PARTS OF SPEECH, WORDS, CLAUSES

and CONJUNCTIONS

DR. ANEEQA AHSAN

A MUST FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION IN

BUSINESS

GOALS and OBJECTIVES

• Display a functional understanding of English for everyday use as well as for an effective business environment

• To overall improve oral/spoken and written English language

• Have an understanding of contemporary styles and formats of writing for business communication

Parts of Speech• Learning about the parts of speech is the first step

in grammar study just as learning the letters of the alphabet is the first step to being able to read and

write • From learning the parts of speech we begin to

understand the use or function of words and how words are joined together to make meaningful communication.

• To understand what a part of speech is, you must understand the idea of putting similar things together into groups or categories.

Categories

COLORS FRUITS DRINKS LANGUAGES

blue banana milk Spanish

red apple water Arabic

yellow orange soda Japanese

green grape beer English

black lemon coffee Korean

Categorize the following things:

a) violin b) hammer c) drums d) piano e) guitar

a) hammer b) saw c) violin d) screwdriver e) wrench

8 Parts of Speech

• Noun• Pronoun• Adjective• Adverb• Conjunctions• Interjections• Verb• Preposition

THE FUNCTION OF “WORDS”

• FORM A SENTENCE TO CONVEY MEANING

• SOME GIVE NAMES TO THINGS ( IDENTITY )

• OTHERS DESCRIBE THINGS ( ABOUT )

• OTHERS TELL WHAT HAPPENED TO THEM ( ACTION )

WORD STUDY

A word is a linguistic unit that can be moved around relatively freely in a

sentence; can be stressed;

can be pronounced naturally on its own.

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS

• By level of usage

– Common words – Literary words – Colloquial words – Slang words – Technical words

• Common words – Common words are connected with the ordinary

things or activities necessary to everyday life. The core of the common words is the basic word stock. They are stylistically neutral, hence they are appropriate in both formal and informal writing and speech. For example: far, away, joy, happy

• Literary words – Literary words are chiefly used in writing, especially in

books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches. They are comparatively seldom used in ordinary conversation. In English, most of the literary words are of French, Latin or Greek origin. Many of them have their everyday synonyms. For example,far(remote,distant),happy (gleeful,gay,hilarious), cast (throw), edifice (building), endeavor (try), purchase (buy), etc.

– More examples: recognition, distinction, inclination…

• Colloquial words – In contrast with literary words, colloquial words or

expressions are used mainly in spoken English, as in conversations amongst friends and colleagues. They can also be used in informal writings, but are inappropriate in formal speeches or writings. They are marked colloq. or informal in dictionaries. Such as: kid, guy, fellow, gay…

• Slang words • being often used by uneducated speakers , with dialectal

words • being highly informal , vivid and interesting

– Slang is defined as language, words or phrases of a colorful (playfully jocular; humorous), or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary.

– The chief reason for the formation and use of slang expressions is to secure freshness and novelty.

– A slang usage is not generally used in formal conversation unless the speakers are on intimate terms; slang embraces those daring and new expressions that have not been accepted by the majority of people as Standard English.

Eg:– Smoky, bear (police) – Nut, bean, block (head)

• Technical words – Most of these technical terms are Latin or Greek in origin.

In fact, they are part of literary words. Most of the technical words remain essentially foreign to outsiders, even to educated native speakers.

– However, under the influence of radio, television, newspaper and the Internet, we are witnessing a remarkable breakdown of the barrier between technical and common words.

– Many technical words created yesterday by specialists are today heard in ordinary conversation, e.g. moonwalk, space shutter, gene, transgenic, clone, etc.

SMALL EXERCISE– Feeling fatiguedfatigued , Tom retired early. – Tom felt so dog-tired he hit the sack early. – John was dismissed for petty thieving. – John was fired for petty thieving. – Penalties for overdue books will be strictly

enforced. – You have got to pay fines for overdue books. – They approved of the plan. – They agreed to the plan.

NOUNWord that names • A Person • An Idea • A Thing • A Place Kinds of noun; common and proper, singular

and plural;

VERB• A word that expresses action or otherwise helps to make a

statement.• A verb is often defined as a word which shows action or

state of being. • The verb is the heart of a sentence - every sentence must

have a verb.• Recognizing the verb is often the most important step in

understanding the meaning of a sentence.

• In the sentence :The dog bit the man, bit is the verb and the word which shows the action of the sentence.

• In the sentence: The man is sitting on a chair, even though the action doesn't show much activity, sitting is the verb of the sentence.

PRONOUN• The pronoun is a word used in place of one or more

nouns. It may stand for a person, place, thing, or idea.

• Personal Pronouns : I, me, mine you, your, yours she, her, hers, it, its we, us, our, ours they, them, their, theirs myself yourself

• Indefinite Pronouns anybody, each other, no one, someone, one, etc.

• Interrogative Pronouns who, whom, what, which, whose

• Demonstrative Pronouns this, that, these, those

ADJECTIVE• The Adjective Modifies or describes a noun or

pronoun .• Eg; Is that a wool sweater? Just give me five minutes. Did you lose your address book? Answers these questions: What kind? Which?

How many?

ADVERB• The Adverb Modifies or describes a verb, an

adjective, or another adverb. • An adverb is usually defined as a word that gives

more information about a verb, an adjective or another adverb

• Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives and adverbs in terms of such qualities as time, frequency and manner

• Sue runs fast• Sue runs very fast

• Most, but not all adverbs end in -ly • ugly is an adjective• supply and reply can both be nouns or verbs • Many times an adjective can be made into an

adverb by adding -ly as in nicely, quickly, completely, sincerely

• Adverbs of time tell when something happens and adverbs of frequency tell how often something happens

Do it now.I always do my homework

I will see you then.

We sometimes get confused.

They will be here soon.

He usually gets good grades.

I can't meet you today.

I never went skiing.

Let's go tomorrow.

She rarely eats a big breakfast.

They told me yesterday.

He was once on TV.

Have you traveled recently?

He saw the movie twice.

PREPOSITIONS• A preposition introduces a noun or pronoun or a phrase or

clause functioning in the sentence as a noun. The word or word group that the preposition introduces is its object . Eg; They received a postcard from Bobby telling about his trip to Canada.

• The preposition never stands alone !• preposition always has a noun and a pronoun.• Examples; You can press those leaves under glass . Her telegram to Nina and Ralph brought good news. It happened during the last examination.

• The preposition is almost always before the noun or pronoun and that is why it is called a preposition. The preposition and the object of the preposition together are called a prepositional phrase

CONJUNCTION• A conjunction is a word that joins words or

groups of words. and or but either/or neither/nor

INTERJECTION• The interjection is an exclamatory word that

expresses emotion • For example:• Goodness ! What a cute baby! • Wow! Look at that sunset!

THE SENTENCE

DECLARATIVE SENTENCE Makes a statement

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE Asks a question

IMPERATIVE SENTENCE Gives a command

EXCLAMATORY SENTECE Expresses feeling

Write down ONE example of each of the above

IS THE BASIC UNIT OF COMPLETE MEANING

NOUN – THE CORE OF A SENTENCE

GIVES INFORMATION ABOUT THE NOUN

ASKS FOR INFORMATION ABOUT THE NOUN

CONVEYS FEELINGS ABOUT A NOUN

TELLS A NOUN TO DO SOMETHING

THE SUBJECT ( A NOUN – PERSON OR THING)

THE PREDICATE ( SAY SOMETHING ABOUT THE SUBJECT)

THE BODY OF THE SENTENCE

1. I expect my first day at the Iqra university is a memorable one.

2. Meera and Miral are sisters yet they are so different.

3. The trees in Lahore are very green and fresh.4. Maintaining a positive approach in life will

always get you through.5. The cackling of geese saved Rome.

(EXTRACT THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE FROM THE ABOVE )

THE POSITION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

THE SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE MOSTLY COMES BEFORE THE PREDICATE

BUT, SOMETIMES THE SUBJECT IS PUT AFTER THE PREDICATE

a) Attaining heaven is the reward of being an honest person.

b) Down went the rebels.

TO FIND OUT THE SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE, ASK :

WHO WHAT WHICH WHY

THE SENTENCE WITHOUT A SUBJECT !!!

1) Sit down.

2) Do not even think of being late.

3) Please pass the mushrooms.

THE PHRASE

A SENSELESS GROUP OF WORDS LACKS A MEANING LACKS THE COMPONENTS OF A SENTENCE WHEN ADDED TO A SENTENCE AUGMENTS ITS MEANING

a. My overdrawn bank account

b. The car in the garage

c. The papers on my desk

THE PHRASE TYPES

NOUN PHRASE/ PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

ADJECTIVAL PHRASE

ADVERBIAL PHRASE

THE CLAUSE

•WHEN TWO OR MORE SENTENCES ARE COMBINED TO FORM A LONGER SENTENCE, THEY CEASE TO BE CALLED SENTENCES AND, IN RELATION TO THE LONGER SENTENCE OF WHICH THEY BECOME PART, ARE KNOWN AS CLAUSES, EACH WITH A SUBJECT AND PREDICATE OF ITS OWN.

•DISTINCT PART OF A SENTENCE

THE CLAUSES

1. He had a fortnight’s holiday.2. He went to Spain.3. He did not enjoy himself.

PLEASE FORM ONE SENTENCE BY COMBINING THE ABOVE THREE

THE CLAUSES

He had a fortinght’s holiday and (he) went to Spain,

CLAUSE 1 CLAUSE 2

but (he) did not enjoy himself.

CLAUSE 3

THE CLAUSE TYPES

LIKE PHRASES, CLAUSES MAY SERVE AS NOUNS, ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

CONJUNCTIONS - LINKERS

A WORD THAT LINKS WORDS, PHRASES AND

CLAUSES

THE CONJUNCTIONS

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

JOIN SIMILAR ELEMENTS IN A SENTENCE:

1.SUBJECT + SUBJECT 2.VERB PHRASE + PHRASE

CNJN. WHAT IS LINKED SAMPLE SENTENCE

and Noun phrase + Noun phrase

We have tickets for the play and the concert.

but Clause + Clause The blue team practices on Monday but the grey team practices on Friday.

or Verb + Verb Have you seen or heard Yanni’s opera ?

so Sentence + Sentence

I wanted to sit in the front of the balcony, so I ordered my tickets early.

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTION

Both…….and

Not only ….but also Either…..or Neither…nor

Always used in pairs

Join similar elements

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONEXAMPLES

CNJN. WHAT IS LINKED SAMPLE SENTENCE

Both…..and Subject + Subject Both my sister and my brother play the piano.

Either….or noun + noun Tonight’s program is either Mr. Been or Beethoven.

Neither…nor subject + subject Neither the batsmen nor the bowlers showed a fighting spirit.

Not only……. But also

Sentence + Sentence

Not only does Sana raise money for the charity, but she also works as a volunteer worker.

THE SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

MOST COMMONLY USED LINKS SUBORDINAT CLAUSE TO A MAIN CLAUSE

THE SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

TIME CAUSE + EFFECT OPPOSITION CONDITION

after Because / for Although If

before since though Unless

when Now that Even though Only if

while as whereas Whether or not

since In order that while Even if

until so In case

HOME ASSIGNMENT

• STUDY THE USE OF CONJUNCTIONS THOROUGHLY

• TEST IN NEXT CLASS