organizatio pathology 1984

8/9/2019 Organizatio Pathology 1984

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ORGANIZATIONAL PATHOLOGY

Germn Sergio Monroy Alvarado

Paper accepted to be presented in 26th. International Conference of the Institute of

Management Sciences, Copenhagen, Denmark, June 1984.Conferences presented onConferences on Selected Topics of Organizational Behavior, Applied Mathematics and SystemsResearch Institute (IIMAS), UNAM, Mexico City, October 1984. Conference of the MexicanInstitute of Systems, A.C. (IMSAC), Mexico City, September 1985. Conference of theMathematics Workshop of the School of Sciences, UNAM, Mexico City, 1985. PermanentEducation Course: Fundamentals, Applications and Workshop on Systems Engineering,Permanent Education Division of the School of Engineering (DECFI), UNAM, Mexico City,November 1986. Conferences on Decision Contexts and Systems Approaches organized by theMexican Academy of Engineering, Mexico City, June 1988.

ABSTRACTAn organization has frequently been likened to a human body with studies

focusing mainly on its anatomy and physiology. This paper will explore acomplementary emphasis: illnesses. This metaphor will be made explicit byusing situations providing a "re-creative" mood in an effort to understandorganizational behavior.

INTRODUCTION

The study of organizations has been of interest to a wide variety of disciplines,interdisciplines and professions, each one using different perspectives.Therefore the non-existence of an ordered collection of knowledge in thisrespect should be of no surprise and perhaps it should not. Even worry us.

What should worry us all is the perceptible deterioration of most organizationswith which we interact and which act on our daily lives, organizations of everykind: at the levels of world, nation, government, private industry producinggoods or services and agro pecuarian organizations.

The existence of an ordered collection of knowledge concerningorganizations could be necessary but perhaps might not be sufficient to stopdeterioration and improve these organizations.

The turbulent situations that we experience in our present day societiesdemand a change as to how we see things, how we evaluate them, how we act:

change of paradigm.

Despite the inexistence of this ordered body of knowledge onorganizations, most theories developed at present pose certain similarities;most of them implicitly use the metaphor:

An organization is like a human body

And their efforts are focused on the study of its anatomy and itsphysiology.

A change of paradigm would allow us to understand what at presentseems inexplicable. .According to T.S. Kuhn (13), a paradigm change is not the


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product of a process of accumulation of knowledge. A change of paradigm maybe produced by having a broader outlook, a broader way of evaluating, byswitching to wider frames of reference. Frameworks that integrate, in a newway, both qualitative and quantitative approaches, frameworks within which theridiculous and inefficient aspects of each approach when taken separated, take

on a new meaning so that the things not understood before can now makesense.

If the existing theories of organization seem insufficient to us, perhapsthis is because it is necessary to integrate them into wider frameworks byconsidering aspects that are not very frequently mentioned in the literature:organizational illnesses.

ORGANIZATIONAL PATHOLOGY

Along this path, searching for a new integration (a new paradigm), systematic

and systemic efforts to study such pathology should be made.

The interest in pursuing this path can only increase as we discover thatR.L. Ackoff, after analyzing the concept of health as defined by the WorldHealth Organization (WHO), gives a new systemic definition of it and thenremarks:

". ..this definition of health applies equallyto organizations and organisms". (1)

The concept of health as given by Ackoff defines a possible frameworkfor the study of organizational pathology.

S. Beer, another leader of the system's movement, in developing hismodel of organizations as a viable system, establishes another framework andremarks that an organization:

". ..may not be .in full good health; it might be really ill; its structural conditionmight actually be pathological". (3)

Despite the relationship between Management Science, organizations,

and organizational theories, just on very few occasions has this reflected aninterest in analyzing the assumptions on which we act, the frameworks that weuse, the paradigms that we embrace.

Recently, however, work has begun on the subject by G. Burrel and G.Morgan (5), G. Morgan (16), G. Morgan and G. Smircich (18), and K.Mackenzie (15).

This paper is an attempt to add to these efforts and an invitation tomanagement sciences researchers to join in the search for new paradigms andnew research strategies in the study of organizations.


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In this paper the concept of metaphor was chosen in order to exploreorganizational pathology, due to the relevance of the relationship betweenparadigms and metaphor established by G. Morgan (16); moreover, themetaphor is a powerful concept which could begin a movement, atransformation, so to speak (as metaphor contains in itself the concept of

transformation) capable of stirring and impelling people to follow this path (19).On the other hand, the metaphor is an eminently rhetorical concept which ispoetic and aesthetic, an instrument of creation and re-creation, wherein humorcan also stimulate these processes. If aesthetic aspects are taken intoconsideration; our pathway to the means of solving problems will be enriched aswe move towards progress, searching for a just balance in our pursuit of theideals of: truth, beauty, good and plenty.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HUMAN BODY

In the medical sciences, the historical evolution of the knowledge of the

anatomy and physiology of the human body has been developed frommacroscopic to microscopic aspects.

If we take the opposite approach, an expansionist, synthetic, rather thanreductionist, analytic, view, from micro to macro, and consider the cell as thesimplest biological unit with the capacity of semi-independent life and being,semi-autonomous (since context is necessary) , we could define the anatomy ofa human body as the study of:

The description of the physical, structural and morphologicalcharacteristics of cells, tissues, organs, apparatus and systemsof the human body; and of their distribution, the arrangement ofthese with respect to teach, other and areas of the body.

The physiology of the human body could be defined as the study of:

The description and explanation of the functional characteristics ofthe cells, tissues, organs, apparatus and systems of the humanbody and of their interrelationships.

THE ORGANISMIC METAPHOR

The application of the metaphor:

"An organization is like a human body"

has given rise to theories about organizations called organismic whichemphasize the description of the components of organizations and try to explaintheir functions, that is to say, they emphasize organizational physiology andanatomy.

This perspective in the study of organizations has evolved along lines

similar to those of the historical development of anatomy and physiology, i.e.,from macroscopic to microscopic aspects. We have gone from the search for


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knowledge of the macro-organization to the incorporation of knowledge of theindividual in the organization, the mlcro-organizational. During the Renaissance,Machiavelli (14), (11), (12), describes the principles of power and command inorganizations. Towards the end of last century and the beginning of this, thefirst organizational theorists: Taylor, Fayol and Weber made advances in their

efforts to describe and explain the components, structure and functioning oforganizations by using such concepts as the division of labor, hierarchy,authority and command units, span of control, centralization anddecentralization. These efforts, according to H.A. Simon (21), only producedproverbs that have neither empirical validity nor universal application.

When social psychologists incorporated their efforts with the constructionof organizational theories following Kurt Lewin (9), (11), (12), a microscopicfocus centered on the behaviour of the individual began and the organization isdescribed and explained in terms of personality or personal characteristics andenvironmental peculiarities or organizational climate.

PATHOLOGY OF THE HUMAN BODY

As considered in this article, pathology is the study of illnesses. The concept ofillness and its relationship to health will be established later on in this paper. Wemust add here however, that the medical sciences define pathology as thestudy of the abnormal, even though not all that is abnormal is illness.

Although we can consider .a person to be an integrated system of mindand body, in this article we shall only refer to that which relates to the body, weshall explore the somatic aspects. The psychic and psychosomatic aspectsshall remain objects of future studies. If we consider only the somatic aspects, itwill be easier to say what is normal and what has alterations, what is illness andwhat is health. As shall be seen, to consider only these somatic aspects is topresent a broad and rich perspective. Somatic pathology, somatic illnesses, willbe explored in this paper. Fig. 1.

With reference to anatomy and physiology the medical sciences considerthat in spite of the differences and variations existing among groups of people,standards for determining what is normal in the human body have beenestablished. Whether these standards are satisfied or not will determine on the

one hand, a healthy body and on the other, abnormalities, alterations,deviations, morbid states or processes; in these cases, however, thecompensatory homeostatic and/or morphostatic mechanisms may or may notbe required in order to restore the meeting of standards. lf these compensatorymechanisms are not necessary we have a state of health. This state of healthwill also be had in cases which, having required the use of these compensatorymechanisms, these standards have been restored. In the opposite case, whenstandards can not be restored by means of the compensatory mechanisms,signs and symptoms of illness will present themselves. Fig. 2

The resulting state of health will be, somatically speaking, the absence of

clinical signs and symptoms of illness. Fig. 3


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As can be observed with precision, morbid states or processes which arenot diseases can exist; our interest, however, lie with illnesses.

The somatic pathology referred to in this article, studies the causes ofdiseases (etilogy), the mechanisms involved in the development of diseases

(pathogeny) and the mechanisms of disease spreading (epidemiology).

One classification of diseases used by Pathology refers to origin:

Hereditary: those diseases which are transmitted genetically andcan be manifested at birth or later on in life.

Acquired: those diseases which are transmitted throughenvironmental factors or habits and generally manifested afterbirth even though the environment during the birth process canproduce this type of diseases (congenital).

Also mentioned within this classification by some authors are congenitaldiseases, those with which one is born: Hereditary diseases which manifestthemselves at birth and those acquired; although transmitted by environmentalfactors during the birth process are considered congenital.

Diseases are also classified as:

InflammationsDegenerationsNeoplasias (tumors)

Before furthering the description of these it must be noted that they, incombination with those of the previous category, form all the possiblecombinations of diseases.

These diseases can be produced by different agents:

PhysicalChemicalBiological

and they are generally referred to as noxa.

Among the biological agents, aside from genetic agents, there are micro-organisms which are classified as:

VirusesBacteriasParasites

when these produce diseases the latter are know as infections.


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Inflammations (with the suffix itis) are the responses of tissues whichact as the armour surrounding the cells of an organ (conjunctive tissue), thusprotecting the organ itself, although, on occasion, they can be harmful.

There are three morphological characteristics of inflammations:

Exudative-infiltrative changes.Blood vessels dilate, the amount of blood flow increases but slowsdown. There is vascular permeability and a greater outpour ofplasmatic liquid into the extra-vascular space, fomenting the possibleproduction of pus.

Alterative changes.Cells degenerate and necrosis (cell death) sets in.

Proliferative changes.

The number of cells increases.

It is generally said that an inflammation is "stereotyped, i.e.; it alwayshas the same appearance. It is also said to be non-specific, in other words, itsetiology can only be determined when the causal agent is found. Its causes cannot be deduced from its appearance. Fig. 4.

Inflammations may be chronic or acute. They are chronic if their durationis relatively long and acute when it is short. Chronic inflammations are the mostharmful, as are those in which proliferative changes take place.

Degenerations (with the suffix osis) are the result of the interrelationbetween the noxious agent and the cell. A non-specific function of the cell isaltered and abnormal intra or extra cellular substances are deposited.

It must be clarified that a specific cellular function can only be carried outif the cell is complete. An example of this kind of function is that of reproduction.These specific cellular functions could be called c substantive (basic). Non-specific cellular function (adjectival, ancillary-support) are those that can becarried out even when the cell is incomplete, for example, biochemical actions.Fig. 5.

When the noxious agents affect a specific function, cellular diseases areproduced which can result in neoplasias or genetic diseases.

Neoplasias, or tumors (with the suffix omas) are characterized by analteration in cell reproduction and differentiation, when normal and progressivegrowth is not followed. These are produced, according to one hypothesis, by adeficiency in the immuno-competent system which is formed by cells whosefunction is to identify foreign elements that act as antigens, substances whichprovoke the formation of antibodies or cellular hypersensitivity. Certain noxiousagents inhibit the competent response of the immune system to cell change.


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There are malignant neoplasias such as cancer and benign neoplasiassuch as the fibroma, osteoma and angioma. Fig. 6.

THE METAPHOR OF ORGANIZATIONAL PATHOLOGY:.

When the organismic metaphor is expanded by incorporating pathologicalaspects the following metaphor results:

The Organization like a human body can become ill".

The merely saying that an organization is ill when we observe that itscapacities to solve problems are not sufficiently efficient (or to say that anorganization is pathological if after bettering these efficiencies, there is noimprovement) is a too general description, and saying so, would justify ourimpotence for intervening adequately.

In this paper, following the pathological characteristics of the human bodydescribed above, an attempt will be made to begin to establish a referentialframework which will be more specific and should generate motivation toincrease endeavors to restore health to organizations.

Same as with the human body, it seems necessary to establish a set ofstandards for determining what is normal for organizations. An understanding oforganizational pathology could initiate efforts to establish these standards. Eventhough such an endeavor would seem to be almost impossible to achieve, sincethere are so many kinds of existing organizations, one should keep in mind thatthere are also many kinds of human bodies. Moreover, two pioneering effortsalready exist which could serve as a guide in establishing these standards. Thefirst derives from the relationship between health as defined R.L. Ackoff andillness:

...health is the ability of a purposeful system to fill its needs and pursueits objectives with at least a level of efficiency displayed by most othersystems of the same type under similar conditions, and the absence ofdesire to decrease its own or other's ability to fill their needs and attaintheir objectives" (1).

This definition proposes a set of alternatives to follow.

The second pioneering endeavor derives from the consideration of theneurocybernetic model of an enterprise, conceived of as a viable system,developed by S. Beer (2) and the principles of cybernetic administration whicharise there from. These principles facilitate the generalization of the model toany kind of organization (3); from this, Beer establishes that:

managerial cybernetics ought, in the first place, to be seen as adiagnostic. By mapping both the organization and the developmentalprocess in which it is engaged onto the viable system model; it is

possible to understand strengths and weaknesses in terms of the


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axioms of viability. In the second place, it is almost possible to prescribefor whatever t urns out to be pathological" (3).

Thus, in spite of the fact that the task of establishing standards fordetermining the health or illness of an organization could seem monumental, we

feel that it is a possible one, and indeed one quite necessary to perform. Evenwithout. having these standards made explicit. Who has not felt infected bysome organizational illness and thereby been led to exclaim:

It makes me sick!

Following the classifications of human diseases we can distinguishhereditary and acquired diseases.

Those most frequent in organizations are acquired illnesses, howeverhereditary diseases are also to be found, more so in public organizations than in

private ones.

What generally happens in public organizations is that ideas aregenerated concerning the creation of new organizations and these areconceived through legal action expedited by corresponding laws, agreementsand ruling. These documents carry the genetic code of the new organizationand establish in general, its structure and functions.

With this, on many occasions, directors are designated and personnel ishired, who have as their first tasks to plan and develop the most detailed designbased on the genetic code and to put this into practice. Often, from the verybeginning of these detailed designs, operational problems stemming from whatis established in the genetic code arise but nevertheless, the code must befollowed. Problems continue to appear during the lifespan of the organization,thus hereditary inconsistencies and incongruencies arise.

It is extremely difficult to correct these ills in public organizations and themodification of their genetic codes is virtually impossible.

ORGANIZATIONAL INFLAMMATIONS

Organizational inflammations can present themselves in some part or unit(organ), of the organization, for example, in an office, department or division, orthey can be generalized throughout, the whole organization.

In these organizational illnesses, similar to inflammations in the humanbody, changes are produced in the rhythm of the flow in the way in whichassigned tasks are carried out, the amount of flow is increased but it is sloweddown. This phenomenon is generally produced following Parkinson's Law (20):

Work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion.

Thus localized or generalized burocratitis is produced. Fig. 7, 8..


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Other inflammations can be produced when special groups or task forcesare assigned to solve some specific problem by means of administrationthrough projects, projectitis.

These morphological changes, on some occasions, bring about (cellular)

degenerations in the behavior of some individuals, some of whom change theirrhythm of work by reducing it or changing their interests; or they might increaseit if they participate in newly formed groups or decrease it if they are excludedfrom these groups. This lowering of interest can degenerate to the point ofnecrosis, death of their interest in work. Another morphological change which isgenerally observed is produced by proliferative changes wherein the number ofindividuals hired by the organization is increased.

The formation of some work teams to solve a problem or develop aprojectis similar to the increase in the work flow affected by the leucocytes(white blood cells) in the human body, which attack some noxious intruder.

However, such activity, as happens in the human body, can be harmful whenpus is created; these states of putrefaction can also be produced inorganizations and require, special action to restore health, scalpel and profoundcleansing, among others.

When inflammations affect the totality of the organizations, what P. Davis(8), calls the supergrowth institutions are produced. These are characterizedby severe hypertrophia (an increase in the size of an organ due to the increasein the size of its constituent cells), and hyperplasia (an increase in size due toan increase in the number of cells). In order to heal these organizations, thescalpel must by wielded by establishing policies of decentralized functioning.

Chronic and proliferative organizational inflammations are the mostharmful to organizations.

The organizational inflammations, meeting-itis, can be chronic (of longdurations), involving the organization in a permanent rarely productive activity ofmeetings. There are organizations that suffer acute meeting-itis and in somecases it is recurrent, the effects of these pathological manifestations should beanalyzed with regard to organizational efficiency.

ORGANIZATIONAL DEGENERATION

Similar to that which occurs in human bodies, one could say that organizationaldegeneration presents itself when a unit of the organization is affected bynoxious agents resulting in an alteration in the non-substantive (adjectival)function which is made manifest by the accumulation of abnormal elements.

When an organization considers planning to be a non-substantive activityand yet considers it necessary and to this end establishes a planning unit forthe whole organization, or in each of its units specific groups or subunit ofspecialists (usually economists or administrators) responsible for planning,

then the disease planning-osis results with its accompanying Increase inpersonnel which is generally detached from the rest of the organization and


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produces studies which, in the best of cases, only serve as presumption with nooperational effects or are used to fill drawers and filing cabinets previouslyempty. Fig. 9..

Similar to the foregoing organizational disease, in epidemic proportions,

and due to the impact of electronic computation, the disease computerosis orinformatosis is rapidly spreading, plaguing organizations with specializedpersonnel, with marvelous machines and producing millions of charactersprinted on paper or displayed on video screens. Along with microcomputation,the epidemic has passed through the boundaries of organizations and invadedactivities in the home.

ORGANIZATIONAL NEOPLASIAS (TUMORS)

These are alterations in the reproduction and differentiation of elements whenlaws of normal and progressive growth are not followed due to the incompetent

functioning of the apparatus charged with identifying foreign agents.

Among these neoplasias, the most prominent are the dilemmas andinefficiencies produced by the existence of three groups of personnel: thedirection or politicians, the technical personnel and the operative personnel.Among these groups (in the majority of cases, but especially in publicorganizations} there are significant differences in diverse aspects as, forexample, in the goals pursued. Moreover there is rarely good communicationamong them.

These groups represent three organizational cultures in dilemma. Tothese characteristics we may add abnormal and non-progressive growth whichproduces this disease. Fig. 10,11.

Another common neoplasia in the human body is cancer, a malignanttumor. Given its characteristics, we could consider as organizational cancer thatcorruption which so destructively invades uncountable organizations. Thealarming proportion of organizations which suffer this disease require an all outeffort on the behalf of society in general in order to attack this neoplasiabecause the development and survival of organizations and society itself are indanger. Although this is one of the most critical organizational diseases,

relatively few systematic and systemic efforts have been dedicated to its study,

Only a few research groups who have been deeply involved andcommitted to societal development have undertaken these endeavors so far.

In addition to all of the aforementioned alternatives for action towards thestudy of these diseases, this last, corruption, represents an important challengewhich would open a wide panorama in the development of organizationalpathology.

CONCLUSIONS


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In this article I have looked at the need to search for and find new paradigms togenerate knowledge and understanding, paradigms which would be a moreefficient tool for the analysis and development of organizations.

In order to explore one possible path in this search, the aesthetic concept

of metaphor was used since it could be considered an instrument with thepotential to motivate more efforts in this endeavor.

Due to the fact that a good part of organizational theory make implicit useof the metaphor the organization is like a human body" emphasizing onlyphysiological and anatomical aspects, and also considering that the medicalsciences have developed knowledge and understanding of one of the mostmarvelous purposeful systems created by Nature, this article explored thepossibility of broadening this view by using the metaphor the organization like ahuman body can become ill.

Even though this study set aside the psychic and psychosomaticaspects, the sole consideration of the somatic aspects related to organizationalpathology unveil possible paths which could lead to advances in establishingstandards for determining what is normal in organizations, and someorganizational diseases were described.

Thus the first steps towards diagnosing possible organizational diseaseswere taken. There is. still a much wider and longer way to go if, as in medicalsciences, after diagnosing a disease, efforts must be made to discover meansto restore, health to organization.

Therefore, a wide gamut of alternatives could be explored to learn aboutand contribute to organizational improvement.


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Figure 1

ECOSOCIAL

ENVIRONMENT

PERSON

PERSON

MIND BODY

BODY

ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY

PATHOLOGY

PSYCHIC SOMATIC

PSYCHOSAMATIC


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Figure 4

NORMALHEALTHY

ILLINFLAMMATED


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Figure 6

NORMALHEALTHY

ILL


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LOCALICED BUROCRATITIS

Figure 7

BEFORE

AFTER


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GENERALICED BUROCRATITIS

Figure 8


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Figure 9

PLAN

PLAN

BEFORE

AFTER


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Figure 10

DIRECTION

TECHNICAL

OPERATIVE

DIRECTION

TECHNICAL

OPERATIVE

T E C H N I C A L

OPERATIVE

DIRECTION


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Figure 11


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) Ackoff, R.L. Redesiqning the Future A Systems Approach to SocietalProblems. Wiley. N.Y. 1974.

(2) Beer, S. Brain of the Firm, Wiley. N.Y., 1972.

(3) Beer. S. The Heart of Enterprise, Wiley, N.Y. , 1979.

(4) Barrett J. T. Text-Book of Immunology. Mosby Co. Saint Louis. 1974.

(5) Burrell G. And G Morgan, Socioloqical Paradigms and OrqanisationalAnalysis-Elements of the Sociology of Corporate Life. Heinemann. London,1979.

(6) Bykov K.M. (ed) Text-Book of Physiology, Peace Pub. Moscow.

(7) Costero I. Manual Didctico de Anatoma Patolgica. Instituto Nal. deCardiologa. Mxico. 1974.

(8) Davis P. Planning and The Supergrowth Institutions-A Mexican CaseStudy", Busch Center, ORSA/TIMS, 1976.

(9) Dessler G. Organization and Management -A Contingency Approach,Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1976.

(10) Dienharth Ch. M. Elementos de Anatoma y Fisiologa Humanas, Ateneo,Mxico, 1969.

(11) George C.S. The History of Management Thought., 2nd Ed Prentice Hall.N.J. 1972.

(12) Hodgetts R.M. Manaqement Theory, Process and Practice, Saunders Co.Philadelphia, 1975.

(13) Kuhn T,S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago U. Press,Chicago. 1962.

(14) Machiaveli, The Prince, Encyclopaedia. Britannica, 1971..(15) Mackenzie K.D. and R. House "Paradigm Development in the SocialSciences: A proposed research strategy, Acad. Mgmt .Rev. 3(1), 7-23t Jan.1978.

(16) Morgan G. Paradigms. Metaphors, and Puzzle Solving in OrganizationTheory", Admve. Sci. Q. 25(4), 605-622. Dec. 1980.

(17) Morgan G, (ed) Beyond Method. Sage Calif. 1983.


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(18) Morgan G. , and L. Smircich, "The Case for Qualitative Research". Acad.Mgmt. Rev., 5(4), 491-500t Oct, 1980,

(19) Ortony A, (ed.), Metaphor and Thought, U. of Cambridge Press,Cambridge, 1973.

(20) Parkinson C.N. Parkinsons Law - And Other Studies in Administration,Ballantine Books, 1964.

(21) Simon H.A. Administrative Behavior, Free Press, N.Y. 1957.

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