orissa population

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Orissa Review * November - 2004

At the 00.00 hours of 1st March 2001, Orissahad a population of 36,706,920 comprising of18,612,340 males and 18,094,580 females.This 3.57 percent of India's total population of1,027,015,247 recorded in 2001 census. Orissacontinued to maintain the 11th position in theranking among the States and union territoriesof India so far as the population size isconcerned.

Growth Rate

The growth rate of population did notdisplay systematic increase. It varied fromdecade to decade. After independence thegrowth rate of population during the decade1941-51 was only 6.38 percent whichincreased to 19.82 percent during 1951-61 andthe rate of growth was the highest during 1961-71 with 25.05 percent against it came down to20.17 percent during the decade 1971-81 andit further reduced slightly to 20.06 percentduring 1981-91. During the last decade 1991-2001 the growth rate has decreased to 15.94percent as against the all India growth rate of21.34 percent.

The State of Orissa has fourgeographical regions - a northern plateau,central river basin, eastern hills and coastalplains. Agriculture provides employment to 64

percent of the people. About 70 percent of thevillages are electrified. Here winters are mild,summers hot and the average annual rainfall is149 c.m.

Density of Population

In Orissa it was 113 persons (per Sq.km.) in 1961 which increased to 142 during1971 and further increased to 169 in 1981.According to 1991 census density ofpopulation was increased to 236 in 2001 censusagainst the country's density 324 during 2001.

Sex Complexion

The figures of females per 1000 malesin 1921 was 1086 which reduced to 1067during 1937,1053 during 1941,1022 in 1951and 1001 in 1961. From 19671 the numbers ofmales surpassed the females having 9888 per10000 males. The sex ratio further reduced to981 during 1981 and 971 during 1991. Duringthe census of 2001 the sex ratio has shown abit improvement having 972 females per 1000males which is higher than that of all India sexratio of 933. In Orissa females are at par withmales or more in 7 districts of the State at the2001 census. In the State Gajapati districtcontinues to present the highest sex ratio amongthe districts whereas the lowest sex ratio inthe district of Khurda.

Dimensions of Orissa Population Scenario

Prafulla Kumar Das

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Educational Institutions and Literacy

The State literacy rate during 2001 is63.09 percent against the All India Literacypercent 65.38. Even the female literacy in theState is less than the all India female literacypercentage. During 1999-2000 the followingage groups of the children were enrolled inthe school.

Enrollment of school going children during 1999-2000

Category Male Female Total India

SC 6-11 years 524,000 333,000 857,000 20,435,013

11-14 years 121,000 75,000 6,3000,709 196,000

ST 6-11 years 659,000 359,000 1,018,000 10,650,036

11-14 years 119,000 80,000 199,000 2,905,294

Total Children 6-11 years 270,5000 1910,000 4615000 113,612,541

11-14 years 873,000 556,000 1429000 42,065,198

The ratio of the SC school going childrenfrom the age of 6-11 years were 1115.07, from11-14 years were 55.55 percent. The ST schoolgoing children were from the age of 6-11 were1,018,000 and from 11-14 years children were199,000 during the year 1989-2000.

Health Scenario

During the year (1998-99) 1,352 PrimaryHealth Centres were existed and in 1999 thenumbers of Doctors in Primary Health centres

were 2351. The Lady Health Visitors / FemaleHealth Assistants during 1999 were 998. Butthe child leprosy cases were 7,931 numbersdetected in 2000-2001 which is 17.54 percentand is less than 0.95% of the country'sdetection. For the development of children21,629 Anganwadi centres were working tillMarch 2002. From the Survey it is found that

the percentage of women aged 20-24 yearsmarried before 18 years during (1999) were37.6% while it was 50 percent in nationallevel.

The Author is a Research Fellow in the Departmentof Political Science, Berhampur University, Orissa.

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Orissa is situated in the east coastal region ofthe country. It constitutes almost 4.74% ofIndia's geographical area and its population is36.7 million (2001 census), i.e. around 3.57per cent of India's population. The density ofpopulation of the State is 236 persons per sq.km. (2001 census). With only 14.97 per cent(2001) of the population of the State living inurban areas, the ratio of rural-urban populationis one of the lowest among the major States ofIndia.

The population growth rate of Orissaduring the decade 1991-2001 was only 15.94per cent as against 21.34 per cent for all India,and recorded the third lowest growth rate ofpopulation among the major Indian States,higher than only Kerala (9.42 %) andTamilnadu (11.94%).

Table No.1

Demographic Profile of Orissa and Indiaas per 2001 Census

Orissa India

Total Population 36,706,902 1,027,015,247Decadal PopulationGrowth +15.94 % + 21.34 %Population Density 236 324(Per sq. Km.)

Sex Ratio 972 933

Orissa's Urban Population : An Overview

Sidhartha Patnaik

Literacy 63.61% 65.38 %Percentage of Urbanto Total Population 14.97 27.7

(Source: Census of India)

The growth rate of population during lastthree decades in Orissa shows an unsystematicvariation. It varied from decade to decade.After independence the growth rate ofpopulation during the decade 1941-51 wasonly 6.38 per cent, which increased to 19.82percent during 1951-61. Again it came downto 20.17 per cent during the decade 1971-81and it has further reduced slightly to 20.06 percent during1981-91. During the present decade1991-2001 the growth rate has decreased to15.94 per cent as against the all India growthrate of 21.34 percent.

According to 2001 census, Ganjamdistrict has the maximum population. It isobserved that the decadal growth rate of alldistricts except Gajapati district during thecurrent decade 1991-2001 is lower than thatof 1981-91. The highest decadal growth rateof 24.97% is recorded in the Khurda districtwhile the lowest rate of growth of 8.52% isrecorded in Bolangir district.

Till 1991 census, there were only 13districts in Orissa. During the 1991-2001decade, the number of district increased to 30

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with only 3 districts, namely Sundergarh,Keonjhar and Mayurbhanj continued to be asthey were while the remaining 10 districts weredivided into 27 districts.

In terms of urbanisation, Orissa is oneof the least urbanised States in the country. Itis evident from table no.1 that the proportionof total urban population to the total populationof Orissa is about 14.97 percent, which is verylow as compared to other States of the country.

A comparative study among the districtsof Orissa reveals Khurda to be the mosturbanised district in the State. This is due tothe fact that Bhubaneswar town is said to bean administrative centre with people mostlyengaged in non-agricultural activities. TheBhubaneswar (M. Corp) itself has 100 per centurban population (648,032), which is quite highas compared to the proportion of the totalpopulation of the district.

Past records also reflect thatBhubaneswar town has got a very high growthrate of population since 1971-81(107.80%)and 1981-91(87.74%). This is obvious due tothe migration from all parts of the State to thecapital in search of jobs and better education.

The districts of Nayagarh (4.3%) andJajpur(4.5%) have the least percentage ofurbanisation as per 2001 census records. Jajpurhas so less urban population as the district hasa large number of suburban settlements likeSukinda, Korai, Mangalpur, Binjharpur,Balichandrapur, Badachanna and Dharmasala.The maximum urban population in the wholeof Jajpur district is in Jajpur Road, i.e. 40,741.

Along the coastal belt, only Ganjam andPuri districts have more than 10% urbanpopulation, though Ganjam district has thehighest population in the whole of Orissa. The

major urban centre in the district isBrahmapur(M) which is a Class I town withan urban population of 30,7792. Puri district,which is famous as a place of pilgrimage,contributes an urban population of only13.6 % in 2001 as compared to 19.76 % till1991 .The reason for such a decadal fall ofurban population in Puri district can be relatedto the reshuffling of towns in the districtdirectory and addition of new districts. EarlierBhubaneswar town, which is one of the majorurban centres in the map of Orissa, was a partof Puri district.

The number of towns in Orissa hasgrown by almost one and a half times since1971. lt is interesting to note that more than50% of the towns in Orissa have a populationof below 20,000. One of the major reasons forsuch a low urban population distribution isbecause of the fact that Orissa has an agrarianbase and even today more than 70% of thepopulation is dependent on agriculture for theirlivelihood. The decadal growth of urbanpopulation from 1981-1991 has been good dueto the stabilized political scenario andemergence of some new corporate sectors inthe major cities and towns of Orissa. Thedistribution of the urbanised population interms of the various classes of towns in Orissais as follows :

Class I Towns (100,000 & above)

Among Class I towns, Bhubaneswar(M.Corp.) and Cuttack have the maximumpopulation. In case of Rourkela, which standsthird in the list of Class I towns, has undergonea tremendous decrease in the growth rate from87.02% in 1971-81 to 23.58% in 1981-91.Such a fall may be because of the sick conditionof Rourkela Steel plant (RSP). RSP, which wasat one time, a major employment provider to

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lot of people all over the State as well asneighbouring States, is in deteriorating sincelast 12 years despite little improvements thisyear.

Class II Towns (50,000-99,999)

There has always been a fall in thegrowth rate in the Class II towns in the State.The major Class II towns are Bhadrak,Bolangir, Baripada, Jeypore, Brajarajnagar,Jharsuguda, Sunabeda, Bargarh, Bhawanipatnaand Jatani. It has been observed that there is acontinuous migration of population from theseClass II towns to Class I towns for jobs andeducation. Bhubaneswar being the capital, all

the institutes and corporate sectors are settingtheir base over there. So there is a naturaltendency of people to migrate from smallertowns to capital.

Class III Towns (20,000-49,999)

Majority of Class III towns in Orissa arethe result of rural outgrowth. In course of time,some industrial activities have given someboost to the employment and economygeneration developing the rural areas intourban centres. The major Class III towns ofthe State are Rayagada, Paradip, Dhenkanal,Barbil, Keonjhar, Rajgangapur andParlakhemundi.

Table No.2

State-wise Urban Population Distribution (in millions)

State / U. T Total Population Urban Population(In millions) (In millions)

1981 1991 2001 1981 1991 2001Andhra Pradesh 53.6 66.5 75.7 12.5 17.9 20.5Arunachal Pradesh 0.6 0.9 1.1 0.04 0.1 0.2

Assam 18.0 22.4 26.6 1.8 2.5 3.4

Bihar 69.9 86.4 82.9 8.7 11.4 8.7

Goa 1.0 1.2 1.3 0.3 0.5 0.7Gujrat 34.1 41.3 50.6 10.6 14.3 18.9

Haryana 12.9 16.5 21.1 2.8 4.1 6.1

Himachal Pradesh 4.3 5.2 6.1 0.3 0.5 0.6

Jammu & Kashmir 6.0 7.7 10.1 1.3 1.8 2.5Karnataka 37.1 45.0 52.7 10.7 13.9 17.9

Kerala 25.5 29.1 31.8 4.8 7.7 8.3

Madhya Pradesh 52.2 66.2 60.4 10.6 15.3 16.1

Maharashtra 62.8 78.9 96.8 22.0 30.5 41.0Manipur 1.4 1.9 2.4 0.4 0.5 0.6

Meghalaya 1.3 1.8 2.3 0.2 0.3 0.5

Mizoram 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.1 0.3 0.4

Nagaland 0.8 1.2 2.0 0.1 0.2 0.4

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Orissa 26.4 31.7 36.7 3.1 4.2 5.5Punjab 16.8 20.3 24.3 4.7 6.0 8.2Rajasthan 34.3 44.0 56.5 7.2 10.1 13.2Sikkim 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.0 0.1Tamilnadu 48.4 55.9 62.1 16.0 19.1 27.2Tripura 2.1 2.8 3.2 0.2 0.4 0.5Uttar Pradesh 110.9 139.1 166.1 19.9 27.6 34.5West Bengal 54.6 68.1 80.2 14.5 18.7 22.5Andaman & NicobarIslands 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1Chandigarh 0.5 0.6 0.9 0.4 0.6 0.8Dadar & Nagr Haveli 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.1Daman & Diu 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.1Delhi 6.2 9.4 13.8 5.8 8.5 12.8Lakhswadeep 0.04 0.1 0.1 0.02 0.03 0.03Pondicherry 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.3 0.5 0.6Uttaranchal 8.5 2.2Jharkhand 26.9 6.0Chattisgad 20.8 4.2

Total 683.3 846.3 1021.0 159.5 211.6 285.0

Table No.3Growth Rate of Orissa since 1901-2001

DECADAL VARIATION PROGRESSIVE GROWTHRATE OVER 1901 (%)

Year Population Absolute Percentage

1901 10,302,917 +1,075,9581911 11,378,875 -220,289 +10.44 +10.441921 11,158,586 +1,332,470 -1.94 8.31

1931 12,491,056 +1,276,932 +11.94 21.241941 13,767,988 +877,958 +10.22 +33.631951 14,645,946 +2,902,900 +6.38 +42.151961 17,548,846 +4,395,769 +19.82 +70.33

1971 21,944,615 +4,425,656 +25.05 +112.991981 26,370,271 +5,289,465 +20.17 +155.951991 31,659,736 +5,289,465 +20.06 +207.292001 36,804,660 +5,047,184 +15.94 +256.28


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Table No.4Distribution of Urban Population in Various Districts of Orissa

(2001)

District Population Urban Percentage ofUrbanisation

Bargarh 1,346,336 103541 7.7

Jharsuguda 509,716 185885 36.5Sambalpur 935,613 253778 27.1Debagarh 274,108 20096 7.3

Sundargarh 1,830,673 629194 34.4Keonjhar 1,561,990 213023 13.6Mayurbhanj 2,223,456 155700 7.0

Baleshwar 2,024,508 220,368 10.9Bhadrak 1,333,749 141071 10.6Kendrapara 1,302,005 74137 5.7

Jagatsinghapur 1,057,629 104449 9.9Cuttack 2,341,094 641130 27.4Jajpur 1,624,341 72980 4.5

Dhenkanal 1,066,878 92914 8.7Angul 1,140,003 158416 13.9

Nayagarh 864,516 37066 4.3Khurda 1,877,395 805706 42.9Puri 1,502,682 204028 13.6

Ganjam 3,160,635 556359 17.6Gajapati 518,837 52888 10.2Kandhamal 648,201 44094 6.8

Baudh 373,372 18025 4.8Sonepur 541,835 40068 7.4Balangir 1,337,194 154323 11.5

Nuapada 530,690 30038 5.7Kalahandi 1,335,494 100219 7.5Rayagada 831,109 115407 13.9

Nabarangapur 1,025,766 59270 5.8Koraput 1,180,637 198449 16.8Malkangiri 504,198 34616 6.9


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Table No.5Male-Female Population Distribution and Percentage

Decadal Growth Rate in Various Districts of Orissa (2001 )

Population Population Decadal Growth rate

District Persons Ma1e Fema1e 1981-1991 1991-2001

Bargarh 1,345,601 681,012 664,589 16.93 11.47Jharsuguda 509,056 261,555 247,501 21.41 15.13Sambalpur 928,889 471,555 457,334 18.47 14.17Debagarh 274,095 138,425 135,670 18.50 17.02Sundargarh 1,829,412 934,902 894,510 17.62 16.26Mayurbhanj 2,221,782 1,121,982 1,099,800 19.14 17.89Baleswar 2,023,056 1,037,938 985,118 24.96 19.24Bhadrak 1,332,249 675,162 657,087 23.55 20.47Kendrapara 1,301,856 646,356 655,500 17.15 13.25Jagatsinghpur 1,056,556 538,542 518,014 17.98 13.15Cuttack 2,340,686 1,207,569 1,133,117 19.37 14.00Jajpur 1,622,868 822,638 800,230 22.01 17.08Dhenkanal 1,065,983 543,439 522,544 18.92 12.46Anugul 1,139,341 586,903 552,438 22.31 18.55Nayagarh 863,934 445,658 418,276 14.52 10.39Khurdha 1,874,405 986,003 888,402 32.67 24.79Puri 1,498,604 761,397 737,207 18.08 14.80Ganjam 3,160,635 1,568,568 1,568,369 19.25 16.01Gajapati 518,448 255,288 263,160 13.04 14.02Kandhamal 647,912 322,674 325,238 21.59 18.60Baudh 373,038 187,947 185,091 18.35 17.45Sonepur 540,659 275,045 265,614 19.99 13.39Balangir 1,335,760 673,727 662,033 15.94 8.52Nuapada 530,524 264,490 266,034 19.56 13.00Kalahandi 1,334,372 667,126 667,246 19.48 17.99Rayagada 823,019 405,631 417,388 17.29 15.27Nabarangapur 1,018,171 511,004 507,167 24.22 20.26Koraput 1,177,954 589,438 588,516 19.93 14.41Malkangiri 480,232 240,540 239,692 26.00 13.71

(Source: Census of 1ndia, 2001)

Sidhartha Patnaik is presently pursuing studies in the Department of Housing School of Planning and Architecture,4-Block-B, at Indraprastha Estate, New Delhi.

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Overseas trade and maritime activities playeda significant role in the spread of the gloriousIndian civilization abroad. Indians and morespecifically the people of Kalinga went to SouthEast Asia ande s t a b l i s h e dcolonies there.The colonizingactivity of theancient Indianswas distinctive inseveral respects.The Indianswherever theywent, settleddown there,absorbed someof the culturalaspects of thenatives, and adopted some traits of theircivilization. In spite of their superiority theynever tried to dominate, rather they allowedthe indigenous elements to grow. The ancientIndian colonists had the practical knowledgeof adaptability .

After centuries of interaction both thecolonists and the natives formed one society,which absorbed the culture and civilization ofboth the groups. Indian culture firmed animportant component of the composite culture

of the land. About Indianization, AP. Patnaiksays, “The expansion of Indian civilization tothe South-East Asia during the early centuriesof Christian era is one of the outstanding events

in the history ofthe world. As theproduct of thisIndianization, aseries ofkingdoms wereborn that in thebeginning werethe true Indianstates likeC a m b o d i a ,Champa and thesmall states ofM a l a y apeninsula; the

kingdoms of Sumatra, Java and Bali; andfinally the Burmese and Thai kingdoms. Thougheach of these states develop according to itsown genius through a process of interactionwith the physical and social environment ofthe respective area their cultures never lost thefamily resemblance that they owed to theircommon origin. This common origin could beIndia as a whole or a part of it, on the easterncoast, which with its typical Indian culture hadpredominately influenced the people of South-

Kalinga In South East Asia

Benudhar Patra

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East Asian countries at a very early period.The Chinese travellers and historians of theperiod have spoken of a people in south-EastAsia as Kunlun (the people of Kalinga) whosecivilizing influence might have created thiseffect.”1 Besides, the Indian immigrants in theMalay Archipelago are still called OrangKlinig,2 which is perhaps derived from theword, Kalinga, the name by which theinhabitants of Orissa were once known.

The people of Kalinga played animportant role in colonizing several parts ofSouth-East Asia. For several centuries Kalingaremained in the form of ‘Greater Kalinga’acquiring several islands and countries, whichlay around the Indian seas under its suzerainty.It is also said that long before the Pallavas ofKanchi, the people of ancient Orissa had laidthe foundation of Indian or Indianised states“beyond the moving seas”3 In this connectionmany important questions arise which are yetto be answered. Why did the people of Kalingago to such distant places in the remote past ?What prompted them to undertake thishazardous task? At what point of time did thesepeople take up seafaring and made voyages todistant lands? What exactly was the share ofKalinga in the process of colonization andIndianization of South-East Asia? What wasthe nature of the migration of the people ofKalinga? Satisfactory answers to thesequestions is difficult to find. However, anhumble attempt in this line has been madebelow.

Different scholars have advocateddifferent theories on the migration. Kautilya’ sArthasastra recommends seizure of theterritory of other countries and deportingsurplus population of his own, which can betaken to indicate an early wave of Indian

immigration to South-East Asia and othercountries4. But this interpretation is soimaginative that it looks like a flight ofnationalistic fancy rather than sober historicalthinking. Some scholars however, seek toparticularize a few definite waves of migrationfrom India and assign causes to the same. Theysay that the Aryan conquest drove the pre-Aryan settlers of India towards the countriesbeyond the sea in the east and South-east andthat the Hindus were forced to migrate there inlarge numbers by political events in later times.Most of the theories, however, are based ondisturbed life in India, which compelled thepeople to take shelter in distant lands. Onetheory advocates that the first wave of Hindumigration in the early centuries of the Christianera occured owing to the invasion of India bythe foreign hordes such as the Greeks, Sakasand the Kushanas. Basically it is attributed tothe pressure of the Kushana invasion of Indiain the first century A.D5. But this assumptionseems to be unacceptable. It is to beremembered that the conquests of the foreignersin the early centuries A.D. hardly affected thearea beyond the Gangetic plain. Further, therewas ample space in India itself for them to takeshelter. It is therefore, difficult and not properto regard the foreign conquest as a sufficientcause, by itself, for a large-scale migration toa distant land beyond the sea.

The migration of the Kalingans inparticular is attributed to the conquest ofKalinga by emperor Asoka in the third centuryBC, which might have provoked an exodus.6

Could it be that Kalinga people migrated enmasse to South-East Asia on the wake of theKalinga war of Asoka ? There is no historicalevidence of such a movement. Archaeologicalsources are silent regarding this. But it appearsindirectly in one of the rock edicts of Asoka

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that after Kalinga war, the grief striken emperorhas not only spoken of the ‘dead and deported’but also of ‘the people who were fortunate tohave escaped’ without mentioning the land towhich they escaped. As the small kingdom ofKalinga was surrounded on three sides by themighty empire of Asoka, thousands of youngpeople from Kalinga, experts in navigation,might have preferred to escape into the distantlands through the sea rather than beingdeported to Magadha as prisoners.7 But G.Coedes remarks that there was no massemigration from India.8 The exodus was pre-eminently caused by commercialconsiderations. It is quite remarkable thatdespite the large-scale influx of Indiansincluding the Kalingans of various economicclasses and intellectual levels over a longperiod, there is no evidence of any localresistance to their arrival. The Indians also didnot regard these new lands as outlets for theirexcessive population or an exclusive marketfor their growing trade nor did they insist onthe superiority of their culture. D.P. Singhalremarks, “Whenever Indians settled they gavewhat they had and took what they could. Thuswas evolved by mutual consent, a new culturewhose dominant note was Indian.”9 Theregions, especially the islands of South-EastAsia, were so much influenced by the Indianculture that many scholars have gone to theextent of declaring them as a part of ‘GreaterIndia’, ‘Indian colonies’, ‘Extended part ofIndia’, ‘Further India’, etc. According toH.Kulke and D.Rothermund, the Greater Indiantheory was a by-product of Indian FreedomMovement. According to them, the Indianhistorians struggling under the stigma of theirown colonial subjection tried to compensatefor this by establishing the fact that even Indiawas strong enough to establish colonies in

ancient times.10 In 1926 the ‘Grater IndiaSociety’ was established in Calcutta andR.C.Majumdar published a series of articleson the ancient Indian colonies in the Far East.This Greater India theory has been recentlyobjected to by many scholars from South-EastAsia.

The early South-East Asia remainedunder the influence of Indian culture from thevery ancient times. In the words of A Lamb,“By the opening of the Christian era thecivilization of India had begun to spread acrossthe Bay of Bengal into both island and mainlandSouth-East Asia; and by the fifth century A.D.Indianized states, that is to say states organizedalong the traditional lines of Indian politicaltheory and following the Buddhist and Hindureligions, had established themselves in manyregions of Burma, Thailand, Indo-China,Malaysia, and Indonesia. Some of these stateswere in time to grow into great empiresdominating the zone between metropolitan Indiaand the Chinese southern border, which hassometimes been described as ‘Further India’or ‘Greater India’. Once rooted in South-EastAsian soil, Indian civilization evolved in partthrough the action of forces of South-East Asiaorigin, and in part through the influence ofcultural and political changes in the Indiansubcontinent."11 Many scholars have describedthe eastward spread of Indian civilization interms of a series of ‘waves’. B.K.Majumdarsays “From the second to the fifth centuriesA.D. the Hindus, belonging particularly to theSouth, North-East India, showed signs ofmaritime activities which culminated in theestablishment of their political power beyondthe seas. The fascinating account ofHinducolonial and cultural expansion beyond Indiaproper, the plantation of Hindu colonies inSumatra, Java, Malaya Peninsula, Champa and

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Kambuja and the establishment of the kingdomof Sri Vijaya (modem Palembang) under theSailendra kings should ever remain a gloriousepisode in ancient Indian history.”12

In this connection several theories likethe Vaishya theory, the Kshyatriya theory andthe Brahmana theory have been formulated bythe scholars. The Vaishya theory gives thecredit of colonization to the Vaishyas, theKshyatriya theory to the Kshyatriyas and theBrahmana theory to the Brahmanas.

The Vaishyas or the trading communitiesof India have been given the credit of colonizingSouth-East Asia. Trade was the driving forcefor the early contact. In the opinion of. RomilaThaper, trade led to settlements, which slowlydeveloped into colonies.13 N. J. Krom says thatthe Indian penetration into South-East Asiabegan with traders who settled and marriednative women, thereby introducing Indianculture.14 G. Coedes is of the opinion that thespread of Indian culture was as a result ofintensification of Indian trade with South-EastAsia early in the Christian era.15 According toR.C. Majumdar, as in all ages and countries,the prospect of acquiring wealth first temptedthe Indian traders and merchants to exploreuknown territories beyond their own frontiers.16

The Indian traders, while trading indirectlytransmitted their customs, the Indian religiousideas and the technical skill to the populationsof the respective places. The inscriptions alsoshow that guilds of Indian merchants hadestablished outposts in many parts of South-East Asia. They provided an importanttransmission belt for all kinds of culturalinfluences.

This theory, however, is not free fromcriticism. If merchants played a major part inthe transmission of culture then the centres of

Hindu civilization would have developed onthe coastal areas, the areas usually frequentedby the traders. But in Indonesia these are foundin interior areas and mountains and in case ofJava, in the almost inaccessible plains of Keduand Prambanan. Commercial contacts are alsoinadequate for the transmission of the highercivilization of one people to another. 17

J.F.Cady, who criticizes this assumptionremarks, "Some of the strongest centres ofIndian influence, such as central Jave, MonDvaravati, Cambodian Angkor, and PaganBurma, were not centres of sea-bornecommercial intercourse at all, but ratheradvanced political entities in their ownmight."18 J.C. Van Lear has also stronglyrejected this theory. 19 Since the tradersbelonged to the lower strata of Indian castesystem they had least possibility of acting asadministrators, advisors, etc.

The Kshyatriya hypothesis in connectionwith the colonization and Indianization of theSouth-East Asia has been propounded by a hostof scholars. This theory ascribes thetransmission of Indian culture to the conquestof South-East Asia by the Indian princes andkings who crossed the Bay of Bengal with alltheir retinue and founded strong ‘Indian’ or‘Hindu’ kingdoms there.20 C.C. Berg advocatesthat the Indian culture went to South-East Asiawith the activities of Indian warrior immigrantswho captured the political power of theregion.21 This theory further propounds thatIndian monarchs ousted from their realmssought new lands in Indonesia. They conqueredcertain areas and introduced Hindu civilizationamong the native population. So this oldestconjecture was one of colonization by Indianmonarchs and might be combined withintermarriage between those Indian princes anddaughters of local chiefs. However, so far as

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the Kshyatriya theory of Indian colonizationis concerned there exists very little proof ofany direct political influence in South-EastAsia. F.D.K. Bosch has criticized this theory :“A conquering prince would have mentionedhis success in an inscription, or, if not, one ofhis descendants would have done so.”22 Butthis practice is absent in the South-East Asianislands. In the absence of such records theSanskrit names adopted by the rulers of South-East Asia is taken as the most importantevidence in this regard. But the pure Sanskritform adopted by the South-East Asian rulersshows that they had adopted these names notfrom the names of the Indian rulers but fromSanskrit language itself. However, the role ofthe Kshatriyas in the process of Indiancolonization in South-East Asia cannot be ruledout.

The third theory , the Brahmana theory,seems to be the most successful explanation.This theory says that the Indian priestsdisseminated and upheld Indian culture inplaces outside India, including Indonesia. Thepriests included the Brahmins, the Buddhistsand the Jain monks. In addition to beingreligious specialists they were experts inDharmasastra (religious rites), Arthasastra(political affairs) and SiIpasatra (art andarchitecture). They must have acted as thedevelopment planners and advisors to therulers of South- East Asia. They graduallyimproved their own ways of administration andlanguage. Besides, this theory is based on thefact, that Indian influence is mostly evident inthe religious outlook on life manifested by holymonuments (chandis), and Sanskrit wordswhich enriched the Indonesian vernaculars.23

J.C.Van Lear has given emphasis upon the roleof the Brahman’s for the colonization of South-East Asia.24

It is said that the transmission occuredat the court level and was the work of theBrahmanas.25 The Brahmana priestsfunctioned to complete the merger with localcults, to make rulers avataras of Hindu Gods,to concoct impressive royal genealogies, andeventually to Hindu literature, legal code, andgovernmental forms.26 Van Lear says, “Theinitiative for the coming of Indian civilizationemanated from the Indonesian ruling groups,or was at least an affair of both the Indonesiandynasties and the Indian hierocracy. The courseof events amounted essentially to a summoningto Indonesia of Brahmin priests and Indian courtartificers... The Indian priesthood was calledeastward certainly because of its wide renown-for the magical, sacral legitimation of dynasticinterests and the domestication of subjects, andprobably for the organisation of the rulersterritory into a state (patrimonial).27 WFWertheim, a Dutch scholar, corroborates thisview : “The so-called ‘Hindu colonizationprocess is reduced in the modern conception,to the presence at the Javanese courts of acomparatively small number of very influentialIndian Brahmins, lending political support toJavanese rulers by providing them with a kindof investiture and with a genealogicconfirmation of membership in a high caste,and acting at the same time as advisers in affairsof Government and things sacral.”28

R.C Majumdar, sums up the situation :“The zeal of the Brahmans and Buddhists,pressure caused by increasing population andinvasion of foreign hords, and the spirit ofadventure of the Kshyatriya princes and noblesadded to the commercial enterprise of themerchants, and caused a steady flow of Indianemigrants to various parts of the Indo-ChinaPeninsula and the east Indies. Many of theseemigrants permanently settled in these foreign

14


lands. They married women of the localitiesand the influence of their superior culturegradually Hinduised the society .Thisimperceptible but gradual penetration, oftenaided by active missionary propaganda,gradually spread Hindu religion, art, literatureand social ideas in all directions. Sometimesa military adventurer seized the political powerand established a Hindu kingdom. The fusionbetween the Indian settlers and the Hinduisedlocal people was so complete that it is notalways possible to distinguish between the two.The latter assumed Hindu names and adoptedSanskrit or Pali language and Hindu religion,manners and customs, while the Indiansimbibed local habits and social usages andmerged themselves into the local communities.Thus grew up the Indian colonial kingdoms,which were constantly strengthened by freshstreams of immigration from the motherland.”29

Gradually the new culture spread over theregion.

The colonization was never be the workof any single community. People of differentcastes or groups were involved in the tradingactivities. Maritime trade was not restrictedto the Vaishyas, the traditional traders, only.The profitability part of it attracted people fromdifferent castes who had the money and thementality to take up the trip. Hence, assuggested earlier, there grew up a class ofpeople called the Sadhabas in Kalinga whocarried on this maritime trade. The people ofall castes, the Vaishyas, Kshyatriyas,Brahmanas and even Sudras formed theSadhabas.

Thus, the colonization was a combinedeffort of people belonging to several castesgroups over a long period of time. The tradingtrips carried with it Brahmins who acted as

advisers because of their expertise overvarious branches of knowledge, theKshyatriyas who associated fighting with thetrade for their survival and the Vaishyas whoearned the title of honest businessmen, Sadhu,or Sadhaba.

Now question arises : What was the roleof the people of South-East Asia in the processof colonization? What sort of civilizationexisted in there before the advent of Indiancultural elements? Were they merely passiverecipients or did they actively participate inthe process? The propounders of Greater Indiatheory put forward, the passive recipient theory.J.C. Van Lear was the first to project theIndonesian element in the process.30 He hashighlighted the great skill and courage of theIndonesians. Early Indonesian inscriptionsshow that trade, agriculture and craftsmanshiphad considerable progress in early Indonesia.If this view is to be accepted then the earlyIndonesians were a developed lot and if theywere developed in a number of fields therewas least chance of their welcoming theforeigners. Advocates who hold the oppositeview say that the Indonesian people as well asthe rulers themselves invited and welcomedthe Indians in large numbers. Whatever maybe the fact, source materials are very scantyeither way. The chauvinistic approach of themodern scholars of the South-East Asia hasmade them argue in support of their country.But one thing is certain that when the Indiansfirst went there probably there was noresistance from the local people, althoughwhether they welcomed them or not is adifficult story altogether. Initially there wasvery good relationship between the originalsettlers and the foreigners, which continued toremain so almost, till the end. This however,does not mean that the local people were

15


underdeveloped or backward nor does thisprove that they were very developed. As statedearlier the claim of Indian scholars on GreaterIndia theory is not free from chauvinisticapproach.

That the people of Kalinga played asignificant role in the process of colonizationof South-East Asia and Ceylon is supportedby evidences. It is believed that the firstimpulse to the colonizing activity and expansionof India had its origin in the daring spirit ofKalinga. The spirit of enterprise and adventurewas remarkable among the Oriyas in ancienttimes, who cherished the ambition of foundingcolonies in distant lands. Recent researches onthe Indian colonization has revealed thatKalinga had lion’s share in the over-seasexpansion and colonization. The naval powerof Kalinga made it possible for her to establishkingdoms in the South-East Asia in the earlystages of colonization and finally a great empireduring the middle ages.31 Tradition holds that20,000 families were sent from Kalinga to Javaby the prince of Kalinga; their numbermultiplied and they prospered. Both R.K.Mookerji and Crawford hold the view that allthe Hindu influences in Java was fromKalinga.32 The fact admits very little doubt thatmany Kalingan rulers ruled over Ceylon andestablished dynasties there. Starting fromVijaya upto Nishanka Malla many kings ofCeylon were either from Kalinga or hadmatrimonial relationship with the rulingfamilies of Kalinga.

There was a Hindu kingdom in centralJava, which the Chinese called as Holing orKalinga. The capital of Burma, Prome wasnamed as Srikshetra for some time. TheSailendras, the most famous ruling dynasty ofSumatra were not only contemporary of the

Sailodbhavas of Kalinga but were supposedto be their offshoots. However, it is difficultto ascertain the exact share of the Kalinganpeople in Greater India, but it is to be presumedthat they had a lion’s share in it. On thecolonization of South-East Asia, M.N.Das saysthat the expansion of Kalinga, politically andculturally, into the lands so mentioned, wasreally a great contribution of that land to thecivilization of the East. 33 By spreadingHinduism and Buddhism, Indian literature andart, and still more, infusing the Indian bloodinto various parts of the Asiatic hemisphere,Kalinga had greatly advanced the movementfor Greater India. Even today the Pacificislanders look towards the shores of India inmemory of a very remote age when the peoplefrom that side went and civilized them. Theremains of Hindu and Buddhist architecture inMalaysia still proclaim a cultural conquest ofthat land by Kalinga. The names like Talaing,Telinga, Kling, Keling and Kalinga are stillused by the people of Burma and Malayasia.

References :

1. A. P. Patnaik, "Kalingan Link with Countriesof South-East Asia," Orissa Review, vol. XLVIll, No.9, 1992. p. 25.

2. A. K. Coomarswamy, Hisory of Indian andIndonesian Art, New Delhi, 1972, p. 157.

3. ibid.

4. D. G. E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia,New York, 1970, pp. 13- 14.

5, 6. ibid, p. 17.

7. A. P. Patnaik, "Kalinga Influence and Coloniesin South-East Asia." OR, vol. XLll, no.9,1986, p. 19.

8. G. Coedes, The Indianized States of South-East Asia, Honolulu. 1967, p.19.

9. D. P. Singhal, India and World Civilization,vol. ll, Calcutta, 1972, p. 93.

16


10. H. Kulke and D. Ruthermond, A History ofIndia, New Delhi, 1987, p. 150.

11. A. Lamb, "Indian Influence in ancient South-East Asia," in A. L. Basham (ed.), A CulturalHistory of India, Delhi, 1988, p. 443.

12. B. K. Majumdar, The Military System inAncient India, Calcutta, 1960, p.86.

13. R. Thaper, A History of India vol. I, London,1987, p. 164.

14. Quoted by B.K.Singh, ‘Nature ofIndianizationof early South-East Asia, , Quarterly Reviewof Historical Research, vol. XVll, no.2. p.106.

15. G. Coedes, op.cit, p. 19.

16. R. C. Majumdar, Hindu Colonies in the FarEast, Calcutta, 1963, p. 8.

17. F. D. K. Bosch, Selected Studies in IndianArchaeology, Hague, 1961, p.10.

18. J. F. Cady, South-East Asia, Its HistoricalDevelopment, New York, 1964, p. 24.

19. J.C. Van Lear, Indonesian Trade and society,Hague, 1955, p. 99.

20. H. Kulke, Kings and Cults, New Delhi, 1993,p. 257.

21. Quoted by D. G. E. Hall, op.cit, p. 19.

22. F. D. K. Bosch, op.cit, pp.8-10.

23. H. Santiko, ‘Technological Transfer in TempleArchitecture from India to Java’ inUtkalHistorical Research Journal, vol-V,1994, p. 26.

24. J. C. Van Lear, op.cit, p. 99.

25. D. G. E. Hall, opcit, p. 18.

26. J. C. Van Lear, opcit, pp. 96-98.

27. ibid, pp. 103-104.

28. W. F. Wertheim, Indonesian Society inTransition -A Study of Social Change, NewYork, 1956, p. 274.

29. R. C. Majumdar, op.cit, pp. 8-9.

30. I. C. Van Lear, op.cit, p. 92.

31. M. N. Das, Glimpses ofKalingaHistory,Calcutta, 1949, p. 120.

32. R. K. Mookerji, Indian Shipping, Allahabad,1962, p.104. I. F. Scheltema, MonumentalJava, New Delhi, 1985, p. 35.

33. M. N. Das, opcit, p. 122.

Benudhar Patra is Lecturer in History, GopalpurCollege, Gopalpur-on-Sea, Ganjam, Orissa.

SIHFW DECLARED AS REGIONAL CENTRE

The State Institute of Health & Family Welfare (SIHFW) has been declared asRegional Centre to impart training on professional development for SeniorMedical Officers all over the country.

All over India, 25 institutions participated and 13 have been identified forthe purpose in which the SIHFW has secured the first position. This Institutionwould impart training to the Doctors who are going to be promoted asSr. Administrative Officers, according to the Director, SIHFW Prof. BhagabatiCharan Das. It may also be noted here that previously the institution has beendeclared as a centre of Excellence.

17


Orissa has been a pioneer among States in Indiain embarking on a comprehensive reform ofthe electricity industry of the State. The aim ofthe reform is to address the fundamental issuesunderlying poor performance of the Orissa StateElectricity Board and restructure the powersector. The objective to make power supplymore efficient, meet the needs of a growingeconomy and develop an economically viablepower industry which will enable Orissa toattract private capital while safeguarding theinterests of the consumers.

A new legislation, namely, the OrissaElectricity Reform Act, 1995 (Orissa Act 2 of1996) was enacted for the purpose ofrestructuring the electricity industry, for takingmeasures conducive to rationalization ofgeneration, transmission and supply system, foropening avenues for participation of privatesector entrepreneurs and for establishment ofa Regulatory Commission independent of thestate government and power utilities.

Advance clearance of the legislation bythe central government was issued by theMinistry of Home Affairs in early November1995. The legislation was approved by theState Assembly on November 28, 1995. ThePresident gave his assent in January 1996 andthe Act became effective in April 1996. The

restructuring of the industry became effectivefrom the same date and the RegulatoryCommission became functional on 01.08.1996after all the three members including theChairman had taken oath of office.

The reform legislation contains severalfundamental building blocks.

Restructuring - The former OSEB has beencorporatised and is designed to be managedon commercial principles in its new formGRIDCO. While the newly formed GRIDCOhas been put in charge of transmission anddistribution, the hydro power- generatingstations owned by the government has beentaken over by the Orissa Hydro PowerCorporation (OHPC).

Unbundling - The reform structure hasincorporated principles of functionalunbundling with regard to generation,transmission and distribution to be managedby separate corporations/companies.

Privatisation - The OER Act, 1995 aims atfostering private sector participation ingeneration and gradual privatisation oftransmission and distribution.

Regulatory Commission - An importantcomponent is establishment of the OrissaElectricity Regulatory Commission for

Power Scenario in Orissa - An Overview

Dr. G.B. Rout

18


ensuring achievement of objectives given inthe Orissa Electricity Reform Act, 1995.

Licensing - Government ownership and directcontrol has given way to a licensing system inrespect of transmission and distributionactivities.

Tariff - Determining tariff which would ensurecommercial rate of return for investment in theelectricity industry while protecting rights ofall categories of consumers with respect tocost, efficiency and quality of service.

The new regulatory supervision isdesigned to be qualitatively and structurallydifferent from the command and controlexercised by the government so far as theelectricity industry is concerned. TheCommission is designed to be an autonomousauthority responsible for regulation of thepower sector while policy-making powercontinues to be retained by the StateGovernment.

The new regulatory regime is designedto insulate the electricity industry from shortterm political decisions and rigid bureaucraticcontrol. It aims at ensuring that industryoperates on commercial lines so that the scarceresources of the state are available fordevelopment. It has been the experience thatstate owned industry is utilised for achievingsocial and political ends such as creatingavenues for employment, and giving subsidyto certain categories of consumers. Thisbecomes detrimental to the industry resultingin non-availability of resources for maintenanceand expansion, lack of accountability inperformance, poor quality of service, financialsickness of the industry and unwillingness ofprivate sector to invest in any significantmanner.

The new regulatory regime, on thepattern prevalent in USA and UK, is designedto create clear and transparent rules andprocedures for open hearing by which theRegulatory Commission can monitor andcontrol the essential utility industries while theinterests of all those who participate in it andthose who are served by it can be balancedand protected.

As an independent Regulatory OERC,issues and enforces licenses, determines tariffand charges, monitors financial viability ofoperators, sets service standards and monitorscompliance, arbitrates in disputes betweenlicensees, arbitrates in disputes betweenlicensees and consumers, provides informationand advice to the Government, handlesconsumer grievances and promotes competitionin all sectors of electricity industry.

An independent Regulatory Commissionoperating in a transparent manner createscomfort and confidence of investors fromprivate sector by allaying the apprehension thatpolitical and personal considerations maycreate an uncertain climate and that the interestsof Govt. or selected persons shall not be undulyfavoured.

Functions of the OERC are :

(i) to aid and advise, in matters concerninggeneration, transmission, distribution andsupply of electricity in the State;

(ii) to regulate the working of licensees andto promote their working in an efficient,economical and equitable manner;

(iii) to issue licenses in accordance with theprovisions of the Reform Act and determinethe conditions to be included in the licenses;

(iv) to promote efficiency, economy and safetyin the transmission, distribution and use of

19


electricity in the State including and inparticular in regard to quality, continuity andreliability of service so as to enable allreasonable demands for electricity to be met;

(v) to regulate the purchase, distribution,supply and utilization of electricity, the qualityof service, the tariff and charges payablekeeping in view both the interest of theconsumer as well as the consideration that thesupply and distribution cannot be maintainedunless the charges for the electricity suppliedare reasonably levied and duly collected;

(vi) to promote competitiveness andprogressively involve the participation of theprivate sector, while ensuring a fair deal forthe customers;

(vii) to collect data and forecast on the demandfor and use of electricity and to require thelicensees to collect such data and make suchforecasts;

(viii) to require licensees to formulateperspective plans and schemes in coordination

with others for the promotion of generation,transmission, distribution and supply ofelectricity; and

(ix) to undertake all incidental or ancilliarythings.

The Orissa Electricity RegulatoryCommission has taken up its role earnestly inthe aforesaid historical and legal perspective.The Commission's task is all the more difficultbecause there has been no precedent of anindependent regulatory Commission inelectricity industry in any of the developingcountries in Asia. The Commission hasformulated its rules, regulation and procedurein a tailor-made manner to suit the economicand industrial development in general, and needof electricity sector in particular, in the stateof Orissa while safeguarding the interests ofall categories of consumers.

Dr. G.B. Rout lives at 484(P), Nilakantha Nagar,Nayapalli, Bhubaneswar.

Shri Naveen Patnaik, Hon'ble Chief Minister inaugurating the YES -Orissa Campaign at Bhubaneswar on 29.10.2004.

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Badaghagra

The Badaghagra falls (about 60 metres)situated around 10 km from Keonjhar isamongst the most popular picnic sites in theregion. One look at the beauty and serenity ofthe place is enough to understand why visitorsmake a beeline for it.

Sanaghagra

The Sanaghagra falls (about 30 metres)situated around 5 km from Keonjhar. Thesurrounding here attracts visitors throughout theyear.

Duduma

Known as Matsya Tirtha, Duduma isfamous for its waterfall (157.5 metres), as wellas for the Machhakund Hydro-Electric Project.

Barehipani

These picturesque falls (Barehipani -399 metres and Joranda - 150 metres) situatedin the core area of Simlipal National Park areperfectly complementary to their surroundingsand are beautiful bonus to the visitors of thesanctuary.

Harishankar

On the southern slope of theGandhamardan hills, around 81 km fromBalangir, stands Harishankar, a place ofpilgrimage, famous for its uncommon sceniccharms and the presence of Hari and Shankar,the dual deities of the Vaishnav and Shaivitesects of Hinduism. A perennial stream gushesforth onto its granite bed to form cascades atdifferent stages, the last fall providing a naturalwater slide to bathers! As a cool resort in thelap of nature, Harishankar is a panacea for theheat in the summer.

Waterfalls in Orissa

C.R. Balabantaroy

21


Hatipathar

3 km from Rayagada, the river Nagavaliflows through a deep cut valley, forming twolovely waterfalls. An ideal picnic spot knownfor its scenic beauty, the place gets its namefrom the huge elephant shaped boulders(in Oriya, Hati means elephant and Patharmeans boulder) that litter the landscape.

Joranda

These picturesque falls (Barehipani -399 metres and Joranda - 150 metres) situatedin the core area of Simlipal National Park areperfectly complementary to their surroundingsand are a beautiful bonus to the visitors of thesanctuary.

Khandadhar

One of the prettiest districts on the touristcircuit is the Sundargarh region. Locatedamidst its lush forests is Orissa's most famous

waterfall, theKhandadhar fall(about 244metres). Thebeauty of thisplace makes it asite not to bemissed.

Khanduala

The jungles ofKarlapat WildlifeS a n c t u a r y ,

situated around 32 km from Bhawanipatna,provide the setting for Orissa's anotherwaterfall called Khanduala, so named becauseof the shrine of the Goddess Khanduala situatedon the top of the hill.

Miriglotah

A beautiful waterfall and picnic spotsituated 111 km from Rourkela is Orissa'slovely offerings to visitors.

Nrusimhanath

On the northern slopes of theGandhamardan hills is the temple ofNrusimhanath located 165 km from Sambalpur.A murmuring rivulet engirdles the shrineforming various waterfalls at different stages.Bhimadhar, Gadadhar, Guptadhar, Pitrudhar,Kapiladhar and Chaladhar are picturesquewaterfalls at Nrusimhanath.

Phurli Jharan

A perennialwaterfall of about16 metres high,Phurli Jharanlocated around 15km fromBhawanipatna, hasa special charm of its own. The multi-colouredrainbows created by the sun-rays falling on thescattered water particles of the fall, creates athrilling and magical ambience. The evergreenforests around provide ample opportunity forvisitors.

Pradhanpat

The Pradhanpat hill, with its picturesquewaterfall, offers arare scenic beauty.These falls areclose to Deogarh,and are around100 km fromSambalpur.

Putudi

Located 15 km from Phulbani, the naturalbeauty of the Putudi fall on the river BadaSaluki, with dense forests and hills on eitherside have entranced visitors over the ages.

The Writer lives at Plot No.1188, Nayapalli,Bhubaneswar.

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Chilika has a pride of place in Orissa'sliterature and culture, and has influenced thepoets and philosophers. It has greatsignificance for planners, scientists,international organizations like 'The WetlandsInternational' and 'Asian Wetland Bureau'.Chilika lagoon hasbeen designated as aRamsar site (Wetlandof Internationalimportance) from 1stOctober, l981.

The waterspread of the lagoonvaries between 1165Sq.km in monsoon to906 Sq.km duringsummer and extendsover Puri, Khurda and Ganjam districts. Thelagoon itself can be broadly divided in to fournatural sectors based on salinity and depth: thesouthern zone, central zone, northern zone, andthe outer channel.

Numerous islands are present in thelagoon, prominent among which are Kalijai,Honeymoon, Barakuda, Breakfast, BirdsIsland, etc.

One of the submerged (potential) islandscovering, an area of 15.53 Sq.km has been

notified as Chilika (Nalaban) WildlifeSanctuary on 17th December l987. The wholearea of the Chilika Lake, excluding the areanotified as Sanctuary has been declared as a'Closed Area' for a period of five years witheffect from 16th December 2002.

The ecosystemfeatures of Chilikacomprising of tidalingress from the sea,which mixes with thefresh water brought byrivers like Daya,Bhargabi, Luna, andlarge number of rivulets.Several islands aresituated in this lagoon,inhabited by large human

population (1.3 lakh approx.) dependent on thiswetland for sustenance. A number of villagesand towns around the lagoon are closelyassociated with the wetland, in one way or theother for economic activities. About 70% ofthis population depends on fishing as the meansof livelihood.

The Chilika Lagoon is hot spot of richBiodiversity. There are 546 species ofangiospermic plants belonging to 379 generaand 107 families, above 100 phytoplanktongenera, 20 species of weed and 7 pteridophytic

Chilika

Sadhana Mishra

23


species documented so far in the Lagoon andthe islands.

Chilika is very rich in both invertebrateand vertebrate fauna. This Ramsar site is thehabitat for the largest congregation ofwaterfowls in India. Over a million birdscongregate in this water body for feeding androosting. Migration commences in lateSeptember and the birds remain up to April,but the peak congregation period is mid-December to middle of January. Birdsbelonging to over 230 species including 14birds of prey (32% aquatic, 22%waders, and46% terrestrial birds) are seen in this lake, ofwhich 95 species are intercontinental and localmigrants. Flocks of migratory waterfowl arrivefrom as far as the Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal,remote parts of Russia, central and south EastAsia, Ladakh and the Himalayas for feedingand roosting. 15 species of ducks and twospecies of geese (Order: Anseriformes), coverover 70% of the migratory birds which visitthis lagoon annually. The ducks and geese arefollowed by coots, rails and cranes(Gruiformes) 15%; waders/shore birds(Charadriformes) 12%; pelicans(Pelecaniformes) 1.5%; grebes(Podicipediformes) 1%; kites, eagles etc.(Falconiformes) and kingfishers(Coraciformes) 0.5%.

Chilika holds the highest concentrationof waterfowl. The 2004 survey estimates totalof 8, 66,477 birds representing 137 species ofwhich 85 are migrant species. Waterfowlvisitation to Chilika in 2004 was 1.9 times thenumber in comparison to the year 2003.Population status of waterfowl in the entireChilika lagoon vis-à-vis the population inNalaban Sanctuary in the different years asfollows :

Number of Birds as per Survey

2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999

Chilika lagoon. 8.66 4.54 15.13 9.95 15.49 12.37

Nalabansanctuary. 1.81 2.03 2.33 5.56 9.75 8.45

(21%) (45%) (15.4%) (66%) (63%) (68.3%)

In Chilika during the current birdmigration season, maximum congregation ofwaterfowl (migratory and local) was observedin peripheral marshy areas of the Chilikalagoon such as: Kalupada ghatt, Manglajodi,Sorana, etc.

The other vertebrate fauna includes: 321species of fish and crab (fresh water, estuarineand marine species), 7 species of amphibians,30 species of reptiles (12 species of lizardsand 18 species of snakes) and 18 species ofmammals. Two major crabs species (Scyllaserreta and Neptunus pelagicus), available inChilika are of commercial importance.

Most notable and endangered speciesalso included in the Schedule-1 of the WildlifeProtection Act ) available in the lagoon are:Barkudia insularis, a limbless lizard/skink (thisskink is named after the "Barukuda" island ofthe lake); an aquatic mammal i.e., Irrawaddydolphin, Orcaella brevirostris, Fishing cat(Felis viverrina), White bellied sea eagle(Haliaeetus leucogaster), White spoon bill(Platalea leucorodia), Osprey (Pandionhaliaetus), and Spoon billed sandpiper(Eurynorhynchus pygmeus).

The population of Irrawaddy or Snubfindolphins, Orcaella brevirostris (locally knownas "Bhuasuni Magar") is the point of touristattraction. At present there are about 80-90Irrawaddy dolphins in the entire lake. A smallpopulation of Bottle nosed dolphin, Sousachinensis also migrate in to the lagoon fromthe sea.

24


The mass nesting beach (rookery) alongthe Chilika coast is at Rushikulya which islocated at the southern Orissa coast. It spreadsover six km. stretching from the coastline infront of village Purunabandh (one Km north ofRushikulya river mouth) to the beach in frontof Kantiagada village of Ganjam District. Thenesting beach is much wide, more or less flatwith scattered sand dunes of 1 - 2 m high. Theaverage beach width is about 100 m from nearthe high tide line, though at some places thewidth of the beach is more than 100 m. About2,00,000 turtles estimated to have nested in thisrookery in the arribada of March, 1994. Insubsequent years there was a decline in thenumber of turtles nesting at this rookery (1994-95: 0.60lakhs; 1995-96: 1.18 lakhs; 1996-97:

0.25 lakhs; 1997-98: 0.085 lakhs). There wasno mass nesting in this rookery during 1998-99, 1999-2000 and 2002. However, a total of1.59 lakh turtles came to the Rushikulyarookery during the first mass nesting period of2000-01. The first mass nesting at this rookerycontinued over a 7 days period starting from26th February to 4th March 2001. The massnesting figures for the last three years are asfollows (2001-02:0.35 lakhs; 2002-03:2.8lakhs; 2003-04: 2.01 lakhs).

Chilika Lake is threatened by siltation,eutrophication, change in salinity regime,

proliferation of freshwater weed, increasedaquaculture activities, changes in speciescomposition, depletion of bio- resources, anddecrease in fish population etc. People havebeen using migratory birds arriving in Chilikafor wintering as a source of protein supplementfor quite some time. With the passage of time,this source of protein supplement has alsobecome a source of livelihood for them. Theinaccessibility of certain pockets due to weedinfestation has boosted their activity as theyfind easy escape routes in these areas.

In a major intervention to manipulate thelake hydrology, a new mouth was opened nearRamabhartia in the year 2000 by the ChilikaDevelopment Authority (CDA), Bhubaneswarto let fresh ingress of seawater into the lake.The results of this intervention indicate that thesalinity levels inside the lagoon have increasedto certain extent in comparison to previousyears, which apparently has led to decrease inthe weed growth area and increase in fishcatch. Impact of this manipulation (increasedsalinity level in the lake) on the ecosystem ofthe lake as a whole and Nalaban Sanctuary inparticular and on the population of migratorybirds / waterfowl in the lake needs closerassessment.

In an innovative experiment to wean thepoachers away from poaching, a massiveawareness programme has been undertaken and

25


bird protection committees have been formed.These committees assist the Forest Departmentin their protection efforts during the migratoryseason. In some areas, like Mangalajodi andBhusandpur, the response from the villagershas been encouraging. These efforts aresupplemented with the establishment of anti-poaching camps at strategic points along thecoast line. To encourage eco-tourism, trainingcamps for eco-guides and boat-manassociations at Balugaon and Satpada are beingorganised.

Habitat development inside the sanctuaryis being done with funds received from Govt.of India and Chilika Development Authority.These measures include raising up ofplantations, digging and renovation of creeksand digging of ponds.

The State Environment Department andthe Chilika Development Authority have takenseveral measures for conservation andmanagement of this unique wetland and its richbiodiversity, with the support of the Ministryof E &F, Govt. of India. These measuresinclude: Protection of migratory waterfowl andother species prone to poaching for meat,Catchments area treatment, Weed control,

Restoration of the feeding and roosting habitatof water fowl, Pollution control Creation ofawareness about the values and functions ofwetland· Research and development activities,Community participation, Capacity buildingBuilding of Data base of the lagoon andPromotion of eco-tourism. The changingprofile of the lake has led to new challenges.The bird congregation, which was largelyconfined to Nalaban and other four to fiveareas, has now dispersed to peripheral areassuch as Kalupada, Mangalajodi, andBhusandpur, etc. This has posed a problem ofprotection of birds due to difficulty inaccessibility of the area and constraint ofresources. Increase in tourism inside Chilikahas given rise to death of Irrawaddy dolphins,which may at a later stage be detrimental tothe overall population of these endangereddolphins. This, however, has also offeredopportunities to work hand in hand with otherstakeholders working in the area for overallconservation of the lagoon.

The writer lives at Qrs. No.E-24/3, Unit-9,

Bhubaneswar.

CORRIGENDUM

The caption of the top photograph published in the photopage-v of Orissa Review, October, 2004 should be readas "Shri M.M. Rajendran, His Excellency the Governorof Orissa receiving report of the Commission fromShri Trilochan Kanungo, Chairman of the Second StateFinance Commission at Raj Bhavan, Bhubaneswar on29.09.04." We sincerely regret for this inadvertent error.

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People say that it is the story of Satyayuga.Mura and Daruna were two demons and werevery powerful. But in the battle with gods, theywere killed miserably. In the meantime the wifeof Mura, named Lilabati was pregnant. As shehad received unspoken torture before givingbirth to the child, she gave its name"Dandadanab". When Dandadanab becameyoung he could know the mystery behind hisname. He received education fromSukracharya. Then he started hard meditationmemorising Bramha. He got the grace ofBramha that if he could defeat the gods andgoddesses and then only he could defeat LordVishnu. Dandadanab defeated the gods andimprisoned all of them. After some days hewas persuaded by Saraswati to arrange a firecontainer (Kunda) in which the imprisonedgods could jump into and die. He obeyed herwords. He got fire from lord Shiva's third eyeand ordered the gods to jump into it. The godsdid the same. He laughed so happily to seethis that he died too. This laughter wasconnected to his death as a precondition ofBrahma. The fire of Lord Shiva transformedthe gods into the heaven and made the soul ofDandadanab free. From that day, people believethat Dandajatra may have been started as amemory of this. These informations areobtained from Bramhabaibarta Puran and KaliPuran.

In the coastal districts of Orissa, we findpeople observe Danda Yatra. It is virtuallycharacterised by punishment of the body withreligiosity. In addition, it has an interestingperformance of a poetic drama calledDandanata too. The story of Danda is broughtfrom Shaibakalpa, Linga Puran, Lakshmi Puranand Kalika Puran etc. It is said that LordKrishna and Vishnu like incarnation havecreated 'rasa' in different yugas in differentways. But Lord Shiva does not have any suchrasa. In the meantime Parvati tried to create anew system. She thought of 13 rishis likeKalinjana, Kandu, Bhrugu, Swarachisa,Maricha, Jungu, Lomesha, Goutama,Agnidhwaja, Parasara, Mukandu andManibhadra etc. She also wished to observesuch a jatra in the name of her husband lordSiva and this is chiefly observed to control'Moha' (greed and illusion) in the body. As aresult the rishis including Manivadra enteredinto the water of Manikarnika. Then Mani cameout of the water. Seven kumbhas weredistributed among the rishis. They made a'Binashram' in which they made a vidin whichhas fallen in the infinite water. Later in the newcreation it was recovered. Then a special kindof cane named 'Gouri Beta' was discovered tomake use in bearing the god. A thing named'Kachhada' is made in order to mix with'Kalarudramani'.

Danda Jatra and Danda Nata : A Display of Painand Pleasure of Oriya Devotees

Pratap Kumar Dash

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Bramha, Vishnu and Maheswar, the threedistinct universal powers according to the vedarepresent the three natural elements of water,air and heat. In this regard, Shiva representsBramha too. The worship of Lord Shiva isvaried in Orissa. He happens to be the chiefdeity in the festival of Danda. He isworshipped in the name of Banambara. TheDanda festival is otherwise known as "JhamuJatra". Nine days after Mina Sankranti it isobserved for 21 or 13 or 9 or 5 or even forthree days. This festival comes to a close onthe day of Mahavisuba Sankranti. In Orissadevotees observe "Masant Meru" or "SankrantiMeru". At the right time, garlands known as"Agnya Mala" are brought from the establisheddeities of the locality and is put in the GouriBeta. Then "Danda" is invited at the home ofKumbhara. In the undivided district of Puri,homa is made for three nights at the pond ofDanda and then fire is set in the fire container.But in the places like Galeri, Kulad, Kutagadaand Asikanuagaon of the district of Ganjam,homa is made in the Jalaghata at about 10O'clock in the day. Jivanyasa is done at theright time and the Danduas were Brata at theJala ghat. Then they go for Bandapana to thehome of Patabhukta. Then they visit differenttemples and then to the home of differentdevotees of Danda. They arrange "dhuli danda"at the door of the devotees during the time ofstrong sun i.e. between 12 noon to 2 p.m.Different gymnastic actions and meditations areshown in that kind of game. The Dhulidanda ismanaged by Pata Dandua. In the afternoon thedanduas go for bathing at the Gouri Beta,holding mango leaves in hand. At that time theysing "Golden tooth stick with silver canesMukunda Murari was brushing teeth Oh ! ShriShri Kala Indramani."

After taking bath, the devotees startoffering Bhogas. The Danduas take Prasad. Thedevotees offer different gifts to the Lord too.

Then both the Danduas as well as the devoteestake rest at a lonely place. The Danduas eat"Habishanna" or even "pana" after offering itto the Lord.

At about the 3rd prahar of night, the Lordgoes to the doorsteps of the devotees and show"Agni Danda". In the nights "Dandanata" isenacted to keep the Danduas awake and tomove the Shiva power everywhere. It isbelieved that the power of Shiva helpsestablishing peace everywhere. Finally the mannamed Binakar, who plays on the Bina andworships Lord Siva and other deities declarethe end of the daily festival of Danda.

Finally before the day of Pana Sankranti,the Dandayatra comes to a culmination on theday of meru. The day of Meru is known as theday of Jhamuyatra too. It is celebrated in theform of Agni Jhamu, Handola Jhamu, KartaJhamu or Patukanta Jhamu. On this day theDanduas drown their bratas in water. In someplaces pana, the cake of black gram andwatermelon etc are offered as bhoga where asin some places sacrifice of goat is offered as aritual. After Sankranti, the Danduas follow thesystem of 'Manima Suddha'. On this day, theywash their clothes, take a good bath and arrangea feast.

The important place of Danda Jatrainclude the Danda of Galeri, in the district ofGanjam where 1000 danduas and 300 dancersparticipate. This system of Danda has beenstarted there right from the time of the kings'rule. The danda jatra of Nuagaon of Ganjamis also famous. Here at least 300 danduas and50 dancers participate in this. In the Danda jatraof Kutaguda of Ganjam almost 1200 danduasjoin. In Odagaon, Khandapara and Ranpur ofNayagarh district danda jatra is celebratedwith greater purity. In some of the places"Niangada" (a fire track) is arranged in themorning of Sankranti followed by "Handola"

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of previous night. In Handola a bar is set andin the ground heavy fire is burnt. In themeantime the Danduas hang themselves fromthe wooden bars a reverse manner on the fireaflamed throwing Jhuna in the name ofBanambara, Bishnu and Kali. In Niangada, theDanduas walk on a fire bed prepared speciallyby heating charcoal and winding in a new kula.First they sink their feet in a hole of milk, thenwalk on the firebed of at least 21 hand and onefinger wide and one hand deep or 13 handsand one finger deep. They dip their feet in awater containing hole. All these are made toexhibit the purity of these Danduas. First thePatuabhukta walks on the firebed holding thedeity followed by Patadandua and others. Butstrangely they are not burnt at all. The khandaor jhamugada is dug with the enchanting ofmantras by bramhin in which 33 crores ofHindu deities are invited. The walk starts asper the auspicious time set as per Panjika.Danduas also roll on the thorn bed preparedspecially and termed "kanta mariga". In someplaces a two bent nails are pierced into theback skin of patabhukta bound with ropesbefore the presence of the deity. In thatcondition, he moves from village to village.

Danda jatra is very much associated withone of the most popular dance drama of Orissacalled "Dandha nacha". It is based on somefolktales in which people feel the gracefulpower of Lord Siva and Parvati. On the otherside, people enjoy it too. Dandanachadramatises the story of a forest bird catchernamed Birupakshya who was moving insidethe forest. In the meantime storm came suddenlyand he met a tiger. Then he climbed up a Bailtree to save him. He spent the entire night. Hebroke the branches of bail to drop on that tigerto drive him away. Next morning, the tiger wentaway and the bail branches were fallen in theground. He got down the tree. But strangelythere was a hidden Shiva linga under the bail

tree and that was a day of Shivaratri. As thenumber of bail leaves had exceeded a lakh,Lord Siva became very very happy and tookhis incarnation before the man. He suggestedthe bird catcher to meditate on his name andthen vanished. Birupakshya started meditatingunder the bail tree from that day. Once a kingof Kesari dynasty went on a travel into thatEkamrakanan and found the same place underthe bail tree. It was neat and clean. Bail leavesas well as meat were also there as offered bythat Sabara. They could know the mystery asthey waited there secretly and saw the activitiesof Birupakshya. The king came back to hispalace. But at night Lord Siva came himself inthe dream of the king. He ordered him to takethat linga and to establish in a temple forregular worship. At that time Shiva toldBirupakshya that he would accompany him asChadeya during his Danda Jatra. ThenBirupakshya was also declared as theGandharba king of Jambu island and livedthere. From then Birupakshya arranged thedrum dance of Chadeya every year.

Even more stories are associated withthe Danda Nacha. They include the story of atribal man who received order from Shiva notto kill animals in the forest but to live onfarming. The off springs of this tribal man wereknown as "Naga" and worship linga as wellas snake. A story of milkman and his wife saysthat goddess Parvati was impressed to see themilching of cows on the linga inside the forest.Then she enjoyed driving cows in the form ofa cow-woman. But she was caught sight ofKirti and Vasa, the demon brothers and the sonof Drumila. They sought love from her. Butgetting clue from Shiva, Parvati killed both thedemons in the incarnation of Maa Durga.

Pratap Kumar Dash is working in the Department ofEnglish, Ranpur College, Ranpur in the district ofNayagarh.

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The dream is a state of mind while asleep. It isa reflection of one's thought, imagination andintuition. Everybody, even a blind can havedreams. Dreams have influenced the lives ofpeople since the beginning across civilisationsin myriad ways.

It is now part of the legend that QueenMayadevi of King Sudhodan had a dream thatan elephant is entering her body. To explainthe dream the wise men of the royal court wereconsulted. The opinion was the queen wouldbeget a son who has qualities of a superman,who can become a "chakravarti" or an ascetic.The Child became the Buddha, the enlightenedone. Similarly, the Queen of Julius Caesar hada dram that the statue of Caesar in the marketplace is bleeding and she apprehended adanger to the life of her husband. It was for thedream; she pleaded Caesar not to go to the partyby his friends in which Caesar was ultimatelystabbed to death. In both the instances, thedreams were indicative of the coming events.

The process of Nabakalebar of LordJagannath, begins with a swapnadesh byGoddess Bimala. The deity indicates thelocation or the direction of the "Daru" i.e. theSacred Neem Tree by which the idols will bemade. In history of Orissa, King RamachandraDeva of Khurda, who had embraced Islam tosave Orissa was a great devotee of LordJagannath. As described in the novel"Neelasaila" of Surendra Mohanty, Badapanda(the chief preist) was instructed in dream toinstall a smaller statue of Lord Jagannath(Patita Pavan) over temple entrance so that the

devotee King (now a patita or fallen) couldhave a darshan though forbidden to enter thetemple.

Dream plays a vital role in designing the'belief of the people of kui-dina, the Kandhamaldistrict. The people firmly believe that dreamis a message for the coming day or near future.It is a system of communication by the Gods.They do not think that dreams are more relatedto mental state or imagination. Theinterpretation of dreams is so popular amongthe people that some of them are used asproverbs. It is said that if some one dreams ofeating cakes, it indicates he may be beaten byothers. Dream of bathing in muddy or dirtywater, the person may face a quarrel withothers. On the contrary bathing in clean waterindicates a good day or deal. Dream of eatableslike honey, cakes, meat is taken as a bad sign,i.e. honey means the person may fall on humanfaeces, cakes for beating or physical ailmentsand meat for death of a near or dear. On thecontrary, dream of death of a living person isa good omen for the person. Dreaming of smallfishes is indicative of a good monetary incomeand big size fishes are of heavy expenditure.Dream of bringing wood taken for coming ofguests to the house. The human excreta dreamalso has same meaning.

The dreams are in some cases treated asthe means of divine communication. If someoneregularly dreams of snakes he is advised tohave a darshan of Lord Shiva at Dungi orChakapad temple with a copper or silver nag.The dog in dream is symbols of Tiger as vehicle

Role of Dream in Kui-Culture

Anuja Mohan Pradhan

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of the Gasaapenu, i.e. deity of forest. In caseof bad times or sickness, people approach to agodman or woman believed to be a blessedone by Gods. The godman asks to bring fewgrains (sometimes a handful) of rice from thehouse of the aggrieved or to bring the rice aftertouched by the person fallen ill. The godmangoes to sleep with the rice under his pillow.The result is very often out on the next daymorning witchcraft by some persons. Thegodman after the diagnosis also prescribes theremedy through some worship consisting ofrituals or sacrifice of a cock, goat or pig. Hemay also give some herbal medicine or adviseto visit a religious place like Lord Birupakshyaof Chakapad or Goddess Bagdevi of Kuladain Ganjam district or to join the Dandanata fora year or more.

Such dreams of a godman, induced byspecial reasons are taken as doctor'sprescription. In some cases the godman onlyexplains the person's dreams. If a person duringsickness has dream of a bald headed and darkcoloured person it is apprehended that his doomis approaching. Dream of policemen taking intocustody has the same meaning. In such a time,if he visualised any particular individualchasing him it is strongly believed that thechasing person is a vampire or a witch. Thepeople take him as enemy of the society and toconfirm the same ask the view of the godman.On his approval to meaning of the dream thewiccaphobia makes people an attacking army.It is seen that the man chasing in dreams isasked to cure the patient or else beaten or evenbeaten ruthlessly. In case of death of the patientthe public frenzy explodes and people even gofor the life of the suspected. Such incidents,however are reducing due to people comingmore closer to modern medicines than thegodman. The beliefs in dreams, in past, wasalso used as a device to outcast a person ordrive him out of the village and to depriveproperty.

Does a dream have a special reason ?Or it is a mere flash of mind ! As there is no

order in having a particular dream, the dreamshould not be taken for granted. If a personimagines any thing unseen or unknown animaginary shape is created in his deep memory.He may have a dream of such a thing place ora person he has never seen. A person may havedream of a recent incident that has struck hismind deeply. In a state of illness, if the patientbelieves that he has been a victim to witchcraft,he may have dream of person, he ever halfbelieved as a sorcerer. People in easternOrissa believe more in a crow crowing on theroof than dream of bringing wood as anindication for arrival of guests. Those whonever thought of bringing wood from forestnever had such a dream.

It is unknown that how such interpretationof dreams is conceptualised in the Kui culture.It is perhaps few co-incidences that has beentaken as granted since ages. The people, boundby superstitions fell victims to the localgodman. The belief in dreams is so deep rootedthat; it calls for a good research work to explainpeople the cause of dreams and the pseudonessof their belief. If an influential person of thevillage has some scores to settle with someone,he may take plea of dreams and accuse theperson of witchcraft. The people rise in furyas he is called as a killer. The poor fellow isattacked, beaten and compelled to swallowhuman excreta or force him to leave the village.The mob resorts to such heinous criminalactivities believing that they are cleansing thesociety of an evil.

It is high time for the youth of the Kuiculture to examine such deep rooted belief anddissuade people from such barbaric remedy.They should come forward to create awarenessamong the people so that the people are savedfrom the whirlpool of dreams.

The Author comes from Kandhamal District and iscurrently working at National MetallurgicalLaboratory, Jamshedpur.

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Unlike Ganesh Cult, Kartikeya cult wasconfined to South India only. In Hindu calenderthe sixth day of a lunar month (Sasthi) isconsidered sacred to him. Tradition has it thathe married 'Valli' a forest maid and 'Devasena',daughter of Indra. Accordingto Puranas he was born as theson of Lord Siva and DeviParvati to kill the demonTarakasura. He is also famousin different names such as :-Sanmatura, Sadanana orSanmukha, Devasenapati,Saktidhara, Tarakari,Kumara, Skanda,Subrahmanya etc. Accordingto Sastras his mount ispeacock. In an age wherewars were frequent, whetherto subdue an enemy or toconquer new lands, theemergence of a God of warwas inevitable. The God full of youth andvigour, outstanding the luminosity of the sunwas Kartikeya, the son of Siva.

It is difficult to trace the origin and thebirth of Kartikeya, but in this paper an attempthas been made only to highlight the importanceof Kartikeya images preserved in the OrissaState Museum. According to the story,

Kartikeya's birth took place under unusualcircumstances. Indra was sitting deep in thoughton the mountain, pondering on the problem whoshould be the commander of his armed forces.He suddenly heard the crying of a beautiful

young girl on the verge ofbeing kidnapped by a demon.Indra resqued the girl and shesaid that if she had a husbandto protect her, she shall be freefrom the dangerous demons.The girl wanted a husbandwho was invincible, famousand a devotee of Brahma. Onewho could conquer thedaityas and the devatas. Forher Kartikeya was producedwho grew up very fast and hehad 6 heads, 12 eyes, 12 earsof 12 arms. So go on storiesabout the birth of Kartikeyalegends constantly merge with

imagination to pour forth hundreds of stories.

In Hindu mythology the pleiades or theseven chaste women were the wives of theseven divine sages. Six of them were raised tothe sky and became the Kritikas or the pleiadesand seventh one also chaste as well as piousand devoted to her husband was separatelyraised to the sky and became the Arundhati.

Kartikeya

Gitarani Praharaj

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P.K. Agrawala writes Agni is creditedin the Rigveda with many mothers. If they areseven in number, as his seven sisters are andas can be guessed on the basis of the traditionin the 'Yajurveda', recording seven wombs forproducing Agni, similarly it is with Kartikeya'sseven mothers, as Kritikas or as Rishipatnisfrom which one was dropped in subsequentdevelopment owing to facts observed inconstellar happenings, if the Kritikas andKartikeya myth was at all based on that or itwas due to the contamination of a six facedGod of separate origin with Kartikeya that onemother had to be indifferent in the originKartikeya for only six heads were to beproduced.

The six heads of Kartikeya also representsix attributes of the duty. They are Jnana(wisdom), Vairagya (detachment), Bala(strength), Kirtti (fame), Shree (wealth) andAiswarya (Divine power).

Scholars have divided the images ofKarttikeya into two types such as, type-1without cock and type-2 - with cock, hischaracteristic attribute. Various texts regardingthe iconography of Karttikeya are studied byfamous scholar T.A. Gopinath Rao. Hedescribes the iconography features ofKarttikeya in his monograph titled "Elementsof Hindu Iconography". As regards handsKarttikeya possessed two, four and more thanfour hands. Among these the two handed imagesare considered as satvika, four handed imagesare considered as rajasika and that of morethan four hands regarded as tamasika in nature.According to the agamas the attributes ofKarttikeya should consist of the Sakti, Khadga,Akshamala, Abhaya, Kukkuta and the Khetakaetc. Interestingly the agamas mentioned that,the images of Subrahmanya or Karttikeyashould be set up in village or in a palace.

On the western portion of Parsurameswartemple at Bhubaneswar we find Karttikeyawith his hair flying in the wind is shown sittingon his peacock mount. The angle at which thepeacock has been carved gives the impressionthat it is a boat and the spear in the hands ofKarttikeya looks as if he is steering a boat.Actually the spear is aimed at asura figuresdepicted below the panel. Another Karttikeyaimage is found in the east side ofParsuramesvara temple belongs to 9th centuryA.D. Karttikeya in the east side in meditationpose is shown sitting on a throne and holding aspear in his left hand and a fruit in his right.The peacock has been carved sideways belowthe throne. Erotic carvings are depicted in theniches on either side of the main deity.

In Muktesvara temple we find Karttikeyasitting on a Padmasana while his peacockstands on his right side and a cock on his leftside, both looking up at him. The deity carriesa spear in his left hand and the right hand is invarada pose.

Karttikeya has a very compositecharacter, comprising diverse aspects. On onehand he is depicted as the God of wisdom aswell as the God of war. But from the time whenGanesha acquired supremacy over Karttikeyaand the former has been considered as the Godof wisdom.

During the Kushana period i.e. the earlypart of Christian era the popularity ofKarttikeya grew substantially. This may havebeen because the Kushanas were basically amartial race, so for them a God of war as apatron deity would obviously have been theright choice. This belief is corroborated by thediscovery of a large number of images ofKarttikeya from Mathura and the great citiesof North India during the early part of 1st

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century B.C. This is further corroborated bythe discovery of a large number of coins ofthis period belonging to the Kushana king'Huviska' bearing the image of the God of warKarttikeya.

Temples dedicated to Karttikeya are firstmentioned in Kautilya's Arthasastra composedbefore the beginning of the Christian era. Thediscovery of a large number of Gupta sealsshows how popular the cult of Karttikeya wasat that time. Some rulers of the Gupta dynastywas at that time were even named after himsuch as Kumara Gupta, I, his successor SkandaGupta and Kumara Gupta II. The Guptas weredevotees of Vishnu but as generally other Godsof the Hindu pantheon are also revered by them.Kumara Gupta I was the first Gupta emperorto hold Karttikeya as the main deity as he issuedthe peacock type of Karttikeya coins in gold.Discoveries of Gupta images of Karttikeyahave been made from many places in NorthIndia such as Varanasi, Kanauj in Uttar Pradeshand Orissa also.

After the Gupta age the popularity ofKarttikeya as a God declined in North Indiaand he is mentioned more in association withSiva rather than by himself. R.G. Bhandarkarhas observed that in the later medieval periodit was seldom that separate shrines werededicated to him, he having become a part ofSiva's family. His image has since been alwaysenshrined in temples dedicated to Siva.Karttikeya's role as commander-in-chief of thecelestial armies is emphasized more not hisqualities as a God of wisdom and learning.

Professor Banarjee observes thatKarttikeya was worshipped especially in NorthIndia from early times. But since hisworshippers did not get a separate status, it ispresumed that they did not form a separate sect,

like devotees of the five puranic deities viz,Vishnu, Siva, Sakti, Surya and Ganapati.

So Karttikeya was worshipped underdifferent names or aspects, such as Skanda,Kumara and Subrahmanya in South.

The State Museum has collected a seriesof Kartikeya images from various places of theState. Among them the six headed Kartikeya isa rare specimen. Six headed image ofKartikeya was brought from the hill fort ofJunagarh by the Superintendent of Orissa StateMuseum, Dr. C.B. Patel. The peacock as anessential element in the iconography ofKartikeya prominently appears in the back ofthe image. It is made of red sandstone of theKalachuri time. It measures 19" x 13" x 5".The upper right hand holds trident and the palmof the peacock. The lower left hand holds anindistinct object. The upper right hand ispartially damaged. The figure is ornamentedwith heavy anklets in the half damaged foot. Abig Rudrakshyamala (garland) is encircledround the neck of the image which touches thebelly of the image.

References :

1. Rao, T.A.G. Element of Hindu Iconography,Vol.II Part-II, Second Reprint, p.425-429,Delhi-1985.

2. Harshananda Swami, Hindu Gods & Goddesses,Fifth impression, p.143-148 Madras.

3. Panigrahi K.C. Archaeological Remains atBhubaneswar, Second Edition, p.127-131,Cuttack, 1981.

Gitarani Praharaj is presently working as the Curator(Arch) in Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneswar.

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India has a rich legacy of Tantra and Mantraculture since remote past. Buddhist andBrahmanical literature are replete with thismystic cult which had great impact on sociallife, literature, music, art and architecture.Orissa as one of the adipitha ofTantra has produced a series ofTantric literature. Orissa StateMuseum alone has nearly 200Tantric manuscripts both inSanskrit and Oriya. Thesemanuscripts highlight variousBuddhistic and Brahmanicalreligious and ritualistic order.Interestingly some of the tantricdoctrines and ritualistic systemsare still in vogue in the State. Thescript used generally Oriya.However some manuscriptswritten in Bengali and Devanagiriare found as well. Mostly thesemanuscripts are written inpalmleaf. Early and originalmanuscripts are few as most of the Tantramanuscripts are copies of 18th,19th and 20thcentury.

Tantra is derived from the root word‘Tan’ which means to pervade or spread. It isbelieved that there are two types of scripture

Tantra Manuscripts in the Collection ofState Museum

Dr. C.B. Patel

namely Vaidika and Tantrika. The Tantra isgenerally regarded as the spiritual authority forthe Kali age. For this it is also called the 5thVeda. But in common sense, it is a creedconnected with Sakti and Fertility cults.

The origin of Tantra is shroudedin mystery. It seems to have beengradually evolved throughcenturies. Many scholars opine thatby 7th century A.D. Tantrismwitnessed fuller efflorescence andgot connected intimately with theSaiva and Sakti cults.

In Orissa however Tantra vidyawas known to have been popularfrom 6th century A.D. whichmarked the beginning of decline ofBuddhism. Many Tantric textsconnected with Sakti worship werecomposed during this period.Many Sakti temples like Mohini,Vaital and Gauri at Bhubaneswar,

Vimala at Puri, Kichakeswari at Khiching ,Viraja at Jajpur, Mangala at Kakatpur,Charchika at Banki, Harachandi near Puri,Varahi at Chaurasi, Sarala at Jhankada,Bhadrakali at Bhadrak, Sameleswari atSambalpur and Pataneswari at Bolangir wereconstructed and devis were worshipped in their

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myriads offorms. Side byside the cults ofMatrikas andYoginis alsoevolved invarious parts ofOrissa.

From stratifieddeposit, a twohanded Durgaimage inarcher’s posewith her vehicleLion has beenexcavated fromM a r a g u d avalley by Dr.

N.K.Sahu. There is an inscription in it whichreads Mahesvari Bhavada. The excavator hasassigned this deity to 5th century A.D. onpalaeographic ground. This image may beidentified as the earliest image of Durga inOrissa.

Another temple of Durga found on thetop of a small hill near Patiakila has beenassigned to the Gupta period by Dr.M.P.Das.The deity is carved out of a single stone. Thereligious history of Orissa has been eclecticthrough ages. The Pancha devatas wereworshiped in the State with great religiousfervour. The concept of Gane narayane rudreambike bhaskare tatha, bhinna bhinnananakartavyam panchadeva namasute waspopular here. Ganesa was worshipped in histraditional pitha at Mahavinayaka,Visnu at Puri,Siva at Bhubaneswar, Ambika at Jajpur andSurya at Konarka. In fact, the worship ofAmbika initially symbolizes Sakti worshipwhich was popular in Orissa along with

worship of other divinities. We find epigraphicreference of Sakti worship in the Terasingacopperplate grant of Maharaja Tustikara whowas known to have been worshipper ofStambhesvari. She is represented in the formof a pillar which is interpreted by D.C.Sarkaras the composite emblem of Siva and Sakti.This type of pillar worship is popular in thehilly tribal areas which has often Tantrikassociation.

Tantric Authors of Orissa

Orissa State Museum has seven Tantricpalmleaf manuscripts which have been writtenby Oriya authors. In recent times, more suchworks have been reported from other collectionof Orissa by Manuscript Resource Centre,Orissa State Museum, National Mission forManuscripts Cell Mundamalini BhairavaTantra has been discovered at Bada OdiyaMatha of Puri. Durgajanana dipika has beenwritten by one Jagannath Acharya. He belongsto the 17th century A.D. He was known to haveborn at Purusttama Kshetra of Utkaladesa asevident from his Tantric literary work. The textis dedicated togoddess Durga.The manuscriptwas known tohave beencopied by oneM a g u n iMahapatra. Onthe basis of itsscript it hasbeen assigned to17th centuryA.D. It alsorefers to anearlier workknown as

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Samatasara Pradipa which is a dated work ofHarihara Bhattacharya of Bengal dated to 16thcentury A.D.

The 2nd Tantra pothi ascribed to Oriyawriter is Tarinikulasudha Tarangini.Ramachandra Udgata was its author. In theMangalacharana and Colophon there isreference about Lord Lingaraj ofEkamrakshetra. From thecolophon, we know that thebook has been copied byone Kesava Ratha. It hasbeen dated in Amka yearwhich is equivalent to 18thOctober 1770, MondayMahanavami in the lunarmonth of Aswina.

The next Tantric textof Oriya origin is theSaradasaradarchanapadhatti.It is written by GodavaraMisra who flourished in the15th/16th century A.D.From the text, it is evidentthat the writer was a greatscholar. He was the son ofBalabhadra Misra of Kautsagotra. His mother wasArnapurna. He was a devotee of Ambika Durgaand Prime Minister of Prataparudra Deva(1447-1534). He was also known to havescribed some other Tantric works likeTantrachintamani. He was also worshipper ofLord Jagannath. The 4th work is DurgosavaChandrika written by Vardhana Mahapatra, theson of Kavidindima Jivadevacharya. Heflourished during the rule of RamachandraDeva I (1668-1700) of Bhoi dynasty. In thetext it is mentioned that he has written this onthe orders of the king. The Tantric text

Bhubaneswari Prakas was known to have beenscribed by one Vasudeva Ratha. He was anative of Bira Harekrusnapur Sasana near Puri.He belonged to 18th century A.D. Themanuscript Vidyapradipa has been written byKrisna Misra who flourished in the 18th centuryA.D. The 7th Tantric text known to have beenwritten by Oriya author Raghunath Dasa wasBanadurga puja. He was a native of Gadagada

on the Prachi valley.

Recently a series ofother Tantrik textsascribable to Oriya writershas been identified by theauthor while taking up thesurvey and documentation ofnitherto unknown palmleafmanuscripts of Orissa in theNational Mission forManuscripts Project.

The large find ofTantric works in Orissaspeaks of the popularity ofTantra Culture since remotepast. This fact is furthercorroborated by discoveryof wide and varied Tantricfigures especially of

Vajrajana Buddhism in different parts of theState. Celebrated Siddhas and authors likeIndrabhuti (writer of Jnanasiddhi, 8th centuryA.D.) his sister Laxmikara andPadmasambhava who flourished in Orissa havealso significantly contributed to the TantricHeritage of the State.

Early Tantric Pithas of Orissa

Hevajra Tantra known to have beencompiled in 7th century A.D. mentioned fourimportant Tantra pithas of India namely

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Jalandhara,O d d i y a n a ,Purnagri andKamarupa.Of these four,two pithashave beenassigned toO r i s s a .O d d i y a n apitha ofOrissa wasthe fountainhead of allT r a n t r i cknowledgesince earlytime. Thisword findsmention inv a r i o u s

epigraphic records. Similarly Puspagir i.e.present Chatus pitha complex of Ratnagiri,Lalitgiri, Udayagiri and Alatigir is alsopopularly mentioned. This place is describedas Polomolokili in the travel account of HieunTsang. This contention is also supported byrecent excavated materials of ASI andOIMSEAS. These two centres were intimatelyassociated with early Buddhist Tantricismsince 5th century A.D.

Yogini Pithas

The four early pithas of Tantricismproliferated into one hundred and eight pithaslater on. Few epigraphic references are foundin this connection in all India perspective. Inan inscription of 12th century A.D. ofMaharastra there is mention aboutMahayogesvari Ugrachamunda as the presidingdeity of the sixtyfour Yoga pithas. Similarly in

Chakukya record and Halagondi epigraph ofAndhrapradesh we find mention of sixtyfourYoga pithas. But such epigraphic evidences aresingularly absent in Orissa, although we findinumberable sculptural pantheons of Yoginideities. Yoginis are mother goddess. They wereassociated with fertility cult as malevolentdeities. Their number was initially seven oreight but subsequently their number increasedto sixty four and got mingled with Tantric cultand rituals. The Markandeya Purana refers toseven Matrukas.

At present there are four existing 64yogini temples in India. Two are located inMadhya Pradesh one at Bherghat and the otherone at Khajuraho. In Orissa one is located atRanipur Jharial in Bolangir district and theother one at Hirapur in Khurda district. Theexistence of the two Yogini temples in Orissa,one in western part and the other one is easternpart speak of the popularity of the cult in theState. The Ranipur Jharial circular Yoginitemple can be assigned to 7th Century A.D. onstylistic consideration while the Hirapurspecimen may be dated to 8th/9th century A.D.This Yogini cult was known to have reachedcoastal belt from the upper Mahanadi valley.

Rudrajamqala Tantra, Kularnava Tantra.Astadasa pitha and Kubjika Tantra etc. referto a number of other Tantric pithas of Orissalike Viraja , Ekamra, Udissa, Jaleswar andSrikshetra, Puri etc.

Jajpur

Jajpur is situated on the bank of the holyriver Baitarani which finds mention in theMohabharata. Vishnu Purana calls it Nabhigayawhile the Brahma Purana , Kapila Samhitadescribe the place as a sacred centre. It ismentioned as one of the 42 Siddhapithas ofKubjika Tantra, one of the 50 pithas of

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Jhanarnava Jantra, Sakapitha of BrahmanilaTantra and astadasa pithas of Sankaracharyaand Pithanirnaya. It also finds mention in theParalakhemundi copper plate of PrithviMaharaja who flourished in the 6th centuryA.D.. The plate of Bhanudatta of 7th centuryA.D. also refers to Viraja. Unmatta Kesharihad established his capital at Viraja. In a grantof Bhaumakara king Shantikara Deva aninhabitant of Viraja has been mentioned. Theplace was also identified as the capital city ofBhaumakaras. Initially they were Buddhist. Butlater one Brahmanic system of Sakti worshipentered in here.

After the decline of the Bhaumakaras theSomavamshis under the hagemony of Yayati II,Mahasivagupta made Jajpur (ancientGuhesvara patak) his capital. Muslim recordslike Tabaquat-I-Nasir, Tarika-I-Firozsahicalled this Jajatinagar as Jajnagar from whichthe present name Jajpur is known to have beenderived.

Viraja was the popular deity of this town.She is said to have originated from the altar ofBrahma in course of the celebration of tenaswamedha sacrifice. The deity is a two armedDurga mounting on her vehicle Simha. Theimage is assigned to pre-gupta era byR.P.Chanda.

The place was also a famous centre ofVajrayana Buddhism. Figures of Tara, Heruka,Kurukulla and Aparajita etc. found here testifyto the contention.

Puri

Tantric texts identify Puri as a pitha ofJagannath Bhairava and Vimala-Bhairavi. Sheis also called Kshetrasakti. Subhadra of theJagannath triad is identified as Ekanamsa orKatyayan a form of Durga. By about 12th

century A.D. with the popularity ofVaishnavism. She was incorporated asSubhadra in the cult of jagannath.

The influence of Tantric rituals isdiscernible in the worship of Jagannath. ThisTantric traditions evolved various Vyasas suchas Matruka vyasa etc Sri Jantra, BhubaneswariJantra, various mudras and Vijamantra areintroduced in the system of Jagannath worship.Many believe that Jagannath, Balabhadra,Subhadra and Sudarsan have originated fromYogic tantrik system for which the deities areworshipped as one by the mantras of thepriests.

Thus vedic and tantric mode of worshipof Jagannath clearly indicates tantra influence.The panchamakara which is a tantricconception is vividly noticed in the worshipof Jagannath. Fish is substituted by greenvegetables mixed with Hingu, meat byadapachedi (ginger) wine by green coconutwater, grain by Kanti, a preparation of flourand sugar and Mithuna is substituted by thedance of Devadasis and offering of flowers.Animal sacrifice has been substituted by fishoffering to Vimala as well. The Madala panji,the temple chronicle of Puri speaks of theknowledge of Tantra and Mantra by the builderof the temple of Lord JagannathChodaganga Deva. In Rudrajamala Tantradatable to 10th century A.D. amply reflects thatTantric system of worship was in vogue in theworship of Jagannath at Puri. Since early timethis was a Tantrik pitha.

Balarama Dasa in his Bata Avakasa(16th century A.D.) has described thatJagannath was attended by the sixtyfourYoginis Katyayinis, Sapta Matrikas, Vimalaand Viraja. The same work also says thatseventy six mother goddess like Sakambari,

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Durgeswari, Kali, Ramachandi, Kothesvari,Bhayavati, Vaseli, Hadimai, KotambachandiBrahmani, Savitri, Sarla Chandi, AparajitaPingala, Sasakama, Marakarama, Heryula,Kalapati, Kalijai, Kalaratri, Kalika, Pateli,Kalasuni, Charchika, Chhayamaya, Vijaya,Chandraghanta, Kalashanta, Kalamukhi,Trutikhai, Hemasanti, Sarpamukhi, Jagulai,Hadabai, Samalai, Mangala, Karunai, Barunai,Terasuni, Tareni, Jareni, Mareni, Sapanachetiand Kanakesvari etc. The Prachi Mahatmyaalso mentions deities like Chandaghanta,Ramachandi and Bhagavati. Sarala Dasdescribes Ugratara, Chachesvari, Baseli,Mahesvari, Kalika, Konkali, Abhimukhi,Janguli and Sarla in his work Arka Kshetra tohave been incorporated into the fold ofJagannath Triad

Bhubaneswar

Sanskrit texts like Ekamra Purana,Ekamra Chandrika, Kapila Samhita and TirthaChintamani etc describe Bhubaneswar asEkamraKshetra. The place is called aSaktapitha in the works like Namostottrasataand Brahama Nilatantra. Find of innumberablearchaeological remains of Tantra Pantheonamply hints at the Tantric heritage of the place.The temple of Vaital or Kapalini built in 7thcentury A.D. bears Tantric figures with centralfigure of a terrific emaciated Chamunda. Thename of the temple seems to have been derivedfrom the tantric word Vetal or spirit who wereinvoked by the Kapalikas and Tantriks to attain

siddhi. Ardhanariswara, Mahisa MardiniDurga and Saptamatrikas are also found in thistemple complex. We find tantric deities in theGauri temple, Ananta Vasudeva temple,Sisiresvar Markandeswar, Dvaravasini,Uttaresvara and Mohini temples etc. The largevariety of erotic figures in various temples ofBhubaneswar are reminiscence of tantricpractices of Kapalikas and Tantrikas whoprofess various philosophies about sex andmokshya through sexual mahasukha.

References:

01. N.K.Sahu – Buddhism in Orissa.

02. C.B. Patel, Dynastic History of Nalas.

03. Descriptive catalogue of Sanskritmanuscripts of Orissa. Vol.V.

04. H.H.Wilson, Essays and Lectures on thereligion of the Hindus, E.R.EXII.

05. J.K.HAS, Vol.II, No.2

06. J.A.S.B. N.S.,Vol.XIII.

07. E.I. Vol.XXVIII.

08. I HQ, Vol.VI.

09. Inscription of Orissa, Vol.IV.

10. N.N.Vasu – Archaeological Survey ofMayurbhanj.

11. Annual report of Epigraphy, 1906.

12. T.Watters, Yuanchwang’s Travel in India.

Dr. C.B. Patel is the Superintendent of Orissa StateMusuem, Bhubaneswar.

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The massive earthern mound contain cut stoneblocks, round Amalaka in four pieces, brokenNeel chakra in stone, which once adorned thetemple top and other sculptures of historicalimportance. These antiquities were unearthedfrom the mound by Trilochan Bhoi, a villagerof Kondh origin,almost single handedover a period of oneyear. Bhoi mentionedto me during my visiton 29th June 2004 thatthree handless stoneicons of Jagannath,Balabhadra andSubhadra wererecovered from themound and arepresently kept in an adjoining hut for worship.This discovery confirms the theory ofconstruction of the oldest temple for the holytrinity by the Somavamsi king Yayatikesharininth century A.D. as mentioned in MadalaPanji, the temple chronicle of Puri Jagannathtemple. It may be relevant to mention that thisauthor in one of his earlier visits to this templesite in 1985 had discovered a big stone slabengraved with "Astadala-Padma" design,besides stone amalaka and other templesculptures scattered all around. He had also

come across a huge stone block with the imageof "Anant Sayana Vishnu". This ancientsculptures since been shifted to a place on theright bank of river Tel, a tributary of Mahanadi.It seems, many other sculptures like thedoorjamb with vase folige motif, Gajalaksmi

and Nabagrahapanel etc. wereshifted from this siteto a neighbouringvillage Deulgudiabout seventy yearsback. This is anextremely potentialsite which calls fora plannedexcavation by theState Archaeology.

With the discovery of this anthropoid forms ofJagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra cast instone, intriguing questions may be asked aboutthe origin of Jagannath cult and present woodenform of holy trinity worshipped in the Jagannathtemple of Puri. For the first time we get theanthropoid form of Jagannath sculpted in twopanels on the walls of the famous 13th centurySun temple at Konark. In these panels,Balabhadra is shown as a Shivalinga andSubhadra has been depicted asMahishamardini Durga. In one of these two

Antiquities of Shri Jagannath :Amazing Findings

Sasanka Sekhar Panda

Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra

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stone panels,presently keptin the NationalM u s e u mJagannath isflanked byDurga on hisright, whereasin the stonepanel on the

temple walls of Konark, he is flanked by Durgaon his left. Positioning of Holy Trinity is notso relevant but depiction of Siva linga,anthropoid form of Jagannath and Durgadepicted in both panels of Konark conclusivelyprove that during the reign of the Ganga kingNarasimhadeva I (circa 1238-1264 A.D.)builder of Sun temple, the three images of HolyTrinity were not worshipped in the presentform. In the Pancharatra philosophy,Balabhadra Samkarsana is identified with Siva.Bramhapuran (23-132) states that Rudra isknown as Halayudha. Scholars like Eschmann,Kulke and Tripathi have further suggested thatBalabhadra could have been worshipped asEkapada Bhairava in the remote past, sinceEkapada Bhairava is represented in theuniconical form as single-legged. The portionof the image below waist is shaped like a tree-trunk or a pillar. Such an uniconical figure ofEkpada Bhairava could be seen as rock-cutfigure on the monolithic rock in a hillock calledBhairo Pahad situated about 5 kms to the southof Titlagarh town in the upper Mahanadi valley,dated to eigth century A.D.

Legend has it that king Indradyumna ofMalava had a dream wherein he sawPurusottama Narasimha being worshipped ina form, over whose head snake Sesa had spreadhis hood. This was indicative of the associationof the divine snake Ananta Sesanaga with

Purusottama Narasimha. Bhagawata Purana(v.25.2.3) has identified Balabhadra as Ananta- Samkarsana Balabhadra, who has beenelevated to the status of elder brother ofPurusottama.

Anncharlott Eschmann, Hermann Kulkeand Gaya Charan Tripathi are of the view thatthe uniconical figure represented in Konarkwas taken over from the Saiva model ofEkapada Bhairava, the Ugra aspect of Siva.They have further assumed that the Jagannathfigure developed from the identification of atribal deity represented as Narasimha in theform of a wooden post or pillar. In fact,Narasimha came out of a pillar to kill the demonHiranyakasipu. In the upper Mahanadi valleya temple was built by queen-mother Vasata ofthe Panduvamsa some time in the 8th centuryA.D. at Sripura, the capital city of Kosala forworship of Purusottama Narasimha.Anantasayana Visnu image has been carved onthe door-lintel of the entrance to the sanctumof this temple, which is known as Laksmanatemple at present.

Goddess Subhadra has been identifiedwith goddess Khambesvari ( the Goddess ofthe Pillar or Post) whose worship wasprevalent in the upper Mahanadi valley in the5th-6th century A.D. as recorded in theTeresingha copper-plate charter of king

Gajalaksmi

Broken Amalaka

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Tusthikara, discovered from the Teresinghavillage in Kalahandi district in 1947. GoddessSubhadra is worshipped in the Bhubaneswarimantra in the Jagannath temple at Puri. It ispertinent to note in this context that goddessSamlei, enshrined in the temple at Sambalpuris also worshipped in the same Bhubaneswarimantra. The uniconic form of goddess Samleilike the present anthropoid form of Subhadraseems to be identical. Is Samlei a corrupt formof the name Somalai or Samalei, a deity of thetribal origin, initially worshipped by the tribalsand later absorbed into the Hindu fold by theSomavamsis, who were ruling over Orissafrom the upper Mahanadi valley first fromSuvarnapura and then from Yayati Nagara inaround 9th-11th century A.D. Another factcomes to mind that goddess BhagabatiPanchambari Bhadrambika was enshrined atPattana Suvarnapura (present Sonepur town)during the rule of the Somavamsi kingMahasivagupta Yayati-II Chandihara (RulingPeriod: Circa 1024-1060 A.D). Is goddessBhadrambika converted into Subhadra?

The concept of Harihara worship canalso be found in the upper Mahanadi valley asearly as the 8th century A.D. when the twintemples of Gandharadi were built by the Bhanjaking Ranabhanja of Khinjlimandala, onededicated to Nilamadhava Visnu and the otherto Siddhesvara Siva. Most probably during thetime of Yayati II the Somavamsi king,Panchambari Bhadrambika was alsoworshipped along-with Visnu and Siva on oneplatform.

But if we take into account the recentdiscovery of the stone images of Jagannath,Balabhadra and Subhadra in the uniconicanthropoid forms then the sculptural findingsfrom this Tentelkhunti mound allure us to date

the sculptures of this site to the earlySomavamsi period and probably to the reignof Yayati-I (Circa 885-925 A.D) . In that caseit can be surmised that in these forms theJagannath triad were worshipped in the upperMahanadi valley in the 9th century A.D.

Like the anthropoid forms of theJagannath triad, Daksina Kalika in the similarform and also made of stone has beendiscovered from the same mound. In theMahanirvana Tantra, Jagannath has beenidentified with Daksina Kalika. (Tara SaksyatSulapani Subhadra Bhuvanesvari / Niladroutu Jagannatha Saksyat Daksina Kalika // ).

A stone Chakra (Nilachakra) found inthis site is also of much significance. A hugestone-block with Visnu Anantasayana is alsofound here. The earliest Visnu Anantasayanapanel is found fitted to the door-lintel of theentrance to the sanction of the Laksmana templeat Sirpur, which is dated to the 8th century A.D.The Visnu Anantasayana panels are foundwidely in the upper Mahanadi valley of Orissain places like Kusang, Ranipur Jharial, Kagaon,Sonepur, Vaidyanath and Charda, all in theundivided Balangir district, which was the seatof a civilization during the early Somavamsiperiod in the 9th-10th century A.D.

Traditional account credits Yayati-I withthe construction of an earlier temple ofPurusottama at Puri. In that case, he might haveinstalled the stone image of the uniconicanthropoid form symbolising Lord Jagannathin the temple at Puri, which he had alreadydone earlier at Tentelkhunti, the site underdiscussion, situated in his original home landDaksina Kosala. Then during the time ofYayati-II this anthropoid form of Jagannathmight have been worshipped alongwithSivalinga, symbolising Siva and Durga

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symbolising Sakti, upto the time of the Gangaking Anangabhimadeva III and also during thereign of his son Narasimha-I, the builder ofthe Sun temple at Konark.

Now the question arises, when were thethree images made in the present uniconicanthropoid forms ? In this context, learnedscholar late Dr. Satyanarayan Rajaguru’s viewassumes significance. According to him, theanthropoid features of the stone images in thetemple at Puriwere not made ofwood upto therule ofNarsimhadeva-I(circa 1238-1264A.D.). They wereworshipped in thesimilar forms asdepicted in boththe stone panelsfrom Konark,when Baladeva -Ekanamsa -Krisna trinity were installed and worshippedby Chandrikadevi, the widow sister of Gangaking Narsimhadeva-I in the sanctum of theAnanta Vasudeva temple built on the bank ofVindu Sarovara at Bhubanesvar.

It is a known fact in history that duringthe reign of the Ganga king Anangabhimadeva- III (circa 1211-1238 A.D.), the century oldGanga - Kalachuri war ended in favour of theGangas, as a result of which the Sonepur-Sambalpur region was annexed to the Gangaempire. This victory could be achieved due tothe generous gesture of Anangabhimadeva-III,who gave his daughter Chandrikadevi inmarriage to a Kalachuri prince Paramardideva.This Paramardideva became the General of theroyal Ganga army during the reign of

Narasimhadeva-I, the son and successor ofAnangabhimadeva-III.

Thereafter the Gangas of Utkal-Kalingajoined hands with the Kalachuris of Tummana-Ratanpur (Chhattisgarh) in fighting against theMuslim forces of north-eastern India. Learnedhistorians like late Prof. N.K. Sahu, Prof. J.K.Sahu and Prof. P.K. Mishra are of the viewthat Narasimha Deva-I (circa 1238-1264 A.D.)was powerful enough to engage himself in a

war with theMuslim ruler ofLakhnauti inBengal, who wasdefeated by him.Dr. SatyanarayanRajaguru is ofopinion thatNarasimhadeva-Iwas victorious dueto the great valourof the tribals(Savaras) whothen formed a large

section of his army, and therefore, to appeasethem the king might have installed suchanthropomorphized figures of Jagannath,Balabhadra and Subhadra in a Hindu temple.

But the recent discovery of not onlyJagannath, but all the three deities of theJagannath triad in a temple ruins belonging tothe 9th century A.D. leads us to believe thatthe Holy Trinity of Puri were being worshippedin the anthropoid forms, (with only the handlesstorso and having the face) right from the ninthcentury A.D. in the ancient Daksina Kosalaregion, which was predominantly inhabited bythe Savaras. Such an image of Lord Jagannathwas also simultaneously installed by kingYayati-I at Puri.

Anantasayana Vishnu Panel

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The Muslim rulers of Lakhnauti inBengal were constantly at war with the Gangakings of Utkala even after the reign ofNarasimhadeva-I and during the time ofBhanudeva-III (Reigning Period : circa 1352-1378 A.D.) Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq ofBengal attacked Baranasi Kataka and defeatedthe Ganga king in war. The Muslim invaderdestroyed the temple of Lord Purusottama builtby Anangabhimadeva-III at Baranasi Kataka(present Cuttack). It is quite possible that dueto this destruction, the stone images of theJagannath triad as depicted in the stone panelof the Konark templewere taken away tosome unknown placein Sonepur(Sunapura) regionand later were againinstalled in thetemple at Puri.Following the tribaltraditions, all threeimages were made ofwood perhapsconvienorce of shifting as and when requiredin case of such attacks. The construction of atemple by the Somavamsi king Yayati for theworship of the Great Lord (Jagannath) hasfound mention in the temple chronicle MadalaPanji (Prachi Edition, p.6). Since we find themention of Jagannath in the introductory verse,(Pranipatya Jagannatham Sarvajina-vararchitam / Sarva Buddhamayam SiddhiVyapinom Gaganopamam // ) and four otherverses of the text Jnyanasiddhi by Indrabhuti,the king of Sambala (present Sambalpur) whowas ruling some time in the 8th century A.D.,the origin and antiquity of Jagannath should betraced to the Sambalpur - Sonepur region.

The Bhagavata cult of Vaisnavism heldits sway in the upper Mahanadi valley, rightfrom the time of the Nala king Skandavarman(Reigning Period : Circa 480-515 A.D.) whowas ruling the present undivided Koraput-Kalahandi region of Orissa and the Bastarregion of Chhattisgarh state. As soon from hisPodagad Stone Inscription he installed a foot-print (Padamula) of Visnu. The occurrence ofVasudeva in the epigraphic record of the Nalaking testifies the prevalence of Vasudeva cultin the Nala domain and its amalgamation withVisnu in the Vaisnava philosophy. Dr. C.B.

Patel has rightlypointed out that‘Vasudeva Krishnacult which isresplendent in Indiansacred literature wasa very popular creedsince the ages. In theMahabharata he isdescribed as aninvincible fightergod, a guide and

philosopher. Skandavarman, a valiant warriorof his age was a worshipper of Vasudeva, whoappears to have been inspired by hispersonality.’ In this record, Vishnu (Hari) hasbeen called Vijayo Jeta which epithet findmention in Verse-16 of the Visnu Sahasranama.

The Nala were replaced by theSarabhapuriyas in the upper Mahanadi valleysome time in the 6th century A.D. In the upperMahanadi valley of Orissa, strong royalpatronage was given to the Bhagavata cult ofVaisnavism by the Sarabhapuriya kings, whoruled this part of the present Orissa around5th-6th century A.D. All the rulers of theSarabhapuriya dynasty were devoutworshippers of Visnu. Learned scholar Dr. S.P.

Anthropoid form goddess Daksina Kalika

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Tiwari is of opinion that they were thefollowers of the Pancharatra system of theBhagavata cult, which accepted KrisnaVasudeva as the supreme deity. Like the Guptakings, they designated themselves as ParamaBhagavatas. The Gupta emblem of Garudaflanked by Samkha and Chakra is foundembossed on the repousse gold coins of kingslike Prasannamatra, Mahendraditya andKramaditya of this dynasty. Similarly, thestanding figure of the Vaisnavite goddessLaksmi, flanked by two elephants was the royalemblem of the Sarabhapuriya kings, as thisemblem is found in the seals attached to therings of their royal charters.

Vaisnavism flourished in full swingduring the reign of the Panduvamsi kings ofSripura, succeeded the Sarabhapuriyas in theupper Mahanadi valley sometime in the secondhalf of the 6th century A.D. Queen Vasata, themother of the Panduvamsi king MahasivaguptaBalarjuna was a great devotee of LordPurusottama Narasimha. In the upper Mahanadivalley brick temple tradition in the same patternof the Bhitargaon brick temple of the Guptaperiod was popularised during the Panduvamsirule in the 7th-8th century A.D. Queen RegentVasata built a brick temple for worshippingLord Purusottama Narasimha in the capital cityof Sripura, which is presently known asLaksmana temple. This temple is built in bricksalthough the gateway of the Garbhagriha ismade of stone, on which Dasavataras andKrishnalila themes are carved. A Bhogasayana

- murti, which is also called the AnantasayanaVisnu is carved on the Dvaralalatavimba ofthis gateway. This type of image ofAnantasayana Visnu is also found carved onthe Dvaralatavimba of the Garbhagrihadoorway of the Rajivalochana Visnu temple atRajim. Sirpur and Rajim, both places aresituated in the Raipur district of the presentday Chhattisgarh. When the Panduvamsi rulersleft Sripura, their capital city due to the menaceof the Kalachuris of Dahala sometime in thefirst half of the 9th century A.D., they migrateddown-stream of Mahanadi to the area aroundBalangir-Sonepur-Bargarh-Jharsuguda-Sambalpur region of Orissa and subsequentlyestablished themselves as Somavamsis atSuvarnapura, the present Sonepur town on theright bank of river Mahanadi around 850 A.D.

The Somavamsi king MahabhavaguptaJanmejaya (850-885 A.D.) through hisSonepur copper-plate charter donated a villagenamed Gettaikela situated in the LuputuraKhanda of Kosaladesa in his 17th Regnal Yearto the illustrious Kamalavana Merchants'Association situated in Suvarnapura, which inturn bestowed the same village to two temples,one of Lord Kesava and the other of Lord Adityafor charity, oblation and offerings as well asfor repair of both the temples.

Mahabhavagupta JanmejayaSvabhavatunga's son and successor

Doorjamb with lotus and vase motifs

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Mahasivagupta Yajati has been been comparedwith the divine Visnu who killed the epicChaidya or Shishupala in the Rajasuya Yajnaperformed by Yudhisthira.

The Gopalpur plates of the 10th RegnalYear of the Somavamsi king MahabhavaguptaI Janmejaya records the grant of a village"Jollamura-grama" of Lupattora-Khanda toBhatta Sadharana, who instead of keeping thevillage, made over the same for themaintainance of a temple, built by him atSuvarnapura, enshrining god JalasayanaNarayana Bhattaraka. The text of this grantconcludes with the Vaisnava Mantra Om NamoBhagavate Vasudevaya.

The Gond tribals, who arepredominantly inhabiting central India(Gondwanaland), stretching from Orissa toMaharastra, worship two major gods calledBad Deo (Dev) and Jangha Deo (Dev). Arethey Bad Devata or Balabhadra and LordJagannath ? If so, then the tribal origin of thesetwo gods can be established.

In the context of historical findings andinscriptions one could safely infer that fromthe days of Nala Kings of Koraput-Kalahandirigion (said to be the descendents of Nishadaking Nala of Nala-Damayanti epic fame) i.e.4th-5th century A.D. till the advent ofSomavamsis, upper Mahanadi valley haswitnessed a rare churning of the tribal cults ofEkapada Bhairava, Khambeshwari,Maheshwari, Bhubaneshwari and above allNarasimha, Purushottama, Tantrik GodJagannath of Vajrayana. This amalgamation hascrystalised on the cult of Jagannath, literallythe Lord of universe. Thus we would see that

the period from the 5th to the 9th-10th A.D.was epoch making when the concept of HolyTriad evolved absorbing the tribal and non-tribal religious beliefs leading to harmony andpeaceful coexistence.

References :

1. The Cult of Jagannath and the Regional Traditionof Orissa, Edited by Anncharlott Eschmann,Hermann Kulke and Gaya Charan Tripathi, Pub: Manohar Publications, New Delhi, 1978.

2. Buddhism in Orissa, by N.K. Sahu, Pub : UtkalUniversity, Bhubaneswar, 1958.

3. A Short Account on the Cult of Sri Purusottamaand His Anthropoid Feature, article byDr. Satyanarayan Rajguru, published in OrissaReview, Vol.LI, No.2, July 1994.

4. History of Orissa, Co-authored by N.K. Sahu,J.K. Sahu & P.K. Mishra, Pub. by Nalanda,Cuttack, 1981.

5. Archaeological Remains of Balangir District,article by Sasanka Sekhar Panda, published inOrissa Historical Research Journal,Vol.XXXVI, No.3-4, 1991.

6. Comprehensive History of Orissa by S.P.Tiwari, Pub : Punthi Pustak, Calcutta, 1985.

7. Hindu Temple Art of Orissa by Thomas EugenDonaldson, Vol.III, Pub : E.J. Brill, Leiden,Netherlands.

8. Dynastic History of Nalas, by Dr. C.B. Patel,Pub : Punthi Pustak, Kolkata, 1988.

The author is a Research Scholar and presently workingin the State Information & Public RelationsDepartment, Government of Orissa, as Joint Director-cum-Deputy Secretary to the Government.

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Endowed with nature’s bounty, vast stretchesof clean and virgin beaches, serpentine rivers,breath-taking water falls, rugged hills, milesand miles of rolling forests, lush green countrysides, disparate wild life, colourful tribes andrural beauties, Orissa, the eastern state of India,is still richer by its great tradition ofa r c h i t e c t u r e ,monuments ands c u l p t u r a lexcellences. Famedin mythology andancient history asKalinga and inmedieval history asUtkal, modern Orissatook its present formon April 1, 1936, the first State in the countryto be formed on linguistic basis.

Orissa has been a repository of one ofthe world’s finest cultural heritages. It hasattracted saints, philosophers, pilgrims andinvaders through the ages. They have leftglowing impressions, which have shaped themosaic texture of art and culture of this landmuch to the applause of international touristsand scholars.

Of all the States of India, Orissa, has thelargest number of tribes, as many as 62

categories comprising 23 percent of the totalpopulation. There are large tribes like Santala,Munda, Oraon and Gond who have acceptedmany modern ideas while retaining their oldculture and tradition whereas Juang and Bondatribes are still hanging back to their culture andare recalcitrant to acculturation. But

G o v e r n m e n tintervention in thisregard is graduallybringing about achange in theirattitude andperception.

Orissa's cultureis manifested by

number of festivals that are observed withpomp and gaiety. A great festival held at Puriis called the Car Festival or Rath Yatra of LordJagannath. Three richly decorated woodenChariot carrying Lord Jagannath, Balabhadraand Devi Subhadra come out of the temple togive Darshan to a concourse of national andinternational audience and devotees of all sort,who come from various part of the country andeven from abroad. Apart from this, the Raja-Sankranti is observed with traditional fervour.So also the Dola yatra, Dasahara, KumarPurnima, Makarsankranti and Nuakhai and the

Orissa : A Place for Aesthetic Experience

48


h i s t o r i cDhanuyatra inthe westernOrissa.

T h eO r i s s a narch i tec tu reenjoys a uniqueposition inview of itsrichness. Thetemple of

Mukteswara, Konark, Rajarani, Lingaraj andJagannath are a testimony to the skills of theindigenous artisans who built these temples ofstone and adorned its walls with strikingsculptural motifs.

The traditional Patachitra has ever beenhailed as an exquisite expression ofconsummate craftsmanship.

The filigree work of Cuttack, the stonecarving work of Puri, the Horn work ofParalakhemundi, the handloom fabric ofSambalpur can entice anyone with a penchantfor art and craft. Similarly the applique workof Pipli is indeed a masterpiece.

Orissa enjoys a leading position in thecountry in respect of places of tourist attraction.Orissa has plenty of forests, minerals, riversand monuments of historical, religious and

architectural importance. It is full of mountains,valleys, gorges, lakes and a long coastlinedotted with fine seaside resorts and goldenbeaches. It also presents a social and culturalharmony of remarkable nature and is aptly

called the “epitome of India”. Orissa is a landthat snatches away your heart once you getacquainted with the gentle and deeply religiouscharacter of its people, a region whichfascinates your eyes by the richness andsupreme beauty of its sculptural andarchitectural inheritance. The golden triangleof Bhubaneswar-Puri-Konark has attractedtourists for magnificent temple architecture andexotic beaches, but many more tourists spotssuch as Similipal Tiger Reserve with statelySal Forests, beautiful waterfalls, grassy valleysand rich wildlife consisting of elephants,cheetal, tiger, leopard, pythons provide amplescope for eco-tourism. Asia’s largest brackishwater lake ‘Chilika’ attracts large number ofmigratory birds. It is also home to the Dolphinswhich many people may not be aware of. TheNandankanan Zoo in Bhubaneswar is one ofthe finest of its kind in India. It has Safaries ofWhite Tigers and Lions. The Chandka,Ushakothi, Similipal Wild Life Sanctuaries are

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must for any one who loves nature and wildlife. The Tikarpara Sanctuary on riverMahanadi and the Bhitarakanika Sanctuary inthe deltaic estuaries preserve rare species ofcrocodiles. Dhauligiri, Ratnagiri and Lalitagirican attracts Buddhist Tourists for their Buddhistheritage.

The dance forms of Orissa have alwaysoccupied pride of place in the evolution ofOrissan art and culture. The Odissi dance, ahighly evolved classical dance form of Orissa,has earned international acclaim for its lyricalexuberance. Besides, the Chhau dance ofMayurbhanj is a popular form of folk martialart performed through dances and physicalgestures.

It is a matter of crowning glory thatOrissa has played a pioneering role inInformation Technology Revolution in thewhole country. In conceptualising the IT vision,the Government of Orissa is in the process ofdeveloping an appropriate IT architecture inthe state to effect qualitative changes in allwalks of life and society, resulting therewithease and convenience in trasaction, creatingmore employment opportunities andaccelerating higher economic growth within aspecific time-frame. Extensive application ofIT would establish a system where the citizens

will receive good governance ensuring speedof decisions from a transparent Governmentthrough an effective e-Governance system.

Orissa has made a perceptible progressin terms of ameliorating the living standard ofthe people despite recurrence of terrible naturaltragedies. The state is in the process ofevolving an appropriate strategy to increaseagricultural production as agriculture is themainstay of the people. A sketch ofachievements caused as a result of consistenteffort of the State Government broadlyencompasses following impressions :

* A number of programmes and projects havebeen implemented under Revised LongTerm Action Plan (RLTAP) with an outlayof Rs.569.03 cr. for all-arounddevelopment of KBK districts.

* Development of Micro Watersheds indrought-prone areas of the state for droughtproofing and improving the moisture regimehas been taken up. 1,712 watersheds witha total treatable area of 9.52 lakh hectaresare being developed for this purpose.

* To tackle the problem of distress sale ofpaddy steps are being taken to open uppaddy procurement centers in differentdistricts.

* 10,600 Pani Panchayats have been formed

50


all over the State to promote farmers'participation in the system of Watermanagement covering an area of 8.79 lakhhectares.

* Under Biju Krushak Vikash Yojana,Rs.47.96 cr. have been released for 785Lift Irrigation Projects in the KBK area andRs.14.12 cr. in non-KBK area for 257 LIPs.

* During last 4 years, 52 bridges have beencompleted and 800 km. of State roads havebeen improved under Rural InfrastructureDevelopment Fund (RIDF), Central RoadFund (CRF), Revised Long-Term ActionPlan (RLTAP) and other State PlanSchemes.

* Government has provided 54,809 tubewells, 2,250 sanitary wells and 395 pipedwater supply projects to ensure safedrinking water in rural areas. Besides this,700 drinking water projects are underexecution under "Swajaladhara".

* To meet the requirement of primary schoolteachers 17,000 Swechhasevi SikhyaSahayak (SSS) have been employed so far.The Government has provided contractualappointment in 1,078 vacancies in the HighSchools.

* 18.21 lakh Kissan Credit Cards, 59,077Kalinga Kissan Gold Cards and 67,798Kaling Kissan Silver Cards have beendistributed to farmers through Co-opeativeBanks.

* 1000 Information Kiosks in urban andsemi-urban areas are being madeoperational to promote self-employment inIT sector.

* Orissa Tribal Empowerment and LivelihoodProject has been launched with an outlay ofRs.430 cr. for socio-economic developmentof the tribals in 7 districts.

* 2.50 lakh Swarojagaries assisted underSGSY by utilisation of Rs.289.00 Cr.

* A total number of 1.86 lakh new housesand 0.56 lakh upgraded houses have beenconstructed under IAY with an expenditureof 403.32 crores till August 2004. Afterthe Supercyclone of 1999, 6.69 lakhAdditional IAY new houses have beenconstructed with an expenditure of 1464.83cr.

* 1383.33 lakh mandays generated and 61267projects completed utilising 8.30 lakh MTfood-grains under SGRY Scheme.

* In order to utilise iron ore and mineralresources of the state, State Governmenthas signed MoUs with 14 companies.

* During the period from 2001-2004, 127062Women Self -Help Groups have beenformed under Mission Shakti Programme,generating savings to a tune of Rs.78.29cr. and a total number of 93207 groups havebeen provided with Rs.196.76 cr. of creditsupport.

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E-Readiness in Government

Government is convinced that the gap betweenthe rich and the poor, between the moredeveloped and the less developed, between theurban and rural population can be bridged byempowering the less privileged sections ofsociety by providing equality of opportunityto access information and services. To this end,Government procedures in all Departmentsshall be re-engineered to use the ICT tools forattaining speed, transparency and effectivenessin implementing Government decisions andreaching them to the people. All theDepartments and important administrative setups of the Government shall be connected tothe Secretariat Local Area Network (LAN).Computerisation of District and field leveloffices of all Departments shall be taken upexpeditiously. Departments connected withimportant public services and utilities shall beautomated in their functioning and suitablepublic interface will be designed to providethe services.

Access to Information

Government information such as variousCabinet Decisions, forms, procedures,programs, projects, schemes, tenders,quotation calls, notice etc. will be displayedin the State Portal for reference and use by thepublic. Designated Information Officers in

individual Departments and offices shall beresponsible to provide all information needsto the Government and public.

Citizen Services

Various citizen services such as paymentof utility bills like Electricity Bills, Water andSewerage Bill, Telephone Bills, Holding Tax,Filing CST Returns, Exam Fees for SchoolFinal, Exam fees for JEEs, Filing IT Returns:Registration of birth and death and gettingrelated certificates, getting various permits andlicences, downloading of Forms andGovernment Orders etc. will be designed tobe made available to the public through StateGovernment Portal. These services will beavailable to the public from the informationKIOSKS.

Education & Training

Industry Friendly Curriculum

Industry friendly curriculum will bedevised for all kinds of IT education andtraining offered by institutions and traininghouses in the State in consultation with expertsdrawn from Industry and Academics. EDP willbe included in the school and college curricula.This will ensure the compatibility of the younggraduates and professionals to the requirementof industry and commerce for getting suitablejob.

E-Governance

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Raghurajpur, a small village in Puri district,occupies a unique place in the cultural map ofIndia. The village is inhabited by artisansproducing sheer poetry on pieces of treatedcloth, dried palm leaf or paper.

Situated on the southern bank of riverBhargavi and surrounded by coconut, palm,mango, jackfruit groves and other tropical trees,Raghurajpur has an idyllic setting. A numberof betel vines dot the nearby paddy fields. Thevillage runs from east to west with housesarranged in two neat rows, facing each other.At the centre, runs a line of small temples andthe lone Bhagabat Tungi, the communitymeeting place of the villagers. The temples arededicated to the lords, Radha Mohan,Gopinath, Raghunath, Laxminarayan,Gouranga, and to the village goddess,Bhuasuni.

To reach Raghurajpur one has to getdown at Chandanpur bus stop, which is about10 km from Puri and 50 km from Bhubaneswaron N.H.No.203 connecting Puri andBhubaneswar, two important touristdestinations of the country. From Chandanpurone has to take a cycle-rickshaw or walk on a1.3 km scenic road to reach this village. Onemay also hire a taxi either from Puri or fromBhubaneswar to reach the village.

This coconut-palm shaded village isquite different from other villages of the State.

It has its own identity. What is unusual is thenumber of outsiders including foreignersvisiting the village round the year. These peopledon't come here to see a typical Orissan villagefrom close quarters but to see and enjoy therich traditions of Orissan arts and crafts at oneplace. The village has a community of artisans,who produce different varieties of handicraftsitems such as patta paintings, palm leafengravings, stone carvings, papier mache toysand masks, wood carvings, wooden toys, cow-dung toys and tusser paintings. Perhapsnowhere else in India one finds such acongregation of so many arts at one place. Thisis also the only village in India, where eachfamily is engaged in one craft or another. Thereare has 103 households having 311 artisans inthe village. Some of them are winners ofNational Awards. One comes across the besttradition of Orissan paintings and some of thefinest pieces of work in this village.

The tradition of pata painting in Orissais very old. There are several centres of thisart : Puri, Parlakhemundi, Champamal(Sonepur), Athgarh and Dinabandhupur(Dhenkanal). Usually, the lane in which thesepainters or chitrakaras live is called ChitrakarSahi. Although there are several centres of patapaintings in Orissa, it is Raghurajpur, which isfamous for this unique art.

Chitrakaras are involved with the ritualperformed in the temple of Lord Jagannatha

RaghurajpurThe Crafts Village

53


on the occasion of Snana Purnima in the lunarmonth of Jyestha (May-June). During the periodof anasara, the fortnight following the fullmoonday, three patis painted by chitrakaras areplaced on the sighasana inside the main temple.The chitrakaras are also called to executecolourful paintings on the three chariots for theCar Festival. Apart from taking part in therituals, they also produce paintings which theysell at Bedha Mahal inside the temple premisesand Chakada Mahal outside the main gate.However, with the entry of middle man to thisbusiness the chitrakaras suffered. At thebeginning of the 20th century their fortunesdwindled. The art received a new lease of lifein the mid-century. Ileana Citaristi, an Italianlady who has done extensive research onOrissan art and culture, observes, "By the latefifties only a few old men among the 90- oddchitrakara families of Raghurajpur were stillpainting, whereas all the youths had desertedthe profession; it was only around the year 1953that, with the intervention of an American lady,Mrs Halina Zealey, a new future opened upand the artists once again took out their brushesand colours."

Besides producing these unique worksof art, this village has a living tradition ofperforming art known as Gotipua, the earlierform of Odissi. A worthy son of Orissa, GuruKelu Charan Mohapatra, an exponent of Odissidance, was born in this village and had hisearly trainings in Gotipua tradition here. Nowa Gotipua Gurukul, namely Maa DasabhujaGotipua Odissi Dance School has beenestablished here under the guidance of GuruMaguni Charan Das. The trainees of this schoolpresent their performances in different culturalevents, in India and abroad.

INTACH selected this village to revivethe ancient wall paintings of Orissa. The workhas already been completed and now the villagelooks like a living museum of paintings.

To give this village its rightful place bothin the cultural and tourist maps of the country,Orissa Tourism and Ministry of Tourism,Government of India have identified thisvillage for development of Rural Tourism.After visiting Raghurajpur on June 27, 2002,Shri Jagmohan, Hon'ble Union Minister ofTourism and Culture, declared that this villagewould be developed as a model for ruraltourism in India. INTACH is preparing theProject Report for this village, which wouldbe implemented shortly. Basic tourist amenitiessuch as road, drinking water, sanitation,interpretation centre, rest house, etc. wouldcome up soon.

Government of Orissa is takinginitiatives to develop the roads fromChandanpur and Kathapola to Raghurajpur andis urging the UNICEF to provide clean waterto the village. To achieve this task, variousDepartments of Government of Orissa areconverging their resources.

Once the Rural Tourism Project iscompleted, Raghurajpur will come in theNational Travel Circuit of the Government ofIndia.

References :

1. "A Destination in the Making." OrissaReview, September 2002.

2. Citaristi, Eleana. The making of a Guru : KeluCharan Mohapatra, His Life and Times(Delhi : Manohar 2001).

3. Mohanty, B. Pata-Paintings of Orissa, NewDelhi : Publications Division, Government ofIndia, 1984.

Acknowledgement :

P.K. Jena, Tourism Department, Orissa, Bhubaneswar.

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Metal craft has reached a high degree ofperfection in Orissa. Brass work and bell metalwork are carried out throughout the State.Craftsmen engaged in the job producenumerous objects of worship and householdutensils. This craft is perhaps the mostimportant craft in terms of the number ofartisans engaged in its practice for theirlivelihood. The craft is practised by the peopleof the Kansari caste, who can be broadlydescribed as metal smiths. There is aconcentration of Kansaris at Kantilo andBalakati in Puri district although fairly largenumber of artisans also live in Cuttack, Ganjamand Sambalpur districts.

The products of this handicraft can bebroadly classified into three groups : itemsproduced through process of beating, locallyknown as Pita, those produced by casting andthe residual items. These can also be broadlysubdivided into two groups in terms of rawmaterials used, that is, brass and bell metal,the former being an alloy of copper and zincand the latter of copper and tin.

The workshop is called Sala or shedand consists of a platform with a block of stonefor the floor on which the beating is done, aheating furnace or Bhati, a raised verandahwith a local lathe for polishing. Hammers and

anvils, pincers, hand drills, files and scrapersare used as tools. The furnace with a crucibleis fanned by a blower with leather bellowsalthough craftsmen these days have started usingmechanical blowers.

The process consists of preparation ofthe material by melting the required materialsin the crucible and then placing the molten metalinto an earthenware container. After repeatedhammering and beating the object gets itsdesired shape.

Sometimes two or three pieces areseparately made and joined mostly with rivets.Plates or thali, deep round containers calledKansa, small containers called gina, watercontainers called gara and buckets or baltis,large cooking utensils and storage vesselscalled handi, various types of pots and pans,

Metal Craft of Orissa

55


ladles or chatu, perforated flat cookingspoons, etc, are the major items manufacturedin the beating process.

A number of items used for puja arealso produced. Of these, the most importantare ghanta or gong and thali or plate foroffering of food to deities. In a few cases thesurface of the items are also engraved withvarious designs including floral and geometricpatterns besides human and animal figures andthey are also occasionally painted with enamelpaints. The items produced by the beatingprocess are many and the designs also varyfrom place to place.

As for casting, one can make two broadgroups that is brass castings and Dhokracasting. Both follow the lost wax or cireperdue process. Brass casting is done by theKansaris and items produced include icons,mainly Radha, Krishna, Laxmi, Ganesa, Vishnuand crawling Krishna, bell or ghanti,lampstand or rukha and lamp or dipa.

There is no bronze casting done inOrissa now, although the craft seems to havereached great perfection centuries ago asevidenced by the discovery of a large numberof bronze icons from Achutarajpur nearBanapur in Puri district.

The socio-cultural links of itshandicraft are very strong. In a wedding, thebride is usually presented with a set of brassand bell metal articles for starting off her newhome. While in the villages these areextensively used for eating and cooking, inurban areas other materials like stainless steel,aluminum and ceramics have dislodged them.

In the villages and in terms of the ruraleconomy, the articles also serve another usefulpurpose as they can be easily pawned for

borrowing money. The old, broken and useditems can always be exchanged at reduced ratefor new items from metal ware vendors. Asfor metal icons, while in most orthodoxfamilies these are installed as deities of thehome, frequently placed on a brass platformcalled Khatuli. These icons are also installedas the presiding deities in some temples.

In all major temples the moving imageor the Chalanti Pratima of the presiding deitiesare brass icons. It is these icons, which aretaken out in various ritual processions and theyperform other mobile functions of the muchlarger and fixed principal deities.

Similarly, the use of ghanta and ghanti,the bell and the gong, are both important andindispensable for all ritual worships,particularly during arati and offering of food.During the Car Festival, hundreds of the gongsare beaten rhythmically by the devotees andpriests in frenzied ecstasy as the divine chariotsare pulled forward by the thronging crowd.

Manjira and gini, two circular cuppedconvex disc stied to strings, are used for beatingthe rhythm. Ghunguroo or ankle bells tied tothe feet of dancers are also products of thisgroup of crafts. The sound of the cattle returningto the village after the day’s grazing with thejingle of the bells leaving a trail of dust is afamiliar scene of rural Orissa.

Dhokra Casting

Dhokra casting is essentially a tribalfolk craft and is limited to a few pockets ofOrissa in Kuliana in Mayurbhanj district,Kaimatin in Keonjhar district, Sadeiberni inDhenkanal district and Haradagaria in Puridistrict. People belonging to Sithulia Caste,practise this profession.

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Artisans, mostly tribals, produceprized items such as boxes, lamps, figures ofdeities by the lost wax method.The raw material

used is not pure brass. It contains miscellaneousscraps of other metals, which give it is typicallyantique look. Its motifs are mostly drawn fromfolk culture. The elephant is most popularmotif, the other motifs include human heads,

kings, manas or miniature replica of measures,containers with lids, with or without lockingdevices, images of deities like Ganesa andDurga, and lamps and lamp stands. Lamp standsare made in several intricate designs in shapeof trees and branches with as many as a hundredlamps in one stand.

Articles of utility like candle stands,ashtrays and pen stands are also made keepingthe essential folk design in tact. Dhokra is notexclusive to Orissa; it is also found in Bengal,Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. It is a veryimportant handicraft because of its exclusivefolk character.

The residual items consist mainly ofthe unique flexible brass items like the brassfish and snakes made by the craftsmen ofBelguntha in Ganjam district.

STATE DISASTER PREPAREDNESS DAY - 2004 OBSERVED

As in the previous years, the State Disaster Preparedness Day was observed with fervour all over the State.Activities organised to mark the occasion included cycle rallies, essay, debate and painting competitions, exhibitions,cultural shows, collective pledge for preparedness and mock drills. The theme for this year's Disaster Preparedness Daywas "Role of Youth in Disaster Management and Preparedness."

The State level function was organised at the Jayadev Bhawan, Bhubaneswar. Cycle rallies by NCC and Scoutsand Guides flagged off from various points merged at the venue, where ODRAF conducted mock drills displaying rescueand evacuation techniques. An exhibition was also organised, where various educative materials, search and rescue andemergency communication equipment and handicrafts made by artisan groups with OSDMA support was put on display.Chief Minister, Revenue Minister, Chief Secretary, Revenue Secretary and M.D., OSDMA addressed the participants,which included government officers, UN representatives and NGOs, media and volunteers.

Addressing the gathering, the Chief Minister Shri Naveen Patnaik gave details about steps taken by the governmentto mitigate the impact of 1999 super cyclone and to enhance preparedness levels. He highlighted the expansion ofemergency communication networks; expansion of the Orissa Disaster Rapid Action Force with two more units stationedat Balasore and Chatrapur, construction of new Emergency Operation Centres in 16 districts and plans to set up ECCs inthe rest of the districts soon; economic empowerment of the poor under the Social capital Restoration programme;rehabilitation of 2555 lift irrigation points, construction of 5,74,000 houses under Indira Awas Yojana etc. Dispellingmisgivings about closure of OSDMA, the Chief Minister said; "those who think with ending of World Bank ProjectOSDMA would come to a close are wrong; its mandate is not just emergency reconstruction, but strengthening ofdisaster preparedness as well, which will continue to do with unfailing support of the Government.

Revenue Minister Shri Manmohan Samal said the government is examining setting up of a separate departmentto strengthen disaster management. Dismissing all charges regarding poor quality of cyclone reconstruction and disasterpreparedness activities, Mr. Samal said "people criticise but fail to come up with specific facts; the House Committeechaired by me is reviewing all disaster management activities in the State." He also said, "The problems the previousgovernment found itself in after the 1999 cyclone shall not be repeated again. The way 2001 and 2003 floods weremanaged shows the commitment of the present government to disaster management. "We must learn appropriate lessonsfrom experience and strengthen disaster management, " he added.

ORISSA REVIEW VOL. LXI NO. 4 NOVEMBER 2004

DIGAMBAR MOHANTY, I.A.S.

Commissioner-cum-Secretary

BAISHNAB PRASAD MOHANTYDirector-cum-Joint Secretary

SASANKA SEKHAR PANDAJoint Director-cum-Deputy Secretary

Editor

BIBEKANANDA BISWALAssociate Editor

Debasis PattnaikSadhana Mishra

Editorial Assistance

Manas R. NayakCover Design & Illustration

Hemanta Kumar SahooManoj Kumar Patro

D.T.P. & Design

The Orissa Review aims at disseminating knowledge and information concerningOrissa’s socio-economic development, art and culture. Views, records, statisticsand information published in the Orissa Review are not necessarily those of theGovernment of Orissa.

Published by Information & Public Relations Department, Government ofOrissa, Bhubaneswar - 751001 and Printed at Orissa Government Press,Cuttack - 753010.

For subscription and trade inquiry, please contact : Manager, Publications,Information & Public Relations Department, Loksampark Bhawan,Bhubaneswar - 751001.

Five Rupees / CopyFifty Rupees / Yearly

Editorial

Dimensions of Orissa Population Scenario Prafulla Kumar Das ... 1

Orissa's Urban Population : An Overview Sidhartha Patnaik ... 3

Kalinga in South East Asia Benudhar Patra ... 9

Power Scenario in Orissa - An Overview Dr. G.B. Rout ... 17

Waterfalls in Orissa C.R. Balabantaroy ... 20

Chilika Sadhana Mishra ... 22

Danda Jatra and Danda Nata : A Display of Pain andPleasure of Oriya Devotees Pratap Kumar Dash ... 26

Role of Dream in Kui-Culture Anuja Mohan Pradhan ... 29

Kartikeya Gitarani Praharaj ... 31

Tantra Manuscripts in the Collection of StateMuseum Dr. C.B. Patel ... 34

Antiquities of Shri Jagannath : Amazing Findings Sasanka Sekhar Panda ... 40

Orissa : A Place for Aesthetic Experience ... 47

E-Governance ... 51

Raghurajpur : the Crafts Village ... 52

Metal Craft of Orissa ... 54

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL Orissa Review

Orissan features have usually been characterised by the rich cultural heritage andpeace-loving traits quite rare in the history of mankind. A discerning look wouldreveal many hidden aspects of interesting initiations and initiatives that thegreat race earned to their credit. In the changing scenario the perception on Orissanperspective bears the emergence of a conducive atmosphere for both investors andtourists. The presence of natural resources in abundance has gradually made animpact in the state's economy by designing the whole concept as the investors'paradise. In the field of application of technology, Orissa has the distinction ofbecoming a pioneer in IT Revolution in the whole country. The most pragmaticvision of the Government of Orissa still bears a landmark in creating a separateDepartment of Information Technology for the first time in the country. Information of the State Portal the State also ranks first following the guidelines ofGovernment of India. In evolving an appropriate mechanism the state is continuingits effort to ameliorate the living conditions of the people. All these impressionshave been portrayed succinctly in this November issue of Orissa Review which,we hope, will suit to the information needs of the readers and researchers.

orissa population

Documents