Ogbu/Simons: Ogbu/Simons: Voluntary and Voluntary and Involuntary Involuntary MinoritiesMinorities

Ogbu Theory Educational Value:Ogbu Theory Educational Value:

1. It provides educators w/ understanding of 1. It provides educators w/ understanding of sociocultural dynamics affecting minority sociocultural dynamics affecting minority children’s school performance, between children’s school performance, between involuntary and voluntary minority groups;involuntary and voluntary minority groups;

2. 2. It indicates the central issues It indicates the central issues responsible for involuntary minority responsible for involuntary minority students school failure: mistrust, students school failure: mistrust, oppositional identity, and peer pressure oppositional identity, and peer pressure not to act white;not to act white;

3.3. It explains—building trust—why types of It explains—building trust—why types of instruction succeed with involuntary instruction succeed with involuntary minorities while other types fail.minorities while other types fail.

4.4. It provides criteria for evaluating the It provides criteria for evaluating the potential for educational success;potential for educational success;

5.5. It suggests instructional strategies to It suggests instructional strategies to deal with mistrust, oppositional deal with mistrust, oppositional identity, and peer pressure not to act identity, and peer pressure not to act white. white.

SINCE OUT-OF-SCHOOL FORCES SINCE OUT-OF-SCHOOL FORCES ARE SO STRONG, HOW MUCH ARE SO STRONG, HOW MUCH CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED IN CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED IN SCHOOL WITHOUT CHANGING SCHOOL WITHOUT CHANGING COMMUNITY BELIEFS AND COMMUNITY BELIEFS AND

ATTITUDES?ATTITUDES?

It requires enlisting the It requires enlisting the support of parents and the support of parents and the community by earning their community by earning their

trust.trust.

Classification of minorities into voluntary and Classification of minorities into voluntary and involuntary determined by:involuntary determined by:

1.1. The nature of white American involvement The nature of white American involvement w/ their becoming minorities;w/ their becoming minorities;

2.2. The reasons they came or were brought to The reasons they came or were brought to the United States.the United States.

VoluntaryVoluntary:: Refugees, migrant/Guest Refugees, migrant/Guest Workers, Undocumented Workers, and Workers, Undocumented Workers, and Binationals.Binationals.

Involuntary:Involuntary: (nonimmigrant) people who (nonimmigrant) people who have been conquered,, colonized, or have been conquered,, colonized, or enslaved. In U.S. American Indians, Alaska enslaved. In U.S. American Indians, Alaska Natives, First nation people—original owners Natives, First nation people—original owners of the land, who were conquered; Mexican of the land, who were conquered; Mexican Americans in the Southwest; Native Americans in the Southwest; Native Hawaiians; Puerto Ricans and African Hawaiians; Puerto Ricans and African Americans.Americans.

Children of immigrant minorities are Children of immigrant minorities are voluntary minorities like their foreign-voluntary minorities like their foreign-born parents, ex. 2nd, 3rd, 4th born parents, ex. 2nd, 3rd, 4th generation U.S. born Chinese.generation U.S. born Chinese.

It is a group’s history—how and why a It is a group’s history—how and why a group became a minority and the role of group became a minority and the role of the dominant group in society—that the dominant group in society—that determines its voluntary or involuntary determines its voluntary or involuntary status rather than its race and ethnicity.status rather than its race and ethnicity.

The theory provides a framework to The theory provides a framework to understand the beliefs and understand the beliefs and

behaviors of minority’s member behaviors of minority’s member (including students) who follows (including students) who follows the dominant patterns of their the dominant patterns of their

groups.groups.

Voluntary minorities have a positive dual Voluntary minorities have a positive dual frame of reference, at least during the first frame of reference, at least during the first generation: Their situation in the U.S. and generation: Their situation in the U.S. and “back home”—place of origin. They see “back home”—place of origin. They see more opportunity for success in U.S. than more opportunity for success in U.S. than back home. As a result they are willing to back home. As a result they are willing to accommodate and to accept less than equal accommodate and to accept less than equal treatment in order to improve their chances treatment in order to improve their chances for economic success.for economic success.

Immigrants think that Immigrants think that discrimination is temporary and discrimination is temporary and may be the result of their may be the result of their “foreigner status” or because “foreigner status” or because they do not speak English or do they do not speak English or do not speak it well.not speak it well.

Whereas back home a person Whereas back home a person succeeds by getting help from friends succeeds by getting help from friends and relatives, by using contacts and relatives, by using contacts (“whom you know”—(“whom you know”—PadrinoPadrino), through ), through favoritism, or “because of your name.” favoritism, or “because of your name.” Voluntary minorities’ attitude toward Voluntary minorities’ attitude toward schools is influenced by the “back schools is influenced by the “back home” comparison.home” comparison.

Involuntary minorities strongly do not believe Involuntary minorities strongly do not believe that the U.S. is a land of great opportunity that the U.S. is a land of great opportunity where where anyone anyone who works hard and has a who works hard and has a good education will succeed. This negative good education will succeed. This negative comparison is also true for middle-class comparison is also true for middle-class involuntary minorities. Because involuntary minorities. Because discrimination against them has existed for discrimination against them has existed for many generations, involuntary minorities tend many generations, involuntary minorities tend to believe that it appears to be a permanent to believe that it appears to be a permanent feature of U.S. society. They tend to be more feature of U.S. society. They tend to be more critical of the school curriculum and mistrustful critical of the school curriculum and mistrustful of teachers and the school than the of teachers and the school than the immigrants.immigrants.

These are orally transmitted beliefs—a These are orally transmitted beliefs—a folk theory of “making it”--a group’s folk theory of “making it”--a group’s ideas about how to achieve success, ideas about how to achieve success, not official policies or beliefs of society not official policies or beliefs of society but the community’s or people’s ideas. but the community’s or people’s ideas. Ex. Some immigrants are more Ex. Some immigrants are more concern with “language problems” than concern with “language problems” than with “racial discrimination.”with “racial discrimination.”

Involuntary minorities have an (unconscious) Involuntary minorities have an (unconscious) ambivalent folk theory of making it. They ambivalent folk theory of making it. They believe that in hand hard work and education believe that in hand hard work and education are necessary to succeed in U.S. but on the are necessary to succeed in U.S. but on the other hand they have faced employment and other hand they have faced employment and wage discrimination and other barriers to wage discrimination and other barriers to making it in a white-controlled economy for making it in a white-controlled economy for many generations that they come to the many generations that they come to the realization that the reality is somewhat realization that the reality is somewhat institutionalized and permanent, and individual institutionalized and permanent, and individual effort, education, and hard work are important effort, education, and hard work are important but not enough to overcome racism and but not enough to overcome racism and discrimination. discrimination.

Involuntary minorities’ role models Involuntary minorities’ role models include conventional categories—include conventional categories—entertainers, athletes, entertainers, athletes, professionals, and the wealthy—as professionals, and the wealthy—as well as nonconventional types—well as nonconventional types—rebels against white society and rebels against white society and people of exceptional courage.people of exceptional courage.

It is suspected that for them to It is suspected that for them to succeeded they probably have had succeeded they probably have had to adopt white ways such as to adopt white ways such as speaking standard English, which is speaking standard English, which is seen as giving in to the white seen as giving in to the white oppressor and abandoning their oppressor and abandoning their identity;identity;

Professionals among involuntary Professionals among involuntary minorities have few ties to the minorities have few ties to the community and are not visible in it. community and are not visible in it. Athletes and entertainers are Athletes and entertainers are admired, but often these are people admired, but often these are people who did not use education but talent who did not use education but talent and physical strength as a route to and physical strength as a route to success.success.

Trust in white institutions:Trust in white institutions:

Pragmatic trust—immigrants have an Pragmatic trust—immigrants have an optimistic, practical attitude when they optimistic, practical attitude when they arrive;arrive;

Some immigrants like Koreans in L.A. Some immigrants like Koreans in L.A. and Afro-Caribbeans in N.Y. establish and Afro-Caribbeans in N.Y. establish their own schools to supplement their their own schools to supplement their children’s education where they feel that children’s education where they feel that it is inadequate in the public schools.it is inadequate in the public schools.

Their long history of discrimination, racism, Their long history of discrimination, racism, and conflict leads them to distrust white-and conflict leads them to distrust white-controlled institutions. controlled institutions.

The schools are treated with suspicion The schools are treated with suspicion because the minorities, with justification, because the minorities, with justification, believe that the public schools will not believe that the public schools will not educate their children like they educate educate their children like they educate white children.white children.

Because their identities were developed Because their identities were developed in response to discrimination and racism, in response to discrimination and racism, these minorities are not anxious to give these minorities are not anxious to give them up simply because their them up simply because their ‘oppressors” require them to do so.‘oppressors” require them to do so.

Oppositional identity plays a major role in Oppositional identity plays a major role in the attitudes of the community, parents, the attitudes of the community, parents, and students toward school because they and students toward school because they see the school as a white institution.see the school as a white institution.

The requirement for school success, The requirement for school success, which involve mastering the school which involve mastering the school curriculum, learning to speak and write curriculum, learning to speak and write standard English, and exhibiting “good” standard English, and exhibiting “good” school behaviors, are interpreted as school behaviors, are interpreted as white society’s requirements designed white society’s requirements designed to deprive minorities of their identities.to deprive minorities of their identities.

Ex. Teaching standard English at school Ex. Teaching standard English at school may be interpreted as a mechanism of may be interpreted as a mechanism of language assimilation;language assimilation;

Thus, conforming to school requirements Thus, conforming to school requirements means ‘acting white;”means ‘acting white;”

Behaving or talking in a manner Behaving or talking in a manner that leads to academic success that leads to academic success is feared as likely to displace is feared as likely to displace one’s minority identity.one’s minority identity.

These beliefs create 2 dilemmas These beliefs create 2 dilemmas for involuntary minority for involuntary minority

students:students:

2. They make the students feel that they have to 2. They make the students feel that they have to choose between:choose between:

a) Conforming to the demands and rewards for certain a) Conforming to the demands and rewards for certain attitudes and behaviors that are definitely “white,” attitudes and behaviors that are definitely “white,” especially the mastery and usage of standards especially the mastery and usage of standards English, andEnglish, and

b) The community interpretations and disapproval of or b) The community interpretations and disapproval of or ambivalence toward those attitudes and behaviors.ambivalence toward those attitudes and behaviors.

2. These beliefs make the students feel that 2. These beliefs make the students feel that they must choose between:they must choose between:

a) An instrumental interpretation of schooling as a) An instrumental interpretation of schooling as a route to future employment and upward a route to future employment and upward social mobility, andsocial mobility, and

b) The suspicion of the community that the b) The suspicion of the community that the school curriculum is something designed to school curriculum is something designed to displace their minority identity.displace their minority identity.

‘‘Schools say to these students: “you Schools say to these students: “you must first master the culture and ways of must first master the culture and ways of the American mainstream, and since that the American mainstream, and since that mainstream is essentially white, this mainstream is essentially white, this means you must give up many means you must give up many particulars of being black—styles of particulars of being black—styles of speech and appearance—this is asking speech and appearance—this is asking a lot.”a lot.”

Involuntary minoritiesInvoluntary minorities see the see the curriculum as an attempt to impose curriculum as an attempt to impose white culture on them. This leads white culture on them. This leads them to question the curriculum for them to question the curriculum for not including information about their not including information about their minority history and experiences.minority history and experiences.

They want their children to “talk proper” They want their children to “talk proper” but are uncomfortable when the but are uncomfortable when the children speak standard English, children speak standard English, because they see this as tending to because they see this as tending to separate the children from the family separate the children from the family and the community or to claim that one and the community or to claim that one is better than other members of the is better than other members of the family or the community.family or the community.

The double message that The double message that involuntary minority parents involuntary minority parents

and communities send to and communities send to their children is to do well their children is to do well in school, but be wary of in school, but be wary of your teachers, school your teachers, school officials, and the officials, and the

curriculum because they are curriculum because they are a part of white institutions a part of white institutions

that cannot be trusted.that cannot be trusted.

The ambivalence is that in one hand The ambivalence is that in one hand parents want their children to “get good parents want their children to “get good education”, but their attitude and behaviors education”, but their attitude and behaviors contradict their verbal assertions. The contradict their verbal assertions. The mixed feelings lead to reduced efforts, mixed feelings lead to reduced efforts, which manifest themselves is failure to pay which manifest themselves is failure to pay attention in class, do homework, and keep attention in class, do homework, and keep up with school assignments, and in claims up with school assignments, and in claims that the work is uninteresting and boring.that the work is uninteresting and boring.

Some students are openly defiant as Some students are openly defiant as they challenge the teachers’ authority. they challenge the teachers’ authority. They do not put much effort into They do not put much effort into learning standard English because they learning standard English because they see it as separating them from their see it as separating them from their peers, family, and community, thus, peers, family, and community, thus, threatening their minority identity.threatening their minority identity.

Standard English is perceived as a way Standard English is perceived as a way of “acting white”of “acting white”

One important objective of the cultural-One important objective of the cultural-ecological theory is to explain the ecological theory is to explain the differences in school achievement differences in school achievement between voluntary and involuntary between voluntary and involuntary minorities.minorities.

By explaining the nature of the By explaining the nature of the problem, it leads to some educational problem, it leads to some educational strategies for helping to improve strategies for helping to improve learning.learning.

The theory does not posit explicitly or The theory does not posit explicitly or implicitly that group membership alone implicitly that group membership alone determines school success or failure.determines school success or failure.

What the categories does is to What the categories does is to help educators think about the help educators think about the differences that exist between differences that exist between groups, not among individuals. groups, not among individuals. Teachers should avoid basing Teachers should avoid basing expectations about an expectations about an individual’s school performance individual’s school performance and behavior on group and behavior on group membership. Students should be membership. Students should be treated as individuals.treated as individuals.

As a result of a long history of racism and As a result of a long history of racism and discrimination, many involuntary minorities discrimination, many involuntary minorities have developed an have developed an oppositional identityoppositional identity to to white mainstream society which makes white mainstream society which makes them reluctant to cross cultural boundaries them reluctant to cross cultural boundaries and adopt what they consider to be ‘white and adopt what they consider to be ‘white ways” of talking, thinking, and behaving ways” of talking, thinking, and behaving because they fear doing so will displace because they fear doing so will displace their own minority identity and alienate them their own minority identity and alienate them from their peers, family, and community.from their peers, family, and community.

The net result is ambivalence about the The net result is ambivalence about the usefulness of school as a vehicle to usefulness of school as a vehicle to

success in lifesuccess in life..

What teachers can doWhat teachers can do::

Build trustBuild trust—Students will trust teachers when they believe that:—Students will trust teachers when they believe that:

a) The teacher has the student’s best interests at a) The teacher has the student’s best interests at heart andheart and

b) The student’s identity and self-esteem will not be b) The student’s identity and self-esteem will not be harmed. Teachers need to show students by word and deed harmed. Teachers need to show students by word and deed that they believe in their students, that their culture is worthy of that they believe in their students, that their culture is worthy of respect, and that succeeding in school will leave their identity respect, and that succeeding in school will leave their identity intact.intact.

Culturally responsiveCulturally responsive instructioninstruction——acknowledges and accommodates students’ acknowledges and accommodates students’ culture, language, and learning styles culture, language, and learning styles in the curriculum and classroom.in the curriculum and classroom.

a)a) For Black Americans for instance, students can For Black Americans for instance, students can be taught that different ways of speaking are be taught that different ways of speaking are considered appropriate in different situations—considered appropriate in different situations—rather than trying to replace students’ dialects rather than trying to replace students’ dialects with standard English. with standard English.

b)b) It requires that teachers understand their It requires that teachers understand their students’ culture and language and bring their students’ culture and language and bring their folklore into the classroom. It communicates to folklore into the classroom. It communicates to the students that the teacher is interested in their the students that the teacher is interested in their world, which serves to validate their identity.world, which serves to validate their identity.

Explicitly Deal with Explicitly Deal with Oppositional/AmbivalenceOppositional/Ambivalence

It is important to raise the issue (if It is important to raise the issue (if students are conscious not) because it students are conscious not) because it will help students to think openly about will help students to think openly about their behaviors, read and write about it. their behaviors, read and write about it. Teachers need to find ways to help Teachers need to find ways to help students see that they can be successful students see that they can be successful in school and maintain their cultural in school and maintain their cultural identity.identity.

Role ModelsRole Models

Students need to be exposed Students need to be exposed through mentoring programs and through mentoring programs and other ways to members of their own other ways to members of their own groups who are academically and groups who are academically and professionally successful and who professionally successful and who retain their minority identity.retain their minority identity.

High Standards(H.S.)High Standards(H.S.)

By expecting cleared stated H.S., By expecting cleared stated H.S., the teacher will build trust by the teacher will build trust by conveying the message that he or conveying the message that he or she does not share racist she does not share racist stereotypes about the inferior stereotypes about the inferior intellectual ability of minorities.intellectual ability of minorities.

Parent community Parent community InvolvementInvolvement

Teachers will need to work hard to try Teachers will need to work hard to try enlist parent and community support of enlist parent and community support of their children’s education. They need to their children’s education. They need to show parents that they are respected and show parents that they are respected and needed to help their children succeed in needed to help their children succeed in school. Personal, individual contacts can school. Personal, individual contacts can help overcome group and institutional help overcome group and institutional stereotypes. stereotypes.

Teachers need to find ways to make Teachers need to find ways to make their contacts with parents positive their contacts with parents positive by notifying them about their by notifying them about their children’s success rather than children’s success rather than limiting their contact to informing limiting their contact to informing parents about the students’ parents about the students’ problems.problems.

Teachers need to find ways to Teachers need to find ways to reduce the pressure by providing reduce the pressure by providing opportunities to openly discuss them opportunities to openly discuss them and to help students develop ways and to help students develop ways of dealing with these pressures. of dealing with these pressures.