Overview and Methodology

Overview

I. What is Abnormal?

A. Abnormal: not normal.

B. Normal: that which adheres to a norm, either naturally or by way of social influence.

C. Abnormal Psychology: the sub-discipline of psychology that examines persistent unhealthy mental processes and behaviors, thereby identifying and differentiating various psychological disorders, dysfunctions, etc. Diagnoses are typically made when the problem interferes with one’s ability to function effectively in daily life.

D. Psychological Disorder: a pattern of abnormal behavior that is associated with states of significant emotional distress, such as anxiety or depression, or with impaired behavior or ability to function, such as difficulty holding a job or even distinguishing reality from fantasy.

E. Criteria for Determining Abnormality…

1) Unusualness2) Social deviance3) Faulty perceptions or interpretations of reality4) Significant personal distress5) Maladaptive or self-defeating behavior6) Dangerousness

F. Variations in abnormality across time and cultures

G. Rosenhan's 1973 study "On Being Sane in Insane Places"

II. Historical Interpretations of Abnormal Behavior

A. Trephination: a harsh, prehistoric practice of cutting a hole in a person’s skull, possibly in an attempt to release demons.

B. Hippocrates’ sense of humors…

1) Phlegm: an excess causes lethargy or sluggishness.2) Blood: an excess makes one happy, social, and confident.3) Black Bile: an excess causes depression or melancholia.4) Yellow Bile: an excess makes one argumentative, agitated, and short-tempered.

C. Exorcism

D. Witches and Witchcraft

1) The Water-Float Test: a “test” medieval authorities used to detect possession and witchcraft. If you floated above the waterline, it was deemed a sign of impurity and so you were killed. If you drowned, it cleared away any suspicions that you were a witch or possessed.

III. Modern Interpretations of Abnormal Behavior

A. Psychodynamic Models

I. The Psychological Perspective

1) Psychodynamic Theory: relates personality and abnormal behavior to the interplay of conflicting forces within an individual.

2) Catharsis: the therapeutic release of pent-up emotional tension.

3) Psychoanalysis: Freud’s term for the clinical application of psychodynamic theory.

4) Unconscious Mind: contains memories, emotions and thoughts, some of which are illogical or socially unacceptable.

5) Preconscious Mind: thoughts and memories that are relatively easy to access by focusing one’s attention on them.

6) Personality

a) Id: the part that is comprised of all of our biological drives that demand immediate gratification.

b) Ego: the rational, negotiating, and decision-making component of the personality.

c) Superego: the internalized values and rules we receive from our parents and society.

7) Defense Mechanisms: function to send these unpleasant thoughts and feelings to the unconscious mind and prevent them from rising to the conscious mind.

a) Denial: refusal to acknowledge a problem or believe any information that causes anxiety.

b) Repression: “motivated forgetting” of painful or unacceptable thoughts, feelings or memories.

c) Regression: an apparent return to a more juvenile way of thinking or acting.

d) Displacement: the diversion of an unacceptable thought or impulse from its actual target to a less threatening object or person.

e) Reaction Formation: the presentation of one’s thoughts or feelings as the extreme opposite of what they actually are.

f) Projection: attributing one’s own undesirable characteristics or motives to other people.

g) Rationalization: people “make excuses” and reframe unpleasant events as actually beneficial, or their actions as justifiable or rational (when the actions are arguably not so).

h) Sublimation: the transformation of sexual or aggressive energies into acceptable and pro-social behaviors.

8) Stages of Psychosexual Development

Libido: a psychosexual energy.

9) Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development

When the conflict is resolved in a positive and constructive manner, the person moves into the next stage of development in a psychologically healthy state. If the conflict is not resolved, the negative effects will most likely carry over into future stages, and have a detrimental effect on the challenges that are yet to be faced.

B. Humanistic Models

1) Humanistic Psychology: deals with values, beliefs, and consciousness, including spirituality and guiding principles by which people live their lives.

2) Self-Actualization: a state of achieving one’s full potential.

3) Self-Concept (Real Self): an image of the person that they really are.

4) Ideal Self: an image that represents the person they would like to be.

5) Unconditional Positive Regard: the acceptance of the person as he or she is.

6) Conditional Positive Regard: the person is only held in esteem when they fulfill certain requirements set for them by another person or society.

C. Learning Models

1) Behaviorism: an approach to learning that describes observed behavior as a predictable response to experience.

a) Classical Conditioning: learning based on association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a particular response with another stimulus that does elicit the response. Applies to involuntary responses.

John Watson: Conditioning of Fear

Orphan boy ‘Little Albert’

– 3. Albert cried because of noise– 4. Eventually, site of rat made

Albert cry

– 1. Albert liked the furry rat – 2. Rat presented with loud CRASH!

b) Operant Conditioning: learning based on association of behavior with its consequences. The individual learns from the consequences of “operating” in the environment. Applies to voluntary responses.

Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring

Positive: Giving a rewardCandy for finishing a task

Negative: Removing something aversiveNo chores for getting an A+ on homework

Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring

Positive: Adding something aversiveExtra Chores

Negative: Removing something pleasantTaking away car keys

2) Social Learning: we learn about many behaviors before we attempt them for the first time by observing the behaviors of others and from imagining the consequences of our own.

a) Bandura’s “bobo” doll research

D. Cognitive Models

1) The ABC Approach: the relationship among activating events (A), beliefs (B), and consequences (C).

2) The Cognitive Distortion Approach: faulty processing of information related to events that have transpired in one’s life.

a) Selective Abstraction

b) Overgeneralization

c) Magnification

d) Absolutist Thinking

II. The Sociocultural Perspective

A. Three areas of interest…

1) What behaviors are abnormal and are a sign of a psychological disorder in almost any culture versus what behaviors have cultural variability in terms of being considered abnormal and a sign of a psychological disorder?

2) What causes variability among people from different cultural, ethnic, etc. backgrounds in terms of the prevalence of an agreed upon existing psychological disorder?

3) What are some culture specific psychological disorders and when are they simply varied manifestations of a universal underlying psychological problem?

III. The Biological Perspective

The Neuron andNeuronal Communication

A. Acetylcholine: is important for memory. A deterioration of neurons that transmit this neurotransmitter may contribute to Alzheimer's Disease.

B. GABA: too little of this neurotransmitter can raise levels of anxiety.

C. Norepinephrine and Serotonin: a decrease in these neurotransmitters is associated with depression.

D. Dopamine: a gradual decay of the neurons that release this neurotransmitter is linked to Parkinson’s Disease. Excess dopamine is commonly found in schizophrenics.

Key Neurotransmitters

IV. The Biopsychosocial Perspective

A. Diathesis-Stress Model

B. Epigenetics: examines how various environmental influences can affect genetic expression.

Methodology

I. Research Methods

A. Naturalistic Observation: a careful examination of what happens under more or less natural conditions.

B. Laboratory Observation: behavior is observed and recorded in controlled environment.

C. Correlational Studies

1) Correlation: a measure of the relationship between 2 variables.

2) Correlational Study: a procedure in which investigators measure the correlation between 2 variables without controlling for either of them.

3) Correlation Coefficient: a mathematical estimate of the relationship between 2 variables. The range is –1 to +1.

D. Experiment: a study in which the investigator manipulates at least one variable while measuring at least one other variable.

1) Independent Variable: the item that the experimenter manipulates to get an effect.

a) Placebo: a pill with no pharmacological effects.

2) Dependent Variable: the item that the experimenter measures to see if the independent variable had an effect.

3) Experimental Group: the group that receives a treatment that an experiment is designed to test.

4) Control Group: the group that is treated just like the experimental group, but does not receive the treatment.

5) Blind to Condition: the participants or the observers or both do not know who received a treatment versus a placebo.

E. Cross-Sectional Study: a study designed to assess age-related differences, in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion.

F. Longitudinal Study: a study designed to assess changes in a group over time.

G. Epidemiological Study: a study that tracks the rate of occurrence of a particular disorder among different population groups.

H. Case Study: a carefully drawn biography based on clinical interviews, observations, and psychological tests.

I. Sampling

1) Population: the entire group of people to be considered.

2) Sample: a small number of people taken from the population.

II. Ethical Concerns with Humans: experimenters must be careful that the designs of their studies do not harm participants mentally, emotionally, or physically.

A. Informed Consent: a statement informing participants what to expect in an experiment and that requires their acceptance of the procedures.

B. Right to Privacy and Confidentiality: results and names must be kept confidential.