this gifts The reaction conforms to a model of The reaction conforms to a model of reverse reverse

dominance hierarchydominance hierarchy This is an active suppression of any social This is an active suppression of any social

inequality that may ariseinequality that may arise

Conflict Resolution among the !Conflict Resolution among the !KungKung

Dobe !Kung have been known to enter into disputes.Dobe !Kung have been known to enter into disputes. Issues: usually over womenIssues: usually over women Homicide is not unknown, and poison arrows can and Homicide is not unknown, and poison arrows can and

do flydo fly However, the rest of the band recognizes the potential However, the rest of the band recognizes the potential

of disruptionof disruption For that reason, most individuals do not support For that reason, most individuals do not support

either disputant, and the argument cools downeither disputant, and the argument cools down For further information, see Johnson and Earle, pp. For further information, see Johnson and Earle, pp.

65-8165-81

Recent Developments: Game Recent Developments: Game ReservesReserves

In recent years, governments of both In recent years, governments of both Namibia and Botswana have forced !Namibia and Botswana have forced !Kung bands to vacate their landsKung bands to vacate their lands

This group was expelled from their land This group was expelled from their land in 2002 (upper left) to make way for a in 2002 (upper left) to make way for a game reservegame reserve

This man, among five others, was This man, among five others, was arrested for hunting in the reserve (lower arrested for hunting in the reserve (lower left)left)

They were sentenced to two years They were sentenced to two years imprisonment for the “crime”imprisonment for the “crime”

Comparison: The Shoshone of the Comparison: The Shoshone of the Nevada BasinNevada Basin

The Shoshone relied on a dry environment with hot The Shoshone relied on a dry environment with hot summers and cold winterssummers and cold winters

Meat was scarce, and comprised less than 20% of the Meat was scarce, and comprised less than 20% of the diet; diet included pine nuts and other plant foodsdiet; diet included pine nuts and other plant foods

Social organization was of nuclear families with Social organization was of nuclear families with occasional larger groups for communal rabbit hunts occasional larger groups for communal rabbit hunts coordinated by “rabbit bosses”coordinated by “rabbit bosses”

Owens Valley Paiute lived in a well-watered area Owens Valley Paiute lived in a well-watered area with richer yields of game and plant food, including with richer yields of game and plant food, including pine nuts, whose trees were privately ownedpine nuts, whose trees were privately owned

For further information, see Johnson and Earle, pp. For further information, see Johnson and Earle, pp. 58-6558-65

ConclusionConclusion

The !Kung are one of the most studied The !Kung are one of the most studied foraging societiesforaging societies

They form the end of a continuum from simple They form the end of a continuum from simple to complex societyto complex society

They have neither government nor codified They have neither government nor codified lawslaws

Yet they manage their affairs without themYet they manage their affairs without them Reciprocity appears to be the force that holds Reciprocity appears to be the force that holds

the band together—as it does elsewhere.the band together—as it does elsewhere.