ook eviews - idunn · semi-structured and solemn rite with a few elements such as flowers, songs or...

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BOOK REVIEWS

Curt Dahlgren and Göran Gustafsson 2006. Kring begravningar i nutid. Tre studier[Contemporary Funerals. Three Studies]. Lunds Universitet: Lund Studies in Sociol-ogy of Religion 6. 138 pages.

The study of the practices of death seems to be very fruitful these years. At least reflec-tions on taboo are superseded by studies of actual social practice. This book in partic-ular is affiliated with a larger field of research on the practices and rites of death inSweden based at Centre for Theology and Religious Studies, University of Lund.

The first study by Curt Dahlgren and Jan Hermanson examines the phenomenon ofspreading the ashes of deceased relatives. Followed by an introduction to the history ofcremation in Sweden, the article is primarily based on a collection of applications sentto the relevant authorities and ten interviews with relatives who made the arrangementsfor the following ceremony. In 2005, 73,8 percent of the deceased in Sweden were cre-mated and the vast majority of the urns were buried in special burial sites and cemeter-ies. Less than 1 percent, in fact less than 10 promille, of the ashes are spread over thesea or a lake, or over a private field. Here the sea is the most popular place expressingthe deceased special relation to the sea and/or symbolizing the eternal and omnipresent.The ceremonial practices are briefly described, leaving the impression of a private,semi-structured and solemn rite with a few elements such as flowers, songs or poems.Finally, the authors discuss the ceremonial practices as a rite of passage suggestingfurther qualitative research into the actual practices and the motives and experiences ofthe participants.

In the second study Anna Davidsson Bremborg focuses on the practices and thefunction of funeral feasts and commemoration ceremonies, following the main funeralin the Swedish Church. The article is based on reports from more than 2000 vicars, 200reports from other participants, and more than 1000 death announcements. Thereported practices vary in terms of number of participants and the course of events. Insome cases and some areas of Sweden a visitors’ book is central (the guests write mem-ories and greetings in it), in other cases are donations, special dishes, certain speechesor songs important features. Inspired by Gustafsson, Bremberg states that the functionof the commemoration feast is twofold: the reintegration of the bereaved into the socialgroup and an occasion for an exchange of social capital. Furthermore, inspired byDouglas J. Davies’ understanding of burial rites, and especially the function of the food

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as expressing a triumph of life, Bremborg states that she will pay a special attention tothe food. Unfortunately, the material is not so rich on this subject, but the articlesconveys many other details concerning the localities, the negotiation of the course ofevents by the participants, the role of the vicars, the prevalence of prayers and readingof condolences, the gift exchange and some examples of alternative ceremonies.

Göran Gustafsson presents in the third article a narrow problem concerning the per-sonal relation between the acting vicar and the deceased in funerals in the SwedishChurch. The data refers to questionnaires sent to vicars with questions about the natureof the vicars’ direct and indirect contact and knowledge about the people they bury. Itturns out that the vicar has some kind of knowledge about the deceased or his or herclosest family in 60 percent of the cases. Gustafsson examines the data for variationscomparing city parishes with parishes in the country side, big parishes with small par-ishes, and different parameters concerning the vicars: the sex, age and the duration ofservice in the parish concerned. Even narrower is the following analysis of the socialbackground, age and church interest of the deceased with the data on the personal rela-tion to the vicar. The author reiterates that the findings do not surprise him. This maybe considered as criteria of success, and self-evident results can be an inspiration to alively and thorough discussion - or even a cultural critique. This is obviously not theintention. However, the article is concluded by a short reflection on the nature of theSwedish Church as an institution and the funeral practice as a living tradition.

In the preface the editors present the three studies as too short for being publishedas monographs and too long for journal articles. Genre is serious, but length is not all.Progressively, the articles are suffering from a predictable and meagre analysis, butthey are valuable in terms of many statistical details and illustrative examples from theSwedish funeral tradition.

Cecilie Rubow, Assistant Professor. Department of Anthropology,University of Copenhagen, Denmark

Siv Ellen Kraft and Richard Natvig (eds.) 2006. Metode i religionsvitenskap [Methodsin religious studies]. Oslo: Pax Forlag. 275 pages.

A currently very active group of Norwegian scholars of religion has contributed to amuch-needed and recommendable book on methods in religious studies. The book isprimarily meant for students who will write their master’s dissertation, and it offers apresentation and discussion of almost all the relevant methods.

The first two well-written chapters by Clemens Cavallin and Michael Stausbergfunction as short introductions to the theory of science. Both authors give a survey ofdifferent theoretical positions and the relevant literature; Cavallin writes on the rela-tionship between theory and method, and Stausberg treats the important issue of com-parison. As is the case with the rest of the chapters, even when the authors treat difficultsubjects, they do not forget that this book is a textbook -- they explain what is hard tounderstand, and they remember to give good advice.

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Obviously, other fields within the humanities or social sciences share some of themethods with the study of religion. Students of religion are therefore used to readingabout these methods, but with examples that originate from these other fields. It is apleasure for once to read a book where all the cases are taken from the field of religion.The chapters on methods include analyses of discourse (Torjer A. Olsen), discussionof life stories or the Internet as sources (Lisbeth Mikaelsson and Morten ThomsenHøjsgaard), work at archives (Gina Dahl), philology and ancient texts (Einar Thomas-sen and Ingvild Sælid Gilhus), analyses of pictures (Hege Irene Markussen and JørgenPodemann Sørensen), fieldwork (Richard Johan Natvig and Bjørn Ola Tafjord), inter-view and observation (Trude A. Fonneland), and critical and ethical perspectives (SivEllen Kraft). All the authors, however, recognize the plurality of methods, and manychapters include a discussion of several methods.

Today, many students are reluctant to learn an exotic language, and for a long timethere has been a demand for Thomassen’s written explanation of all the advantages ofphilology in the history of religions. We could also do with more examples like theones from Podemann Sørensen and Gilhus. Gilhus examines a Gnostic text from the4th century and shows in an ideal way how different methods and questions applied tothe same text give different answers. The same is the case with Marcussen’s contribu-tion; she interprets one example, a Turkish poster with Imam Ali, using both icono-graphical and fieldwork methods and illustrates how a combination of methodsdeepens the interpretation.

The editors have defined «methods» rather widely. As Højsgaard rightly points out,even if the Internet itself is a new tool in the study of religion, then most of the meth-odological questions to the sources are the good old ones. Together with the contribu-tions by Mikaelsson on the use of life stories as sources and by Dahl on archival stu-dies, these three chapters show how different kinds of sources with a plethora of newdetails can be most valuable in the study of religion, and as such they should certainlybe welcomed in this book.

Three of the chapters deal with fieldwork and related methods. Fonneland givessome commonsensical advice on interviewing and observation. This is a huge subject,and even if Fonneland, of course, is not able to cover all of it on those few pages, shetreats many of the important subjects. Natvig has several interesting observations inrelation to fieldwork and the study of religion. He explains that what has shaped thehistorian of religions is the ability to understand a religious text using philologicalmethods. Therefore, many colleagues see fieldwork as a supplement to an analysis ofa religious text; they see fieldwork as an anthropological method only, not as a primarymethod within the history of religions. Natvig, however, claims that the study of reli-gion should be open to all those methods, which can help us to understand religion andreligious life better. After all, students of religion analyse religion in its own right, andthis cannot always be said about anthropologists. Tafjord’s chapter includes bothreflections on interviewing and doing fieldwork, using his own experiences to exem-plify the differences between the insider view and the outsider view. He is furthermorethe author who comments mostly on the important relationship between informant andresearcher, stressing that both influence each other.

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Siv Ellen Kraft ends the book with a fine and very suitable chapter on critical andethical perspectives. With reference to Bruce Lincoln and Russell T. McCutcheon sheconvincingly criticizes the phenomenology of religion. In the second half of thechapter she discusses central ethical problems in qualitative studies, arguing for theimportance of an empathic approach. Students will encounter much food for thoughtby reading this chapter before engaging in their own projects.

Metode i religionsvitenskap can never be the only book in a class on theory andmethods in the study of religion. As a sociologist of religion, I first and foremost missa chapter on quantitative and statistical methods. However, it constitutes a fine supple-ment to the more heavy theoretical material. Students from the other Scandinaviancountries will realise that they are actually able to read Norwegian – even the threechapters in the «Landsmaal» are easily comprehendible. Furthermore, the chaptershave a pleasant length, and they all begin with a short abstract. The book is certainlyrecommended.

Margit Warburg, Professor. Department of Cross-Cultural and Regional Studies,University of Copenhagen, Denmark

Kate Østergaard 2006. Danske Verdensreligioner Islam [Danish World Religions.Islam]. København: Gyldendal. 284 pages.

The most important battle in the war for Muslim minds during the next decade will be fought not in Palestine or Iraq but in these c’ommunities of believers on the outskirts of London, Paris and other European cities, where Islam is already a growing part of the West (Kepel 2004:8).

Since the Iranian revolution of 1978–79, the matter of Islam and its purported chal-lenge to the West has become an enduring international preoccupation. Further fuelingthis concern has been the recent rapid growth of Muslim communities in Europe,which currently number between fifteen to twenty million persons. This can be com-pared to Europe’s 1950 figure of eight hundred thousand Muslims. On averagebetween 3,5 and 4.0 percent of the population of the European countries (EU-25) todayconsists of Muslims. This figure is also roughly true for Denmark with its close to200.000 ethnic Muslims.

As a result of this and the general political development in the world since particu-larly the late 1980s – the victory of the Talibans in Afghanistan, the fall of the SovietUnion, the publication of Samuel Huntington’s Clash of Civilisations, the terror attacksin the USA 2001 and the following «war on terrorism», the terror attacks in Bali,Madrid and London, the murder of Dutch film maker Theo van Gogh, to name onlysome of the more important events – Islam and Muslims have been the focus of muchdebate, both scientific and popular. That most of the latter, at least from a Muslim pointof view, has been ill informed, slanted and negative seems very clear. But also more

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serious writers, for example Oriana Fallaci, Bernard Lewis, Daniel Pipes and BatYe’or, have described disaster scenarios for Europe, like, for example, Daniel Pipes’prediction that Europe will be «majority Muslim» by the end of the 21st century, if notsooner, and Bat Ye’or’s claim that the Judeo-Christian Europe we have all come toknow will disappear before our eyes and be superseded by what she has dubbed «Eura-bia».

It is therefore not strange that many European Muslims agree with the words ofTariq Modood that «an anti-Muslim wind is blowing across the European continent».One aspect of this «wind» or attitude is the perception of the European majorities thatthe Muslim population makes politically exceptional, culturally unreasonable and/ortheologically alien demands upon European states and that Islam is incompatible withdemocracy, tender equality, etc. The notions that the Muslim immigrant is a problem-atic—if not dangerous—participant in Western social and political life and that Islamrepresents a «direct challenge» to Western norms and values have, over the last fewdecades, strongly influenced political discourse and popular consciousness in Europe.

This «wind» has been blowing especially strongly in Denmark since the late 1990s,and particularly since the electoral success of the Dansk Folkeparti (DFP) and its xeno-phobic leader Pia Kjærsgaard in 2001. Her main message has been that the foreigners(de fremmede) – mainly meaning people with Muslim background – should eitherbecome Danish completely or leave the country; this message has had a strong appealto the Danish voters. In the election of 2001 DFP received 12.1 percent of the vote andin 2005 13.2 percent. Given the parliamentary situation in Denmark, DFP have beenable to gain a far larger political power than their sheer percentage would suggest, suc-ceeding to enforce a large amount of xenophobic and discriminatory legislation against«de fremmede».

Given this background it was with great expectations and anticipations I read a newfairly substantial Danish textbook for the upper secondary level on Islam: Kate Øster-gaard Danske Verdensreligioner - Islam [Danish World Religions. Islam].1 Let me startwith the bottom line: this is a very good, and much needed, book. As a Swede, one ofmy first thoughts after having finished the book was: «I wish we had a book like thisin Swedish about the situation of Islam and Muslims in Sweden».

That being said let me give a summary of the book itself. It can be said to fall in twoparts, the first consisting of chapters 1 - 4 which gives the reader general methodolog-ical, theoretical, conceptual and historical tools and background for an understandingof the second part consisting of the more thematic chapters 5 - 14.

The information in each chapter is built on, on the one hand, textual sources and,on the other, material acquired by the author through interviews and fieldwork. She hasinterviewed Muslims with a broad spectrum of relations to and opinions about Islamand visited a broad spectrum of Islamic/Muslim organisations and institutions. In thisway she can in each chapter let a variety of voices, from traditional texts as well as fromliving individuals representing different Islamic views and opinions, illustrate the topic

1 Parlementaire Commissie Onderzoek Integratiebeleid (PCOI) 2004. Eindrapport Onderzoek Integratiebeleid [Final Report Inquiry Integration Policy]. Den Haag: Sdu.

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under discussion. In this way she achieves what is one of the main strengths of thebook, a debunking of the common idea of Islam as a monolithic entity and letting themultifaceted reality of Islam and Muslims come to the fore.

In chapter one the reader is given her general theoretical model (borrowed from theSwedish Islamologist Jan Hjärpe) as well as a description and discussion of Øster-gaard’s empirical methods. Already here she makes it very clear that Islam can bemany things, that there are many ways of being Muslim as well as of describing andtalking about Islam. Given the intended audience of this book, the discussion is bothvery good and much needed. In the second chapter the reader obtains the global histor-ical background of Islam, including discussions of the Quran, Muhammad, the lawschools (madhahib), the main theological varieties (or sub-divisions) and schools (orhermeneutical attitudes) and some of the major questions that separate them. Again,the multifaceted rather than the monolithic nature of Islam is clearly brought forward.

The third chapter describes the various shapes and forms Islam has taken whenreplanted in Denmark as well as how Islam and Muslims have organized and institu-tionalized themselves there. Again the plurality and variation of the Danish Islamiclandscape is made clear. The position of Muslims as minorities in Denmark isdescribed and discussed in the fourth chapter. The discussion includes a general modelfor integration as well as, with a take-off in the Orientalism debate, a general descrip-tion of the «attitudinal climate» vis-à-vis Muslims in Denmark. The phenomena ofDiaspora, religious change and the relations between generations are also touchedupon.

In the fifth chapter, the first in the thematic part of the book, Islam on the Internet,or Cyberislam is dealt with. Various Islamic home pages are discussed as well as thephenomenon of fatwa-on line. Chapter six deals with the, in Scandinavian media atleast, very much discussed topic of «honour and shame», including various cases of«honour crimes», mainly directed against young women.

In chapter seven the institutionalization process of Islam and Muslims in Denmarkis in focus. Here the reader gets a description and discussion of the various Islamicinstitutions, mosques, burial grounds, etc. as well as the relationships among variousIslamic organizations. Again the variegated nature of Islam is brought forth. The oldestIslamic organization in Denmark, the Ahmadiyya, which has the only purposely builtmosque in Denmark, is treated in chapter seven. The chapter also discusses the contro-versial position of Ahmadiyya within the Islamic world.

Chapter nine deals with the ritual life of a practicing Muslim, including the so-called five pillars, and how life as a practicing Muslim can be lived in the Danish con-text. Not the least from the interview material it becomes clear that this can be experi-enced in many different ways by different Danish Muslims. Sufism, and especiallySufism in Denmark, is the focus in chapter ten. That Islam is not only a religion forimmigrants are made clear in chapter eleven, which discusses convert-Islam. Thechapter begins with a description of one of the more frequently used models for con-version (Rambo 1993) followed by discussions of reasons and causes for Danes toconvert to Islam. Long excerpts from her interview material nicely illustrate the dis-cussions with Danish converts. Chapter twelve tackles another of the major areas of

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discussion and contention regarding Islam in western media: the relations between thesexes. Beside showing, not the least through the interview material, that there are manyviews within Islam about the place and role of women in the world, and many ways ofbeing a Muslim woman, it discusses the phenomena of the veil, polygamy and whetheror not, and under what circumstances, women can function as imams.

In chapter thirteen the author summarizes some of the discussions of whether or notwe can expect the development of a specific version of Islam that can be integrated inEurope without conflict and discrimination, a so called Euro-Islam, and what such anIslam would look like. Here Tariq Ramadan and a few high profile Danish Muslims areused as the main illustrations. In the fourteenth and final chapter the major contributionof Denmark to the global Islamic discussion, the publication of the so called Muham-mad caricatures by Jyllands-Posten in September 2005, is discussed, including howtheir publication was received and reacted upon by Muslims in Denmark as well as inthe rest of the world.

As a general introduction to Islam in Denmark for upper secondary level students,the book is very ambitious and on a high academic level. I don’t think I’ve ever seensuch a comprehensive and good theoretical, methodological and conceptual discussionin a textbook for this level. Even if it is written as a textbook in religious education, Iwould think that, due to its overall breadth, it could also be used in other areas, forexample in history and political science. Due to its wealth of information from diffe-rent sources and the way the material is presented, the book will also be useable inmany different ways in a classroom situation. Besides as a traditional textbook, theextensive excerpts from traditional texts and interviews make a good base for groupwork and discussion. The many Internet references open up for the students to do theirown research and the information about Islamic/Muslim institutions and organizationscan be a great help for organizing excursions and field trips with the students.

In sum: it is a very welcome book and a book which, rightly used, might encouragethe next generation Danes to have a much more nuanced, variegated and multifacetedpicture of Islam and Muslims than the one presently marketed and prevailing in Den-mark. It is a book that has the possibility to be an important brick in the wall for thoseinvolved in trying to build a «peaceful, integrated, multicultural and multireligious»Denmark.

Åke Sander, Senior Associate Professor. Department of religious studies,Göteborg University, Sweden

Ole Riis 2006. Religionssociologiske rids. Forelesninger og arbejdspapirer om religi-onssociologi fra 2005 [Sketches in the sociology of religion. Lectures and workingpapers on the sociology of religion from 2005]. Skriftserien nr. 126. Kristiansand: Høg-skolen i Agder. 158 pages.

In the book abstract the chapters are presented as «expanded and corrected manuscriptsfor a series of lectures» which are not to be read as a monograph. After a short intro-

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duction by Pål Repstad we encounter five articles that are well worth reading by thoseinterested in the sociology of religion. The themes of the articles are 1) a vision for thesociology of religion, 2) the sociology of religious emotions, 3) challenges for thechurch in a late modern society (Denmark), 4) religious pluralism in the Nordic coun-tries, and 5) new methods for the sociological analysis of religion.

«A vision for the sociology of religion» starts out by pointing to the new importanceof religion in today’s international community. Then a program for the sociology ofreligion is presented. Riis emphasizes that such a program has to build upon the ideaof the social context, and of religion as a more or less integrated part of the widersociety in which it is situated. It follows that religious pluralism as well as irreligionmust be included in this program. He also discusses the relations between the sociologyof religion and other academic subjects which have religion as their field of study.

Riis then gives an overview of the methodological and theoretical challenges forsuch a program. He is strongly in favour of methodological pluralism, the combinationof methods and comparative studies at the macro level. The pluralist leaning also goesfor sociological theories that may be applied to the study of religion, although a pref-erence for middle-range theories may be discerned. His views are well argued.

«The sociology of religious emotions» is the longest of Riis’ articles in the book. Ittakes as its point of departure that social context involves emotions, and cites Geertz’definition of a religion in which one of the key elements is «powerful, pervasive andlong-lasting moods and motivations in men». He goes on to give a useful overview ofthe sociology of emotions, which ends up with the creation of a conceptual framework.This discussion is perhaps the most original part of the book. On this general concep-tual basis Riis goes on to compare two perspectives in the discourse of religious emo-tions. The chapter ends by a long discussion of empirical studies of religious emotions,from Durkheim and Simmel to the present.

«A field theoretical analysis of the challenges for the church in a late modernNordic society: Denmark» is a discussion of problems and possibilities for the churchin the new social context of our time. It is an application of the ideas of Bourdieu andRemy & Voyes, and begins by a clarification of the concept of the church as a socialfield. Then a description of the changes in the wider social context for the last 200 yearsfollows. On this basis Riis outlines the possibilities for reaction and action from theDanish church. The internal interest positions among the functionaries and themembers are analyzed and the ensuing compromises are spelled out.

«Religious pluralism in the Nordic countries» presents results from a Nordicproject about membership, values and participation in the religious sphere. The fin-dings are mainly from an extensive survey of the various populations. Data on howimportant religion is for people in different social groups, their views on questionsabout accepting other religions than their own, their expectations with respect to thenational churches’ social role and the like are presented. The chapter ends with anenlightening discussion of the challenges which religious pluralism represents in coun-tries like the Nordic.

«New methods for analysis in the sociology of religion» takes the so-called «Meth-odenstreit» as its point of departure. Here Riis maintains that a new consensus is devel-

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oping in the social sciences, and he dismisses the dichotomies that have haunted muchof our textbooks on method. He also discusses aspects of causal analysis and variableanalysis in a new light. Riis recommends combinations of methods and comparativecase studies in sociological studies of religious phenomena, and it easy to agree withhim on this point. When he predicts that the division between qualitative and quantita-tive approaches will disappear in the near future, however, it is more difficult to join inhis optimism. The international textbook company Sage, for example, continues toproduce new and ever more specialized books in its two methods series, the qualitativeand the quantitative. This opposition is still an important element in the academicsociological context.

Willy Martinussen, Professor. Faculty of Social Sciences and Technology Management,Norwegian University of science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway

Jan-Olav Henriksen and Pål Repstad 2005. Tro i Sør. Sosiologiske og teologiske blikkpå sørlandsk religion [Belief in the South. Sociological and Theologian views on reli-gion of Southern Norway]. Bergen: Fagboklaget. 168 pages.

Pål Repstad og Jan-Olav Henriksen (eds.) 2005. Mykere kristendom? Sørlandsreligioni endring [More flexible Christianity? Transformation of religion in South Norway].Bergen: Fagboklaget. 289 pages.

Recent years have seen increasing scholarly focus being given to the mapping and ana-lysing of contemporary religion based on empirical studies – particularly in westerncountries. To mention a few, such studies have taken place in cities like Aarhus, Berlin,Leipzig, Birmingham, Rome, Boston and several other major cities in the EU andNorth America and now also in the southern part of Norway – more specifically in theregion Sørlandet. Here a group of scholars from primarily theology and the humanitieshave contributed to the research project Gud på Sørlandet – mer venn og mindre all-mektig? (God in South Norway – more friend, less all-mighty?) with the aim of pre-senting one single image of religion as it exists in post-millennium Norway. So far, thiseffort has resulted in two publications: Tro i Sør (Belief in South Norway) and Mykerekristendom? Sørlandsreligion i endring (More flexible Christianity? Transformation ofreligion in South Norway). Whereas the first is a theological and sociological analysisbased on 26 interviews, of how people in the region Sørlandet believe, the second is ananthology by scholars participating in the research project, including contributions onvarious topics concerning contemporary religion.

Like similar studies in other regions or countries, all contributions to these booksare based on empirical studies – in this case primarily qualitative. Unlike other studies,however, these have chosen only to focus on Christian life, not including immigrantreligions or new religions etc. – despite the fact that both books in their titles claim todeal with religion and belief in a general sense. Reading through Tro i Sør and Mykerekristendom?, however, the need to include studies of other religions is felt to be less

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imperative. First of all, Christianity is by far the dominant religion in the area – per-centage of citizens who are members of or active in Christian denominations being sig-nificantly higher than in other neighbouring regions or even countries as such (seeMykere kristendom?, p. 27–32). What is more important, though, is that mapping is notthe focus of these studies. There are no intentions of clarifying the number of differentdenominations present in the area or finding precise demographic data on those whoattend different religious activities. Focus is instead on the transformation of religionand, in particular, on religious life as it exists under the conditions provided by the con-temporary society. Viewed in this perspective, the inclusion of studies of other religi-ons could be interesting, but does not seem to be a necessity.

As mentioned, Tro i Sør is based on 26 in-depth interviews primarily conducted bythe two scholars Jan-Olav Henriksen, professor in systematic theology and philosophyof religion, and Pål Repstad, professor in sociology of religion. Apart from a briefintroduction to the 26 people interviewed, data or rather statements given in these inter-views are used throughout the book as a launch-pad for discussing transformation inbelief in Sørlandet, focusing on religious and social heritage, concept of God and Jesusand participation in a given Christian community. Although several theories areincluded to shed light on the empirical data at hand, the basic theoretical frameworkused to analyse the transformation is the one presented by Linda Woodhead and PaulHeelas in their Religion in Modern Times. Here they distinguish between a variety ofdifferent types of religions, such as religion of difference, religion and humanity andspiritualities of life (Oxford, Blackwell, 2000). The same applies to Mykere kristen-dom?, which is also edited by the scholars Jan-Olav Henriksen and Pål Repstad, eventhough the Woodhead and Heelas’ religion typologies are not referred to in all thechapters in the anthology. In his introduction and, particularly, in his final reflectionsin the epilogue of the book, Pål Repstad refers to and responds to Woodhead andHeelas’ theory. Not only seems this decision wise since the categories introduced byWoodhead and Heelas appear to be very applicable to the different denominations pre-sented in the different studies, it also seems interesting since several of the studies pre-sented in Mykere kristendom? add valuable nuances to Woodhead and Heelas’ theory.It would have been interesting if the books had been written in English as they wouldthus have been available to an even wider audience. Despite the fact that the materialis regional, the academic perspective is international, which the editors also emphasisein the preface to Mykere kristendom? It is therefore to be hoped that, in the near future,at least some of the articles or summaries of the analyses from the research project willbe presented in international journals.

Apart from the above-mentioned merits of the books, it is also important to mentionthat the aim of the editors and writers is to make the presentations approachable to awider audience. Tro i Sør and Mykere Kristendom? must be appreciated for being wellwritten, with a distinct pedagogical sense for presentation without compromising theacademic content. Special attention should be given to the project presentations in bothbooks, which are of such a quality that they could be of great benefit, as brief introduc-tions to qualitative methodology, to the vast number of newcomers to the field of soci-ology of religion.

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Despite the many qualities of these books, the final theological reflections in Tro iSør might be a fly in the ointment to several readers – including, in particular, scholarsor students from studies of comparative religion. The writers here discuss the challen-ges which, in their view, confront Christian denominations today as well as in thefuture. From being a thorough study of transformation in belief in current times, thistheological closing tends to give the impression that the aim of the study has been tobenefit or aid Christianity in its losing influence. Apart from that, both publications areundoubtedly significant contributions to the field of contemporary religion. They bothsupport theories on religion in late modern society but, more importantly, add to theseinteresting aspects and nuances. These books are highly recommendable to both schol-ars and people in general interested in religion in contemporary society.

René Dybdal Pedersen, PhD fellow. Department of the Study of Religion,University of Aarhus, Denmark

Garbi Schmidt 2004: Islam in Urban America. Sunni Muslims in Chicago. Philadel-phia: Temple University Press. 256 pages.

Islam in Urban America is based on field studies among Sunni Muslims in Chicago inthe mid- to late 1990s. It is written by Danish Garbi Schmidt, based on her PhD thesis.In that regard, it constitutes part of the growing number of such theses analyzingMuslims in the West. Yet, this study differs somewhat from the ones we have witnessedin the Nordic countries often conducted by native non-Muslims studying Islam in theirrespective countries, since Schmidt is a Danish woman who studied Islam in anotherWestern context, in which she was a foreigner. Her status as a foreigner provided herwith an outsider view both on the Muslim community and on the American society.

Schmidt opened by posing two questions: First, can Islam be considered an «Amer-ican» religion or is it a temporary phenomenon linked to impermanent immigrant resi-dents? Second, can Muslims in America be considered «a unified community» consid-ering that it encompasses more than sixty ethnic groups from all over the world? (page1–2) She began by giving an overview of the history of Muslims in Chicago before sheanalyzed different age groups of Muslims, children, students and finally, adults. Here,she examined the religious practices, the teaching, the ideology of various Muslimorganizations and student groups, as well as paramosques.

Islam is not new to America, as the first Muslim immigrants from the Middle Eastand Asia came in the late nineteenth century. In the early twentieth century, African-American Muslims organized groups in Chicago, although Schmidt did not analyzethis vein of American Islam, as she limited her focus to Sunni Muslims of immigrantdescent. The first Muslim immigrant settlement in Chicago also dates to the earlytwentieth century. A new flow of immigrants, especially from Palestine, followedWorld War II. After 1965, when the national-origin quota system was abolished in theU. S., there was a drastic increase in professionals and skilled workers from South Asiaand the Middle East. A considerable number pursued degrees at universities as engi-

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neers and doctors and then decided to stay. Thus, Muslims in Chicago constitutes adiverse group of people of different religious, ethnic and national origins.

In her study of Muslim children, Schmidt conducted field study of Muslimweekend schools, Muslim full time schools, and hafiz schools where students learn tomemorize the Qur’an, as well as an after school program in one of Chicago’s inner cityneighborhoods. In her analysis, she managed to tease out the inherent conflicts thatexisted between religion, social class, ethnicity, and generation. For example, manyMuslim parents had a strong focus on religion. Yet, they also had a sometimes evenstronger focus on academic and social achievements. Whereas they said they sent theirchildren to Muslim schools to provide a safe environment away from violence and/orthe influence of American culture, they also stressed that their children’s educationshould provide access to another part of American society, namely prestigious univer-sities. Schmidt also found social class division between the suburban middle classMuslims and the inner city less well-to-do Muslims, which led the former to reject thelatter. In addition, many Muslim parents would emphasize ethnicity by sending theirchildren to Sunday schools where teachers and staff shared their ethnic background.Finally, Schmidt pointed out that the younger generation did not necessarily accept theversion of Islam presented by teachers and parents. Whereas the full time Muslimschools promoted segregation from American society, Schmidt found that other insti-tutions promoted social activism and tried to offer solutions to violence, abuse andethnic fragmentation. In spite of the shared idea of the umma, the global community ofbelievers, there were several factors that divided Muslims in Chicago.

Chapter four calls attention to different ways in which American society affectMuslim educational institutions and students. There were two Muslim colleges in Chi-cago, which attempted to adapt to the American context by offering «bachelordegrees,» hiring «professors,» and so forth. Their survival was dependent upon theirdelivery of academic programs recognized by the larger society, and as a result, therewas a conflict between survival and ideology. Schmidt found that both colleges largelylacked support from the Muslim community, as parents were more eager to send theirchildren to prestigious schools. This left both colleges dependent upon support fromnon-Muslim institutions and individuals in order to survive. The Muslim Students’Associations (MSA) have chapters on many American university and college cam-puses, and Schmidt studied several chapters on various campuses in Chicago. Shefound that the creation of Muslim space within college campuses, the regular meetings,and the sharing of a particular language helped bond the community, as did the rituals,dress codes, and the propagation of ideas (p. 104–105). Nevertheless, the discussionswithin MSA tended to focus on gender roles and science, which also showed how theAmerican context affected their focus and religious interpretations. The Muslim stu-dents Schmidt interviewed tended to reject the ethnic identity upheld by their parentsand opt for an ideal transethnic Muslim-American identity. She concluded thatalthough ethnic diversity possibly would be minimized in the new generations ofyoung American born Muslims, new conflicts related to religious interpretations werelikely to appear.

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: Book reviews

In chapter five, Schmidt described the religious efforts of first-generation Muslimimmigrants, which she believed have had a profound impact on the Muslim-Americancommunity. She traced the role of different Muslim institutions that are particular tothe American context, such as paramosques, and the conflicts that existed between dif-ferent interpretations of Islam, especially between Sufism and its opponents. Otherinstitutions were the «professional Muslims,» who lacked theological training butgained authority because of their upper-middle social class status and devotion toIslam. Schmidt also described the activities of four mosques, all colored by the ethnicbackground of their members, and she also focused on the role that women’s groupshad for immigrant Muslim women. In many ways, all of these Muslim institutions wereinfluenced by the context in which they existed. Their institutional structures and titleswere familiar to American society, and they used modern technological tools to spreadtheir message. Nevertheless, there was a profound impact of ethnic fragmentationwithin the Muslim American community, and religious authority was deeply affectedby social class. The Muslim institutions were dominated by men, and therefore, manyMuslim-American women attempted to carve out a space where they defined theIslamic interpretations and authority for themselves.

Schmidt concluded by answering the two questions she presented in the introduc-tion. As Islam has adapted to the United States and developed within this context, herargument is that Islam has become an American religion. Even if the sacred texts andthe basic dogmas have not changed, the understanding and practice of Islam have beenaffected by American society. The main challenge was that ethnic fragmentation couldthreaten the existence of a unified Muslim-American community, a trend that wouldnot necessarily diminish as new generations entered the arena. However, Islam is inAmerica to stay.

As a study of religion and the religious aspect of immigrant communities, Schmidthas conducted a thorough study. She collected an impressive amount of data from par-ticipant observation in several institutions, more than eighty interviews with partici-pants, as well as interviews with Muslim leaders in Chicago. Her book provides awealth of information on Muslim institutions and organizations in Chicago. Shemanages exceptionally well to link her knowledge of different Islamic groups andinterpretations with an analysis of Muslim institutions, social class, gender and gener-ation. Her reflections are thoughtful and bring the reader to a new level of understan-ding. In addition, this is a well written book with lively descriptions of the environmentand the fieldwork.

If I should present any minor comments, and they are minor, it would be that heranalysis would have benefited from linking her finding to other studies of immigrantreligions that were conducted in the United States before this book came out, such asthe work of Stephen R. Warner and Judith G. Wittner (1998) and Helen Rose Ebaughand Janet Saltzman Chafetz (2000, 2002). This would have placed Schmidt’s analysisof Muslim institutional development within a larger frame of similar developmentswithin other immigrant religious communities in the U. S. Also, since Schmidt referredto literature by using end-notes, a list of literature at the end would have been a helpfultool for the reader. Nevertheless, these are minor comments, and Schmidt’s analysis of

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Islam in Chicago is a must for anyone studying immigrant religious communities in aWestern context.

Inger Furseth. Research Associate/Professor,KIFO Centre for Church Research, Norway

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Warburg, Margit and Brian Jacobsen (eds) 2007. Tørre Tal om Troen. Religionsdemografi i det 21. århundrede [Dry numbers on faith. Demography of Religion in the 21th century]. Højb-jerg: Forlaget Univers.

Temenos 2005. Vol 41 (1 and 2).

ook eviews - idunn · semi-structured and solemn rite with a few elements such as flowers, songs or...

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