organic chemistry. naming saturated hydrocarbons the international union of pure and applied...
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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons• The International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) names for the first 12 "straight-chain" or "normal" alkanes are:Number of Carbons in chain Prefix C-C C=C C C
1 Meth- Methane
2 Eth- Ethane Ethene Ethyne
3 Prop- Propane Propene Propyne
4 But- Butane Butene Butyne
5 Pent- Pentane Pentene Pentyne
6 Hex- Hexane Hexene Hexyne
7 Hept- Heptane Heptene Heptyne
8 Oct- Octane Octene Octyne
9 Non- Nonane Nonene Nonyne
10 Dec- Decane Decene Decyne
11 Undec- Undecane Undecene Undecyne
12 Dodec- Dodecane Dodecene Dodecyne
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes• The simplest saturated hydrocarbons are called
alkanes.• Methane, CH4, is the simplest alkane.• The alkanes form a homologous series.
– Each member of the series differs by a specific number and kind of atoms.
C
H
HH
H or CH4
H
C
HHH
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
• The alkanes differ from each other by a CH2 or methylene group.
• All alkanes have this general formula.CnH2n+2
• For example ethane, C2H6 , and propane, C3H8 , are the next two family members.
C2H6
C C
H
H
H
H
H
H
C3H8
C C C
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes• Isomers are chemical compounds that have the
same molecular formulas but different structures.
• Two alkanes have the molecular formula C4H10.
– They are a specific type of isomer called structural isomers.
n-butane
C C C C
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
2-methylpropane
C C C
C
H H
H
HH
H
H
H
H
H
• Branched-chain alkanes are named by the following rules.
Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons
1. Choose the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms which gives the basic name or stem.
2 Number each carbon atom in the basic chain, starting at the end that gives the lowest number to the first group attached to the main chain (substituent).
3 For each substituent on the chain, we indicate the position in the chain (by an Arabic numeric prefix) and the kind of substituent (by its name).
The position of a substituent on the chain is indicated by the lowest number possible. The number precedes the name of the substituent.
4 When there are two or more substituents of a given kind, use prefixes to indicate the number of substituents.
di = 2, tri = 3, tetra = 4, penta = 5, hexa = 6, hepta = 7, octa = 8, and so on.5 The combined substituent numbers and names serve as a prefix for the basic
hydrocarbon name.6 Separate numbers from numbers by commas and numbers from words by
hyphens. Words are "run together".
Naming Saturated Hydrocarbons
• Alkyl groups (represented by the symbol R) are common substituents.
– Alkyl groups are fragments of alkanes in which one H atom has been removed for the connection to the main chain.
– Alkyl groups have the general formula CnH2n+1. • In alkyl groups the -ane suffix in the name of the parent alkane
is replaced by -yl.
– A one carbon group is named methyl.– A two carbon group is named ethyl.– A three carbon group is named propyl.
• Three alkanes have the formula C5H12.
– There are three structural isomers of pentane.
n-pentane
H3C
H2C
CH2
H2C
CH3
2-methylbutane
H3CCH
CH2
CH3
CH3
2,2-dimethylpropane
H3CC
CH3
CH3
CH3
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes• There are five isomeric hexanes, C6H14.
CH3
CH
2
CH2
CH
2
CH2
CH3CH3
CH C
H2
CH
2
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH
2
CH C
H2
CH3
CH3
CH3
CCH
2 CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH C
H CH3
CH3
CH3
n-hexane 2-methylpentane 3-methylpentane
2,2-dimethylbutane 2,3-dimethylbutane
•The number of structural isomers increases rapidly with increasing numbers of carbon atoms.•The boiling points of the alkanes increase with molecular weight.
Alkanes and Cycloalkanes• Cyclic saturated hydrocarbons are called cycloalkanes.
– They have the general formula CnH2n.
• Some examples are:
cyclopentane
H2C CH2
CH2
H2C
H2C
cyclohexane
H2C
H2CCH2
CH2
CH2
H2C
cyclooctane
H2C
H2C
CH2
CH2
CH2H2C
H2C
H2C
Alkenes• The three classes of unsaturated hydrocarbons are:1. alkenes and cycloalkenes, CnH2n
2. alkynes and cycloalkynes, CnH2n-2
3. aromatic hydrocarbons• The simplest alkenes contain one C=C bond per molecule.
– The general formula for simple alkenes is CnH2n.
• The first two alkenes are:
– ethene, C2H4
CC
H
H
H
H – and propene, C3H6
CC
CH
H
H
H
H
H
• Each doubly bonded C atom is sp2 hybridized.• The sp2 hybrid consists of:
– two s bonds (single bonds) and– one s and one p bond (double bond)
Alkenes• The systematic naming system for alkenes uses the same
stems as alkanes.• In the IUPAC system, the -ane suffix for alkanes is changed
to -ene. – Common names for the alkenes have the same stem but
use the suffix -ylene is used. • In chains of four or more C atoms, a numerical prefix
shows the position of the lowest-numbered doubly bonded C atom. – Always choose the longest chain that contains the C=C
bond.
• Polyenes contain two or more double bonds per molecule.
• Indicate the number of double bonds with suffixes: – -adiene for two double
bonds.– -atriene for three double
bonds, etc.• The positions of the
substituents are indicated as for alkanes.
• The position of the C=C bond(s) is/are given the lowest number(s) possible.
CC
CC
CCH
H H
H
H
H
H
H
1,3,5-hexatriene
CC
CC
CCH
H H
C
C
H
H
H
H
H H
H
HH
2,3-dimethyl-1,3,5-hexatriene
CC
CC
CC
H
H H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
1,3-hexadiene
Cycloalkenes• Cycloalkenes have the general formula CnH2n-2.
• Examples are:• cyclopentene
C C
CC
C
HH
H
HH
H
H
H
• cyclohexene
C
CC
C
CCH
HH H
H
H
H
HH H
Alkynes• Alkynes contain CC bonds.
• The simplest alkyne is C2H2, ethyne, or acetylene.
– Alkynes with only one C C bond have the formula CnH2n-2.
• Each carbon atom in a C C bond is sp hybridized.
– Each sp hybrid contains two bonds and two bonds.
– The carbon atom will have one single bond and one triple bond.
• Alkynes are named like the alkenes except that the suffix -yne is used with the characteristic stem – The alkyne stem is derived from the name of the
alkane with the same number of carbon atoms.
3-heptyne
C C C C C C CH
H
H H
H H
H H
H
H
H
H
2-octyne
C C C C C C C C
H
H H
H H
H H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
Hydrocarbons: A Summary
Carbon Atom Hybridization C uses C forms Example
sp3
tetrahedral4 sp3 hybrids 4 bonds CH4
sp2
trigonal planar3 sp2 hybrids &
1p orbital3 bonds
1 bondC2H4
sp linear2 sp hybrids & 2
p orbitals2 bonds
2 bondsC2H2
Aromatic Hydrocarbons• Historically, aromatic was used to describe pleasant
smelling substances.
• Now it refers to benzene, C6H6, and derivatives of benzene.
– Other compounds that have similar chemical properties to benzene are also called aromatic.
• The structure of benzene, C6H6, is:C
CC
C
CC
H
H
H
H
H
H
• Coal tar is the common source of benzene and many other aromatic compounds.
• Some aromatic hydrocarbons that contain fused rings are:
• napthalene
C
CC
C
CC C
C
C
C
H
H
H H
H
H
HH
Resonance in Benzene
• C6H6 has two resonance structures with alternating double bonds.
• The π electrons are delocalized over the ring.C
C
CC
C
CC
C
CC
C
C
H
H
HH
H H
H
H
HH
H H
CC
CC
C
C
H
H
HH
H H
Resonance structures of benzene, C6H6 Abbreviated representation of resonance structures
• C–C single bond = 154 pm • C=C bond = 134 pm• CC bonds in benzene = 139 pm
π electrons delocalizedπ electrons delocalized
Other Aromatic Hydrocarbons• Many aromatic hydrocarbons contain alkyl groups
attached to benzene rings (as well as to other aromatic rings).
• The positions of the substituents on benzene rings are indicated by the prefixes:– ortho- (o-) for substituents on adjacent C atoms– meta- (m-) for substituents on C atoms 1 and 3– para- (p-) for substituents on C atoms 1 and 4
o-xylene
CH3
CH3
m-xylene
CH3
CH3
p-xylene
CH3
CH3
Organic Halides• A halogen atom may replace almost any hydrogen atom in
a hydrocarbon.• The functional group is the halide (-X) group. • Examples include:
– chloroform, CHCl3
CCl Cl
Cl
H
• 1,2-dichloroethane, ClCH2CH2Cl
C CH
Cl
H
H
Cl
H
• para-dichlorobenzene
Cl
Cl
Alcohols and Phenols• The functional group in alcohols and phenols is the hydroxyl (-OH) group. • Alcohols and phenols can be considered derivatives of
hydrocarbons in which one or more H atoms have been replaced by -OH groups.
• Phenols are derivatives of benzene in which one H has been replaced by replaced by -OH group.
• The stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus an -ol suffix is the systematic name for an alcohol.
• A numeric prefix indicates the position of the -OH group in alcohols with three or more C atoms.
• Common names are the name of the appropriate alkyl group plus alcohol.
Alcohols and Phenols• Ethyl alcohol (ethanol), C2H5OH, is the most familiar alcohol.
C C OHH
H
H H
H
• Phenol, C6H5OH, is the most familiar phenol.
OH
Alcohols and Phenols• Alcohols can be classified into three
classes:1. Primary (1°) alcohols like ethanol have
the -OH group attached to a C atom that has one bond to another C atom.
CH3
CH2
OH
2. Secondary(2°) alcohols have the –OH group attached to a C atom that has bonds to 2 other C atoms.
• For example,2-propanol:
CH3
CH
CH3
OH
3. Tertiary (3°) alcohols have the –OH group attached to a C atom that is bonded to 3 other C atoms.
• For example, 2-methyl-2-propanol
CH3 C CH3
OH
CH3
Alcohols and Phenols
• Alcohols are named using the stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus an -ol suffix in the systematic nomenclature.
• A numeric prefix indicates the position of the -OH group in alcohols with three or more C atoms.
– Common alcohol names are the name of the appropriate alkyl group plus the word alcohol.
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3
OHCH3
CH C
H2
CH2
CH3
OH
CH3
CH2
CH C
H2
CH3
OH
1-pentanol1-pentyl alcohol
2-pentanol2-pentyl alcohol
3-pentanol3-pentyl alcohol
Alcohols and Phenols• There are several isomeric monohydric acyclic (contains
no rings) alcohols that contain more than three C atoms. • There are four isomeric four-carbon alcohols.
1-butanol
H2C
CH2
H2C
CH3HO
2-butanol
H3CCH
CH2
CH3
OH
2-methyl-1-propanol
CH2
CHH3C CH3
HO
2-methyl-2-propanol
CH3CH3C
CH3
OH
Alcohols and Phenols
• There are eight isomeric five-carbon alcohols.
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3
OHCH3
CH C
H2
CH2
CH3
OH
CH3
CH2
CH C
H2
CH3
OH
1-pentanol 2-pentanol 3-pentanol
CH2
CH C
H2
CH3OH
CH3
CH3 C CH2
CH3
CH3
OHCH3
CH C
H CH3
OH
CH3
2-methyl-1-butanol 2-methyl-2-butanol 3-methyl-2-butanol
CH3
CH C
H2
CH
2CH3
OH
3-methyl-1-butanol
CH3 C CH2
CH3
CH3OH
2,2-dimethyl-1-propanol
Alcohols and Phenols• Polyhydric alcohols contain more than one -OH group per molecule.
CH2
CH CH2
OH
OH
OH
CH2
CH C
H CH C
H CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
glycerin sorbitol
Alcohols and Phenols• Phenols are usually called by their common (trivial) names.
OH
OH
OH
CH3
OH
CH3
OH
CH3
resorcinol o-cresol m-cresol p-cresol
Ethers• Ethers may be thought of as derivatives of water in which
both H atoms have been replaced by alkyl or aryl groups.
HO
H CH3
OH CH3
OCH3
water an alcohol an ether
• Ethers are not very polar and not very reactive. • They are excellent solvents. • Common names are used for most ethers.
dimethyl ether
H3CO
CH3
ethylmethyl ether
H3CO
CH2
CH3
diethyl ether
H3C
H2C
O
H2C
CH3
Aldehydes and Ketones• The functional group in aldehydes and ketones is the carbonyl
group.
O
R2R1 or H
carbonyl group
Aldehydes and Ketones• Except for formaldehyde, aldehydes have one H atom and
one organic group bonded to a carbonyl group.
ethanal oracetaldehyde
O
HH3C
methanal orformaldehyde
O
HH
propanal orpropionaldehyde
O
HCH2
H3C
• Ketones have two organic groups bonded to a carbonyl group.
propanone or acetone
C
O
CH3H3C
2-butanone or ethylmethylketone
C
O
CH3H2C
CH3
3-pentanone or diethylketone
C
O
CH2H2C
CH3 CH3
Aldehydes and Ketones• Common names for aldehydes are derived from the name of the acid
with the same number of C atoms. • IUPAC names are derived from the parent hydrocarbon name by
replacing -e with -al.
C
O
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3 HC
O
CCH3
CH3
CH3
HC
O
H
pentanal orpentyl aldehyde
2,3-dimethylproponal or2,3-dimethylpropionaldehyde
benzanal orbenzyl aldehyde
Aldehydes and Ketones
• The IUPAC name for a ketone is the characteristic stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus the suffix -one.
• A numeric prefix indicates the position of the carbonyl group in a chain or on a ring.
C
O
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3 CH3
2-hexanone ormethyl pentyl ketone
CH3
CH2
CH2
CCH2
CH3
O
3-hexanone orethyl propyl ketone
CCH3O
acetophenone ormethyl phenyl ketone
Amines• Amines are derivatives of ammonia in which one or more H
atoms have been replaced by organic groups (aliphatic or aromatic or a mixture of both).
• There are three classes of amines.
HN
HH
CH3
NH
H
CH3
NH
CH3
CH3
NCH3
CH3
ammonia primary amine
secondary amine
tertiary amine
Carboxylic Acids• Carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl functional group.
• The general formula for carboxylic acids is:– R represents an alkyl or an aryl group
• IUPAC names for a carboxylic acid are derived from the name of the parent hydrocarbon.
– The final -e is dropped from the name of the parent hydrocarbon
– The suffix -oic is added followed by the word acid.
• Many organic acids are called by their common (trivial) names which are derived from Greek or Latin.
COH
O
R1
COH
O
Carboxylic Acids
methanoic acid or formic acid
HC
OH
O
ethanoic acid or acetic acid
H3CC
OH
O
propanoic acid or propionic acid
CH2
COH
O
H3C
butanoic acid or butyric acid
CH2
COH
OH2C
H3C
Carboxylic Acids• Positions of substituents on carboxylic acid chains are
indicated by numeric prefixes as in other compounds
– Begin the counting scheme from the carboxyl group carbon atom.
• They are also often indicated by lower case Greek letters. = 1st C atom = 2nd C atom = 3rd C atom, etc.
Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids
• Dicarboxylic acids contain two carboxyl groups per molecule.
OH
C C
OHO
OOH
CCH2
COH
O O
OHC
CH2
CH2
COH
O
O
oxalic acid malonic acid succinic acid
Carboxylic Acids• Aromatic acids are usually called by their common
names.• Sometimes, they are named as derivatives of benzoic
acid which is considered to be the "parent" aromatic acid. OOH
OOH
Cl
OOH
CH3
O
OH
O
OH
benzoic acid p-chlorobenzoic acid
p-toluic acid phthalic acid
Some Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids
R1C
OC
R1
O O
R1C
Cl
O
R1C
OR2
O
R1C
NH2
O
acid anhydride acid chloride
ester amide
Alcohols and Phenols• The stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus an -ol suffix is the systematic name
for an alcohol. • A numeric prefix indicates the position of the -OH group in alcohols with
three or more C atoms. • Common names are the name of the appropriate alkyl group plus alcohol.
Ethers• Common names are used for most ethers. Aldehydes and Ketones
• Common names for aldehydes are derived from the name of the acid with the same number of C atoms.
• IUPAC names are derived from the parent hydrocarbon name by replacing -e with -al.
• The IUPAC name for a ketone is the characteristic stem for the parent hydrocarbon plus the suffix -one.
• A numeric prefix indicates the position of the carbonyl group in a chain or on a ring.
Amines• Amines are derivatives of ammonia in which one or more H atoms have been
replaced by organic groups (aliphatic or aromatic or a mixture of both). • There are three classes of amines.Carboxylic Acids• IUPAC names for a carboxylic acid are derived from the name of the parent
hydrocarbon.– The final -e is dropped from the name of the parent hydrocarbon– The suffix -oic is added followed by the word acid.
• Many organic acids are called by their common (trivial) names which are derived from Greek or Latin.
PriorityFunctional group Formula Prefix Suffix
1Cations e.g. Ammonium
–NH4
+-onio-ammonio-
-onium-ammonium
2 Carboxylic acids –COOH carboxy- -oic acid*
3
Carboxylic acid derivatives Esters Acyl chlorides Amides
–COOR–COCl–CONH2
R-oxycarbonyl-chloroformyl-carbamoyl-
-oyl chloride*-amide*
4Nitrites Isocyanides
–CN–NC
cyano-isocyano-
-nitrile*isocyanide
5Aldehydes Thioaldehydes
–CHO–CHS
formyl-thioformyl-
-al*-thial*
6Ketones Thioketones
>CO>CS
oxo-thiono-
-one-thione
7Alcohols Thiols
–OH–SH
hydroxy-sulfanyl-
-ol-thiol
8 Amines –NH2 amino- -amine
9Ethers Thioethers
–O––S–
-oxy--thio-
When compounds contain more than one functional group, the order of precedence determines which groups are named with prefix or suffix forms. The highest precedence group takes the suffix, with all others taking the prefix form. However, double and triple bonds only take suffix form (-en and -yn) and are used with other suffixes.
Isomerism• Isomers Isomers have identical composition but different structureshave identical composition but different structures• Two forms of isomerismTwo forms of isomerism
– Constitutional (or structural)Constitutional (or structural)– StereoisomerismStereoisomerism
• ConstitutionalConstitutional– Same empirical formula but different atom-to-atom Same empirical formula but different atom-to-atom
connectionsconnections• StereoisomerismStereoisomerism
– Same atom-to-atom connections but different arrangement in Same atom-to-atom connections but different arrangement in space.space.
• Geometric - Geometric - Geometric isomers can occur when there is a C=C double bond.
• Optical - Optical - Optical isomers are molecules with non-superimposable mirror images. Such molecules are called CHIRAL. Pairs of chiral molecules are enantiomers. Chiral molecules in solution can rotate the plane of plane polarized light.
Structural Isomers
Cis-2-buteneCis-2-butene
Stereoisomers: GeometricStereoisomers: Geometric
Geometric isomers can occur when there is a C=C double bond.
Trans-2-buteneTrans-2-butene
• Optical isomers are molecules with non-superimposable mirror images.
• Such molecules are called CHIRAL
• Pairs of chiral molecules are enantiomers.
• Chiral molecules in solution can rotate the plane of plane polarized light.
Stereoisomers: Optical
• Chirality generally occurs when a C atom has 4 different groups attached.
Lactic acid
Chirality: Handedness in Nature
These molecules are non-superimposable mirror These molecules are non-superimposable mirror images.images.
Sugars: Related to AlcoholsSugars: Related to Alcohols
• Sugars are carbohydrates, compounds with the Sugars are carbohydrates, compounds with the formula Cformula Cxx(H(H22O)O)yy..
What is the difference between a and b D-glucose?
O
H
HO
H
HO
HOHH
OH
OHCHO
OHH
HHO
OHH
OHH
CH2OH
O
H
HO
H
HO
OHOHH
H
OH
1
23
4 5
12
3
45
1
2
3
4
5
-D-glucose -D-glucose
Open chain form
H H
Glycosidic bonds: The anomeric hydroxyl group (axial) and a hydroxyl group of another sugar or some other compound can join together, splitting out water to form a glycosidic bond.
R-OH + HO-R' --> R-O-R' + H2O
Carbohydrates (also referred to as glycans) have the basic composition:
Aldoses (e.g., glucose) have an aldehyde at one end.
Ketoses (e.g., fructose) have a keto group, usually at C #2.
Monosaccharides - simple sugars, with multiple hydroxyl groups. Based on the number of carbons (e.g., 3, 4, 5, or 6) a monosaccharide is a triose, tetrose, pentose, or hexose, etc. Disaccharides - two monosaccharides covalently linked Oligosaccharides - a few monosaccharides covalently linked. Polysaccharides - polymers consisting of chains of monosaccharide or disaccharide units
Nomenclature for stereoisomers: D and L designations are based on the configuration about the single asymmetric carbon in glyceraldehyde.
For sugars with more than one chiral center, the D or L designation refers to the asymmetric carbon farthest from the aldehyde or keto group.
Most naturally occurring sugars are D isomers. D & L sugars are mirror images of one another. They have the same name. For example, D-glucose and L-glucose are shown at right.
Haworth projections represent the cyclic sugars as having essentially planar rings, with the OH at the anomeric C1 extending either:•below the ring (a) •above the ring (b).
Sucrose and RiboseSucrose and Ribose
O
CH2OH
CH2OHH
HOOH
H
H
O
H
HO
H
HO
H
OOHH
H
OH
-D-Glucose
Fructose
O
HOH
HHHH
HOOHO
HOH
HHHH
HOOH
Deoxyribose, Deoxyribose, the sugar in the sugar in the DNA the DNA backbone.backbone.
Sucrose, common table sugar, has a glycosidic bond linking the anomeric hydroxyls of glucose and fructose. Because the configuration at the anomeric carbon of glucose is (O points down from the ring), the linkage is designated a(12). The full name is -D-glucopyranosyl-(12)b-D- fructopyranose.
Fats and OilsFats and Oils
R = organic R = organic group with group with NONO C=C bondsC=C bondsCC1212 = Lauric = Lauric acidacidCC1616 = Palmitic = Palmitic acidacidCC1818 = Stearic = Stearic acid acid
R = organic R = organic group with group with NONO C=C bondsC=C bondsCC1212 = Lauric = Lauric acidacidCC1616 = Palmitic = Palmitic acidacidCC1818 = Stearic = Stearic acid acid
O
O
O
H2C
HC
H2C
CRO
CRO
CR
O
R = organic R = organic group with C=C group with C=C
bondsbondsCC1818 = oleic acid = oleic acid
R = organic R = organic group with C=C group with C=C
bondsbondsCC1818 = oleic acid = oleic acid
What is the What is the functional functional
groupgroup in a fat in a fat or oil?or oil?
What is the What is the functional functional
groupgroup in a fat in a fat or oil?or oil?
Fats and OilsO
O
O
H2C
HC
H2C
CRO
CRO
CR
O
Fats with C=C bonds are usually LIQUDS
Oleic acid: a monounsaturated fatty acid
C=C bond
Trans Fatty Acids
•Oleic acid is a mono–Oleic acid is a mono–unsaturated unsaturated cis-cis-fatty acidfatty acid•Trans fatty acids have Trans fatty acids have deleterious health effects. deleterious health effects. •Trans fatty acids raise plasma Trans fatty acids raise plasma LDL cholesterol and lower HDL LDL cholesterol and lower HDL levels.levels.
C=C bond
Alpha-Amino AcidsAlpha-Amino Acids
H
CH3C CO2
NH3
Chiral -carbon
Alanine
C
H
H2N C
O
OH
R
AcidAmine
Peptides and ProteinsPeptides and Proteins
H3NOŠ
O
HHOCH2H3NOŠ
O
CH3H
NOŠ
O
CH3H
H
H3N
O
HHOCH2
peptide bondSerineAlanine
+
Adding more peptide links ---> PROTEINAdding more peptide links ---> PROTEIN
– H2O
- -
-
PolymersPolymersPolymersPolymers
• Giant molecules made by joining many small Giant molecules made by joining many small molecules called molecules called monomersmonomers
• Average production is 150 kg per person annually in Average production is 150 kg per person annually in the U.S.the U.S.
Polymer ClassificationsPolymer Classifications
• ThermoplasticsThermoplastics (polyethylene) soften and flow (polyethylene) soften and flow when heatedwhen heated
• ThermosettingThermosetting plastics — soft initially but set to plastics — soft initially but set to solid when heated. Cannot be resoftened.solid when heated. Cannot be resoftened.
• Other classification: Other classification: plastics, fibers, elastomers, plastics, fibers, elastomers, coatings, adhesivescoatings, adhesives
National Liner is a premium cured-in-place pipe trenchless rehabilitation system designed to repair sanitary and stormwater pipelines ranging from to 120 in. in diameter. Made of non-woven, needled polyester felt and saturated with a thermosetting resin, the liner is inserted into an upstream manhole and expanded with a hydrostatic head of water to press the liner tightly against the interior of the host pipe. Once in place, the liner is heated to activate the resin system, causing the resin to cure, and form a new structural pipe within the host pipe.
National Envirotech GroupHouston,TXTel:800-547-1235Web:www.nationalliner.com
Polymer PreparationPolymer Preparation
• AdditionAddition polymers — directly adding polymers — directly adding monomer units togethermonomer units together
• CondensationCondensation polymers — combining polymers — combining monomer units and splitting out a monomer units and splitting out a small water (water)small water (water)
Types of PolyethyleneTypes of Polyethylene
Linear, high density Linear, high density PE (HDPE)PE (HDPE)
Branched, low Branched, low density PE, LDPEdensity PE, LDPE
Cross-linked PE, Cross-linked PE, CLPECLPE
Types of PolyethyleneTypes of Polyethylene
CH2CH
OH
CH2CH
OCCH3
CH2CH
n n n
polyvinyl alcohol polyvinyl acetate polystyrene
Polymers based on Substituted Ethylenes, CH2=CHX
O
Table 11.12: others are PVC, acrylonitrile, Table 11.12: others are PVC, acrylonitrile, polypropylene, polymethyl methacrylatepolypropylene, polymethyl methacrylate
Bubble Gum!Bubble Gum!A copolymerA copolymerBubble Gum!Bubble Gum!A copolymerA copolymer
Styrene + butadieneStyrene + butadiene
Condensation PolymersCondensation Polymers
HOC
O
COH
O
CO
COCH2CH2OO
+ n HOCH2CH2OH
terephthalic acid ethylene glycol
+ H2O
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a polyester
n
n
Polyamides: NylonPolyamides: Nylon
•Each monomer has 6 C atoms in its chain.Each monomer has 6 C atoms in its chain.•A polyamide link forms on elmination of HClA polyamide link forms on elmination of HCl•Result = nylon 66Result = nylon 66•Proteins are Proteins are polyamidespolyamides