palaeoclimatology and archaeology in the near east

11
PALAEOCLIMATOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE NEAR EAST* Ralph S. Solecki Columbia University, New York, N.Y. Arlette Leroi-Gourhan MusCe de I'Homme, Paris, France Archaeological investigations combined with interdisciplinary studies in allied fields at Shanidar Cave and the nearby village site of Zawi Chemi Shani- dar in the Zagros Mountains of northern Iraq have produced data that enable us to establish climatic conditions there on a relatively firm basis from at least 50,000 years ago. The cave, reported by Solecki (1952, 1953a and b; 1955a and b; 1959, 1960), and Solecki and Meyer Rubin (1958), situated at 36" 50' N lat., and 44" 20' E long. is one of the deepest stratified archaeological sites in the Near East. Botanical remains have been found and identified which, coupled with a series of 16 carbon-14 dates extending back 50,000 years, gives us an unusually good index of climatic changes there. The carbon-14 samples were check dated by four separate laboratories: Columbia University's Lamont Geological Observa- tory at Palisades, N.Y., the United States Geological Survey laboratory in Washington, D.C., the University of London Geochronological Laboratory, London, England, and the Groningen Laboratory, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands. The dated layers of the cave extend down to about the upper third of the deposits. The advantages of a dated sequence of a unit of cave deposits are readily apparent. There is no fear of losing the thread of continuity as in a reconstructed sequence from several sites. One primarily archaeological and two primarily geologically based recon- structions of the Near Eastern climatic sequence have been recently attempted. F. Clark Howell (1959) has drawn up a prehistory of the Levant based essen- tially upon a typology of the stone industries and, to some extent, on the soil characteristics of the sites. Karl W. Butzer (1958) has worked with geological considerations, and some dependence on archaeological sequences. The more sophisticated analysis of Herbert E. Wright, Jr. (in R. J. Braidwood and B. Howe, 1960) is based principally upon geological evidences. Howell's work is open to criticism since there is doubt that similar archaeological (or ho- motaxial) industries are necessarily contemporaneous in wide geographic areas and, in the Near East, the situation is complicated further by differing environments. Furthermore, the stratigraphic framework of his sequences, based as it is on the works of excavators of different backgrounds and training, is also in part open to question. Of the two geologically based studies, Wright has evaluated the data more critically. Karl Butzer did not have certain of the literature available to him. Wright has used the geological data as well as his own original work in the Near East for his reconstruction. However, it is apparent that geological findings of * The work described in this article was supported in part by grant from the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. 729

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PALAEOCLIMATOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE NEAR EAST*

Ralph S. Solecki Columbia University, New York, N .Y .

Arlette Leroi-Gourhan MusCe de I'Homme, Paris, France

Archaeological investigations combined with interdisciplinary studies in allied fields a t Shanidar Cave and the nearby village site of Zawi Chemi Shani- dar in the Zagros Mountains of northern Iraq have produced data that enable us to establish climatic conditions there on a relatively firm basis from a t least 50,000 years ago.

The cave, reported by Solecki (1952, 1953a and b ; 1955a and b; 1959, 1960), and Solecki and Meyer Rubin (1958), situated a t 36" 50' N lat., and 44" 20' E long. is one of the deepest stratified archaeological sites in the Near East. Botanical remains have been found and identified which, coupled with a series of 16 carbon-14 dates extending back 50,000 years, gives us an unusually good index of climatic changes there. The carbon-14 samples were check dated by four separate laboratories: Columbia University's Lamont Geological Observa- tory a t Palisades, N.Y., the United States Geological Survey laboratory in Washington, D.C., the University of London Geochronological Laboratory, London, England, and the Groningen Laboratory, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands. The dated layers of the cave extend down to about the upper third of the deposits. The advantages of a dated sequence of a unit of cave deposits are readily apparent. There is no fear of losing the thread of continuity as in a reconstructed sequence from several sites.

One primarily archaeological and two primarily geologically based recon- structions of the Near Eastern climatic sequence have been recently attempted. F. Clark Howell (1959) has drawn up a prehistory of the Levant based essen- tially upon a typology of the stone industries and, to some extent, on the soil characteristics of the sites. Karl W. Butzer (1958) has worked with geological considerations, and some dependence on archaeological sequences. The more sophisticated analysis of Herbert E. Wright, Jr. (in R. J. Braidwood and B. Howe, 1960) is based principally upon geological evidences. Howell's work is open to criticism since there is doubt that similar archaeological (or ho- motaxial) industries are necessarily contemporaneous in wide geographic areas and, in the Near East, the situation is complicated further by differing environments. Furthermore, the stratigraphic framework of his sequences, based as it is on the works of excavators of different backgrounds and training, is also in part open to question.

Of the two geologically based studies, Wright has evaluated the data more critically. Karl Butzer did not have certain of the literature available to him. Wright has used the geological data as well as his own original work in the Near East for his reconstruction. However, it is apparent that geological findings of

* The work described in this article was supported in part by grant from the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.

729

730 Annals New York Academy of Sciences the kind used by these investigators give only gross temporal implications and are not too satisfactory for finer separations in cultural deposits. In fact, Wright’s colleagues, Charles A. Reed and R. J. Braidwood (in R. J. Braidwood and B. Howe, 1960, p. 163) could not confirm the evidence for climatic changes as postulated by Wright.

Taking the cue from palaeobotanical research in other areas such as, for ex- ample, northern Europe, where these studies are far advanced, investigators in Near Eastern palaeodimatology have recognized that the most sensitive index of climate obtainable is that constructed from pollen analysis. Thus far no such sequence has been available in the Near East. There are certain difficul- ties attendant upon pioneer work of this sort in this region. As Wright has pointed out (in R. J. Braidwood and B. Howe, 1960, p. 96), the flora of the eastern Mediterranean area is not well known, and there are few good lake and swamp sites from which a climatic sequence could be obtained. Dated material from such sites is another factor for consideration.

In default of pollen remains, the palaeoclimatological sequence therefore had to depend upon such biological and geological evidences as faunal remains, mollusks, sea levels where applicable, terraces, soil analysis, and other indicators. Faunal remains and mollusks have played a great part in attempts at gauging climatic sequences in archaeological sites.

Regarding faunal remains, we recognize that cultural selection, or the cultural filter through which the material passes, plays a large part in the presence or absence of remains in archaeological deposits. We do not have to dig for such evidence. Today, for instance, wild boars run free in Moslem Kurdistan, Iraq, whereas the other wild animals are almost extinct. No wild boar remains can be found in the upper modern layers at Shanidar Cave nor at the village site of Zawi Chemi Shanidar.

Man is disposed to hunt one type of animal in favor of another for other more obvious reasons. For instance, in archaeological deposits the proportion of herbivore animal remains represented are overwhelming as compared with the carnivore remains. The simple reason for this is that the latter are more difficult and dangerous to hunt and are also probably less numerous (a factor undoubtedly not so important as the first two). In short, there are a number of very excellent reasons why certain animal species are heavily represented in the archaeological record, and others not so numerous.

The classic climatic sequence based upon faunal remains is the Mt. Carmel, Israel, sequence (D. M. A. Bate, in D. A. E. Garrod and D. M. A. Bate, 1937; F. E. Zeuner, 1958) has received a number of criticisms, some well grounded and others, perhaps, less justifiable (M. Stekelis and G. Haas, 1952; R. Vaufrey, 1938, 1939; F. C. Howell, 1959). The criticism ranged from the method of collection of the faunal remains (the basis of the hypothesis) to the cultural factors involved. Most recently, the sequence has gone the full circle, and has received acceptance again (C. B. M. McBurney, 1960, pp.

Although they occur in the area of Shanidar and have been found in the deepest deposits of the cave, they were certainly not native to the cave interior. They must have been brought in either by whim of man, accident, or caprice of nature, or for food. The only

47-48). Mollusks have offered similar difficulties.

Solecki & Leroi-G0urha.n: The Near East 73 1

horizon in which they occur in great numbers is in the Mesolithic and Proto- Neolithic layers. At that time, for some reason, people about 10,500 to 12,000 years ago relished snails, and appeared to have eaten great quantities of them. Snails furthermore, are not so precise indicators of climate as it was once hoped they would be (C. A. Reed and R. J. Braidwood, in R. J. Braidwood and B. Howe, 1960, p. 164); yet Reed and Braidwood (ibid, p. 165) use snail shells as a final climate gauge on the open site, Barda Balka, in Iraq.

We note concerning the environmental sequence of northeastern Iraq that Reed and Braidwood (in R. J. Braidwood and B. Howe, 1960, p. 163) have the impression, based on the studies of animal bones, snails, and certain of the woody floral remains that there has been little change in the biota of that region in late glacial and postglacial time. This, despite Wright’s evidence for moun- tain glaciation, terrace building, and alluviation, points to climatic shifts. Our own climatological data from Shanidar Cave, based on palaeobotanical evidence and trace element studies have shown that there are truly marked fluctuations in climate in this region. In fairness to Reed and Braidwood however, they have indicated that their observations might be subject to re- vision. It is evident that geological and botanical data not culturally induced are more useful criteria for climatological purposes than the materials of ar- chaeological deposits which are laid down through a cultural filter. Man could not control the natural phenomena such as floods and the dispersal of pollens. Nevertheless reflection on the subject of pollen deposition shows that even palaeobotanical evidence should be accepted with some caution. The general cautions to be considered are again the natural and unnatural agents. The former include the elements, such as wind and water. The latter include man as the primary agent. In the front of caves, the wind is the principal carrying agent of pollens. On the other hand, toward the rear of the caves, in the corridors and recesses, where the wind has less access, the principal carrying agent may be man or animals; the pollen being brought in on the feet or in the furs. It is quite conceivable that man brought pollens into the site or cave with his food; that is, the pollens may have been trapped in the fur of the newly captured or killed animal, or in such vegetal food as he brought in: even with the boughs and foliage and his very bedding of spread grasses. This would certainly change the distribution of pollen remains in cave sites or other habitations. Furthermore, we are apprised of the fact that, on the basis of modern sampling of pollen, what is found in the deposits, whether it is a lake deposit or an occupational cave deposit, may not necessarily represent the true assemblage and percentage of floral remains in the area.

Anticipating future cave deposit pollen studies, we can be sure that the correlating of their pollen diagrams may not be easy. No two caves have the same geographical and ecological environments; moreover no two caves will have the same cultural deposits.

The Prehistory of Shanidar Cave and Zawi Chemi Shanidar These two sites are situated near each other, the cave site on the side of

Baradost Mountain, and the village site (Zawi Chemi Shanidar) on a terrace above the Greater Zab River. The deposits of the cave site, nearly 14 m. deep to bedrock, have been divided into four major cultural layers, lettered in

732 Annals New York Academy of Sciences FIGURE 1 from top to bottom, A, B, C, and D. The first layer (A), has been identified as from Modern to Neolithic in age; the second layer (B) has been subdivided into B1 and B2 with the corresponding cultural tags Proto-Neo- lithic and Mesolithic; the third layer (C) is called Upper Palaeolithic or, here,

UPPER PALAEOLITHIC

[BARADOSTIANI

MIDDLE PALAEOLlTHlC [ MOUSTERIAN 1

I

45 F E E T

NEOLITMC

NEANDERTHAL II NEANDERTHAL CHILD

L X - - ---*- - _ -

e v e

FIGURE 1.

I

‘NEANDERTHALS I V , V I

Baradostian; and the fourth layer, the thickesl, is the Middle Palaeolithic Mousterian layer. ‘There is a marked chronological and cultural hiatus be- tween layers A and 13, between B and C, and between C and D.

The village site of Zawi Chemi Shanidar corresponds culturally and chrono- logically with layer B1 of Shanidar Cave. In fact, it would appear that the village people wintered in the cave and summered on the river terrace.

Solecki & Leroi-Gourhan: The Near East The Pollen Analysis

Initially Gunnar Erdtman of the Palynological Laboratory of the Uni- versity of Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden played a role in the palaeobotanical studies. He had collected a series of samples himself in the field at Shanidar in 19.57. However, he reported that his findings proved to be pollen-sterile.

In the event that the lot shipped to Erdtman should go astray or suffer mishap, a duplicate series of the soils was collected. Following the news that the samples examined by Erdtman were sterile (using his method), Solecki learned that Arlette Leroi-Gourhan of the Mude de 1’Homme was interested in trying her method of pollen analysis on the duplicate Shanidar samples. Seven soil samples from the Zawi Chemi Shanidar village site and 23 soil samples from Shanidar Cave were sent to her through the Smithsonian Insti- tution, with which Solecki was then associated.

Leroi-Gourhan’s method of pollen analysis has yielded the following results, as stated in her preliminary announcement.* Thus far she has been able to get five determinations in layer D, two in layer C, and two in layer B of Shani- dar Cave. These determinations, coupled with the carbon-14 dates available for Shanidar, give us an assessment of the palaeoclimate in this part of the Near East. This should not be construed to mean that the total picture is clear; however, since it is certainly evident that there are gaps in the present chain of evidence that need filling. It is hoped that some of these links may be forthcoming in the new series of samples sent to Leroi-Gourhan from the 1960 Shanidar season.

The data incorporated in Leroi-Gourhan’s preliminary study is submitted below. “Datum” measurement is a t or about the surface level of the cave floor.

According to Leroi-Gourhan, the study of fossil pollen grains collected in cave sites differs greatly from that of bog samples. Since there are only a few, poorly known analyses of cave samples, it seems useful to present a few pre- liminary remarks on these differences.

Due to favorable conditions of preservation, particularly the humidity, the number of pollen grains found in bog samples is very high. A thousand pollen grains or more are available on one slide. The study can be completed rela- tively rapidly and is based on a valid statistical sample. In cave samples, on the contrary, the number of pollen grains on each slide ranges usually from only 1 to 15. This makes it necessary to examine numerous slides and, in certain cases, even to prepare 2 or 3 samples from the same archaeological layer in order to obtain a t least 30 to preferably 100 pollen grains for study. In some rare cases, 2 or 3 thousand pollen grains are available, but this is exceptional.

Pollen grains found in bogs for the main part had been deposited by the wind. From the botanical point of view this is suspect since the pollen spectra are not truly representative of the local vegetation. Anemophilous pollen grains such

Translated by Jacques Bordaz, Research Associate, Columbia University. R. Solecki is responsible for any errors committed in the use of Leroi-Gourhan’s data, and for the material other than that submitted by her.

733

In the village site, she has found three determinations.

* “First Data for the Climatological Study of Shanidar Cave, Iraq.”

734 Annals New York Academy of Sciences as those from pines and walnut trees predominate in the samples; furthermore, they might have traveled long distances.

The pollen grains deposited in them came from the immediate vicinity, picked up in nearby bushes and grasses by animals and man. The pollen grains could be brought into the cave on the feet and clothing of people and on the furs of animals. The relative proportion of botanical species would therefore be relatively belter preserved, and the pollen spectra would represent vegetation existing in the immediate vicinity of the cave. An open-air settlement such as Zawi Chemi Shanidar is closer palynologically to a cave habitation site than to a peat bog. The small differences existing between the samples of Zawi Chemi Shanidar and those of the corresponding layers of Shanidar Cave are probably due to their own setting and to a small but distinct time difference.

From this point of view, caves offer certain advantages.

Pollen Analysis of the Shanidar Cave Soils The Middle Palaeolithic (Mousterian) layer D. In the cave, the first sample

(8.6 m. below datum) was collected in the upper middle part of the Mousterian layer in a stalagmitic crust indicative of a wet period. A total of 121 pollen grains from this layer have been studied, 35 of which are pollen grains of Phoenix dactylitera (date palm).

The flora is quite diversified and probably includes pollen grains from dif- ferent vegetation zones existing on the slopes leading to the cave. Illustrating this possibility among the pollen are two pollen grains of Quercus (oak), one of which is of Quercus ilex; the other one is probably of a deciduous species. It is unlikely that these two trees grew side by side. The date-palm trees were probably located a t the bottom of the valley, about 1000 feet below the cave. The following species were probably a t higher altitudes along the mountain slopes: Ulmus (elm), Pinus (pine), Juglans (walnut), Rhamnus (buck thorn). Evidence for a somewhat dry, grassy flora is also found. Most of these pollen grains are Cichoriaceae (27 pollen grains), Chenopodiaceae (10 pollen grains) and Labiatae.

The external layer or exine has become transparent, although probably very hard. For instance, certain Cichoriaceae, easily recognizable by their pores and spines, look very much like crystals.

The second sample (7.5 m. below datum) to be studied was collected from the occupation soil below the skeletal remains of Shanidar Neanderthal 11. Four pollen grains of Abies (fir) indicate a very significant cooling of the climate. Parts of the mountain slopes were forested and covered with grasses: in other places, dry grasses were still present, including Chenopodiaceae, Anthemideae, and Ephedra.

There are too few pollen grains available from the upper middle of the Mousterian layer to permit any valid conclusions to be drawn. Important climatic fluctuations might have occurred in this range of which we do not have any record.

At the top of the Mousterian layer, 2 samples collected a t depths of 4.25 m. and 4.35 m. are botanically quite similar and seem to represent the most

The fossilization of the pollen grains in this sample is unusual.

Solecki & Leroi-Gourhan: The Near East 735 typical Shanidar environment of the time. This includes pine, juniper, oak, and chestnut trees on the slopes of the mountain, and date palms and cypress a t the bottom of the valley. A trend towards a wetter climate might be more pronounced in the upper part of the Mousterian layer.

A gap of ca. 10,000 years occurs between the Mousterian and the Baradostian layers. Two analyses from the Baradostian layer were possible. Each indicated a different climatic picture. Near the base of the layer (4.0 m. below datum), the sample indicates the first definitely dry climate that has been recorded at the cave. A total of 229 pollen grains were counted, of which 207 were herbaceous. The pollen spectrum indicates a typical steppe vegetation with Compositae and Labiae, including Armeria, Ephedra, Fagopyrum and Centaurea. Present still are a few pollen grains of date palm, although much less than in the lower of the Mousterian layer samples. It cannot be securely established that this very dry period represents an interstadial. Comparing this radiocarbon dated horizon with contemporary climate phases in Europe, it might correspond with the first dry period of the Upper Palaeolithic starting ca. 34,000 B.C. Ac- cording to radiocarbon dates, a climatic correspondence would therefore seem to have existed at that time between western Europe and northern Iraq.

The sample collected at 3.0 m. depth indicates that wet conditions brought a new increase of forest cover with cold characteristics, well demonstrated by the presence of alder and ash-tree pollens. Furthermore, pollen grains of Graminae are more numerous than those of Compositae.

The Mesolithic (Shanidar BZ) and the Proto-Neolithic (Shanidar B1 and Zawi Chemi Shanidar). Material for this horizon a t the cave and a t the valley site of Zawi Chemi Shanidar may be considered together. The samples are botanically identical, except that trees are more numerous a t the mountain site. There is a gap of ca. 14,000 years at Shanidar Cave between the Bara- dostian layer and the Mesolithic layer, ranging perhaps from 26,000 to 12,000 B.P. This corresponds in Europe with the coldest phase of the Wurm, or Wurm Maximum. Solecki suggests that the cold conditions are the rather plausible reason why this cave site was abandoned during this interval. Fur- ther more Mme. Leroi-Gourhan believes that there is evidence for a flooding of the cave a t the end of this period, perhaps due to snow melting. The study of the sample taken at the base of the Mesolithic layer (Shanidar B2) indicates a mixture of two sediments. Pollen grains typical of the period are present, such as those of cypress, pine, and chestnut tree but, in addition, one finds evidence of other much older plants, dating perhaps to the end of the Tertiary. Such plants include ancient ferns, striated pollen grains, and a perfect pollen grain of Acacia. An intrusion of older sediments, probably due to water, seems therefore to be indicated.

The nearness of the village site of Zawi Chemi Shanidar to water is confirmed by the presence of moss spores. However, the pollen spectra generally indicates an increasing condition of dryness.

It is still difficult to draw a large number of inferences on the basis of the Shanidar data since there is a complete lack of comparative material from this region. However, it seems that although a great amount of time must be

The Upper Palaeolithic (Baradostian) layer C.

Thereafter the climate became drier.

73 6 Annals New York Academy of Sciences devoted to it, the palynology of the Quaternary sediments of the Near East can yield important. results.

The study of Bruno E. Sabels, of the Institute of Geophysics, University of California at Los Angeles, Calif., is abstracted below. The arrangements for this work was done by Richard Shutler, Jr.,of the Nevada State Museum,Carson City, Nev. Shutler has identified pollen in a Shanidar Cave soil sample that he has examined, although the analysis is not yet completed. The trace ele- ment studies of Sahels summarized here have yielded data that on the whole, corroborates Leroi-Gourhan’s climatological findings.

Trace Element Study of the Shanidar Cave Soils

An independent study of the soils for pollen and trace elements is being made in the United States, as intimated above. Sabels prepared five samples from Shanidar Cave for emission-spectrographic analysis. I t was found that elements of interest in the spectra were Si, Mg, Al, Cu, Na, Ti, Ca, Mn, K, Sr, and Cr. Of particular interest in this group are Cu, Ti, Ni, Mn, Cr, K, Na, and Ca. The samples are described from top downward in the section, as they were recovered.

A sample taken from 1.4 m. depth indicated in the analysis the elements Na, K, Ca, Cu and Mn. This showed that the climate was similar to the present, with no pronounced aridity. There was no lack of rainfall, yet no pronounced humidity either. The soil type was chestnut .

The second sample was collected a t the base of this horizon a t a depth of 2.4 m. The carbon-14 date for this zone was ca. 10,600 B.P. The analysis (Na, K, Cu, Cr) indicated that the climate was cooler and more moist than the climate indicated in the layer-A sample men- tioned above. It was probably subhumid, and is believed to be a transition stage.

The third sample from toward the base of this layer was collected at a depth of 4.85 m. This horizon is given an approximate age based on radiocarbon dating of over 35,000 B.P. The index of climate reflected by all elements is cool and humid conditions. The soil is from chernozem to podzol type.

The fourth sample was collected a t a depth of 7.3 m. in a horizon well below the level dated as 50,000 B.P. (carbon-14 sample collected from a depth of 5.0 m.). This sample indicates the coldest and moistest climate for which evidence has been obtained thus far by this method. Most trace-element indicators reach their maximum values (Cr, Mn, Cu, Ti).

It is the oldest sample examined by Sabels. The trace element analysis of this sample indicated that there was a change of climatic conditions. The climate was probably an interstadial according to Sabels. I t represented the climate like that indicated by the sample from layer B or from layer A, although actu- ally neither was as semiarid as the latter nor as subhumid as the former. Sabels

Modern to Meolithic layer A .

Proto-Neolithic layer B1.

Upper Palaeolithic (Baradostian) layer C.

Middle Palaeolithic (Mousterian) layer D.

The fifth sample, also from this layer, was collected a t a depth of 8.3 m.

Solecki & Leroi-Gourhan: The Near East 73 7 notes that “. . . the true nature of the last sample. . . will become apparent upon analysis of the subsequent material down to the bottom of the cave.”

Discussion of Leroi-Gourhan’s and Sabels’ Findings

The question before us is: How do these findings of Sabels and Leroi-Gour- han correlate with each other? First, however, is the question of how closely in the stratigraphy are the samples matched. Unfortunately Leroi-Gourhan’s present tests were made on a different series of samples and from a different set of proveniences than those of Sabels. Moreover the cave deposits do not lie perfectly level, but dip noticeably to the north and west. This gives us the phenomena of a Mousterian age soil sample at 4.35 m. in the eastern part of the excavation (at the top of the Mousterian layer), and an Upper Palae- olithic Baradostian-age sample at a depth of 4.85 m. in the western part of the excavation (at the base of the Baradostian). The samples that Sabels analyzed came from a vertical cut in the north face of the western part of the excavation. Those examined by Leroi-Gourhan were taken from a variety of situations within the cave excavation. However happily, fortuitously it would appear, most of the samples examined by Sabels and Leroi-Gourhan were from closely corresponding horizons and proveniences. Allowing for these discrepancies, there is much agreement between the work of these two independent investi- gators.

Mention has been made that a number of carbon-14 dates have been ob- tained from the upper part of the cave deposits. Unfortunately, the carbon-14 dated samples were not always matched by the soil samples for pollen analysis. A date of 50,000 B.P. was taken on a carbon-14 sample from the 5.0 m. level in the west part of layer D. Therefore the soil samples from below this horizon and in the same neighborhood should be older.

Regarding the correlation of the pollen analysis and the trace-element analysis, Sabels’ sample from layer D a t 8.3 m., which seems to indicate an in- terstadial to him and a change in climatic conditions, is paralleled by Leroi- Gourhan’s 8.6 m. sample from the same layer. This could possibly be the inter- stadial a t about 60,000 to 70,000 years charted by R. F. Flint and F. Brandtner (1961, p. 322) in their paper, “Climatic Changes Since the Last Interglacial.” Again in the Mousterian horizon, Leroi-Gourhan’s findings from the sample at 7.5 m. compare climatologically with Sabels’ interpretations based on trace elements from his 7.3 m. sample. Both observations suggest a very cold and moist period, which may be the stadial of Early Wurm in Europe, as indicated on Flint and Brandtner’s chart (1961, p. 322).

The sample examined from the 4.35 m. level in the upper part of the Mouster- ian layer may be dated at about 46,000 B.P. (taken on a sloping layer). This was a rather warm climate in which palm trees evidently grew down in the valley, according to Leroi-Gourhan’s analysis. This climate appears to correspond with that of the Gottweig Interstadial in Europe (R. F. Flint and F. Brandtner, 1961, pp. 322, 324).

For the Baradostian layer, we may compare again the interpretations of Sabels and Leroi-Gourhan. The depths and proveniences from which their

73s Annals New York Academy of Sciences samples were taken, however, were not so closely equivalent as those from layer D. From toward the base of the layer, Sabels finds that cool, humid conditions were reflected by trace elements in the sample from 4.85 m. depth. This sample may be about 35,000+ years B.P. Leroi-Gourhan finds a def- initely dry period reflected in her pollen sample from the 4.0-m. depth. This sample may be in the neighborhood of 33,000 B.P. There is an evident alternation from cool to warm climate. Furthermore, another change to a cool climate occurred near the top of this layer, according to Leroi-Gourhan. This appears to be close to the encroaching cold and wet conditions of the Late Wurm in Europe, a long, cold stage about 15,000 years duration (R. F. Flint and F. Brandtner, 1961, p. 322).

Mention has been made that there is a cultural and chronological gap be- tween layers B and C, which may be due to the abandonment of the cave during the Late Wiirm equivalent. In so far as we know from the evidence a t present, the cave was not occupied following the Baradostian until about 12,000 years ago. At this time the climate, according to the findings of both Sabels and Leroi-Gourhan, was cooler and moister than it is today. Leroi-Gourhan indicates that this was the situation a t both the cave and in the corresponding horizon at the village site. From about 10,600 years ago, both researchers show that the climate seems to have become warmer and drier to the present prevailing conditions.

It is very evident that the altitudinal zonation or life zones for the Zagros Mountain region as suggested by Wright (in R. J. Braidwood, and B. Howe, 1960, pp. 89-90) is very convincingly demonstrated in the data above. The snow line in the mountains possibly descended to 4,000 feet during the last glaciation, depressing the tree line below the level of Shanidar Cave (altitude 2500 feet). The cave was presumably inhospitable during this interval. Mention has been made of date palm-pollen grains in the Shanidar Cave de- posits. The farthest north they are found is in the region of Anah in central Iraq, at about 33" N lat. (W. D. Fisher, 1950, p. 356). In order to support date palms in the region of Shanidar in the geologic past, the temperature was presumably at least com- parable to the present temperatures found at Anah. There a t present, the mean daily July maximum temperature is about 110" F., and the mean daily January minimum temperature is about 35" F. At present, in the region of Shanidar, the mean daily July maximum temperature is about 95" F., and the mean daily January minimum temperature is about 25" F. (D. W. Fisher, 1950, p. 44). Thus it would appear to indicate that, assuming there were no altering factors, the temperatures a t Shanidar during the time of the date palms in the Baradostian and Mousterian horizons must have been close to the present habitat of date palms in order to permit their growth in the Shanidar environs. The rainfall of this region a t present, up to about 40 inches annually, must have been rather less during this time.

Concerning the flora of the present in the Zagros Mountain area of this region, we note that the scrub or dwarf oak is the principal wild tree there (H. Field, 1952, pp. 13, 31; W. R. Hay, 1921, p. 106). W. R. Hay (1921, p. 33) says that he observed juniper trees in one spot only, and that conifers were

Today date palms occur far to the south of this area.

Solecki & Leroi-Gourhan: The Near East 739 not to be seen. Other trees present in the area include the sumach, hawthorn, plane, ash, walnut, poplar, mulberry, and willow.

Conclusion We seem to have the first reliable record of palaeoclimate in the Near East,

combined with archaeological data and based upon carbon-14 dates, which may be checked against the better known European system. From our in- formation at present, we can speak with some assurance concerning the changes in climate extending back to at least 50,000 years, and more if the dating can be extended or extrapolated accurately by one or another means. It is ex- pected that there will be additional refinements upon the present set of data as researches progress on the study of the Shanidar soil samples.

There is no mention of date palms.

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