Leaders Positives/Negatives

Bruce1841-98

Slavery -> landowner -> Radical Republican. Sat in Senate (78-81). 1st AA to have prominent political career. Ran committees. Support to run for Vice in 88. Lacked mass support

Douglass 1817-95

Escapee slave -> newspaper writer -> prominent/effective speeches before WWI. Still campaigned but lost effectiveness. Refused FB because of disapproval of Johnson. Stopped campaigning before death and made way for Washington.

Washington1856-1915

Mixed-race slave -> benefited from EP’s increase in AA education -> created 81 TI. Mass support. AAs should better themselves before demanding equality -> worked with the system -> criticised for accepting AAs low social value. Lost support after 05.

Du Bois1868-1963

1st to gain PhD from Harvard -> formed 05 NM and 09 NAACP. Highly critical of Washington for ignoring CRs. Wanted white support to reduce race gap. Rose awareness for next 20+ years.

Garvey1887-1940

Came to US in 16 -> used after-war glow to impose views -> major leader within a year (good speaker). Inspired by TI, created 14 UNIA (moved it to US) to improve AA independence with self-help groups/move to Africa (vague but impressed poor AAs). Ships

(broke him). No strategy/money and tensions calmed -> 29 deported.

King1929-68

Well-of minister -> used religion to spread views. Re-charged campaign -> created link between campaigns and everyday AAs. Created 57 SCLC (react to events) -> Birmingham/Washington. Chicago/Vietnam – disillusioned and views turned a bit

extreme/Xish. Assassinated.

X1925-65

Poor -> parents died -> turned to crime/drugs/jailed -> joined NOI to fight for social justice/AA supremacy/self-defence violence. Wanted to speak -> dismissed from NOI -> saw white Muslims -> became MLKish -> killed by NOI

Jackson1941

SCLC member helping MLK connect to poor. Founded 71 PUSH for social action/jobs. Campaigned for presidency with Rainbow Coalition (88 came 2nd) -> white support. Old-fashioned as leading flock useless now had vote.

1) Thaddeus Stevens 1792-1868:• Important member.• Elected to House of

Representatives in 1848.• Took a hard line against

southern states as he regarded them as conquered provinces.

Radical Republican – Leaders

2) Blanche K. Bruce 1841-98:• Background - In 1869, 700,000 AAs were enrolled to vote; a major role in

Convention elections (to chose party leaders).• This achieved equal AA CR by 1868.• AAs now had real power with support from scalawags (sympathetic

southerners) and carpetbaggers (northerners in the south).• AAs were benefiting from RR policies but real power was limited with an

unproportional election rate.• 95% still lived in south until 1877 and northern rights remained theoretical.• Politics – 1870 – 22 AAs in Congress, 20 in HoR and 2 in Senate.• Bruce – 1875-81; sat in Senate.• First AA to have prominent political career but lacked mass support so did not

advance AAs in general.• Born into slavery in Virginia, became a landowner and Republican politician.• On many committees and had some support to run for Vice President in 1888.

3) Frederick Douglass 1817-1895:• An escaped slave and Anti-

Slavery Society activist with a newspaper.

• Leading opponent of slavery before the war.

• Refused an offer to run Freedmen's Bureau because of disapproval of Johnson.

• Spoke/took tours arguing for CRs.

• Lacked before war impact.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

Booker T. Washington 1856-1915

1) Background:• Recognised that CR would have to wait until

they had developed a community.• Born into slavery and of mixed race, benefited

from education after EP. • So honoured, he set out to spread this to his

people – taught at Tuskegee Institute from 1881.

• Good at administration, leadership and had vision

• Personal morality heighted and encouraged at TI.

• Coincided with segregation – felt options were:1. Go back to Africa (quickly rejected)2. Assimilate (even less plausible; South’s

hostility)3. Move to North (rapidly industrialising but not

the answer – whites preferred Europeans)4. AAs should become skilled before demanding.• Therefore, TI focused on

literacy/maths/practical skills rather than intellectual with good teachers to get basic jobs that would lead to change.

CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER

2) 1895 Atlanta Speech:• Argued that if whites viewed AAs as economic

partners and not political opponents, tensions would diffuse but segregation would continue for now so they must focus on education/economic opportunities and not campaigning for equality.

• Instant impact; ideas became known as Atlanta Compromise (AAs reach an accommodation (would compromised) with whites)

• 6 months after Douglass’s death (who had toned down in waning years and not led any prominent protests) and with no other AA leader, it shot BTW into AA leadership.

• Long term impact: gained interest of TR, who consulted him on AA questions and invited him for tea at the White House.

• 1900 – organised the Negro Business League to be national AA chamber of commerce.

• Autobiography; ‘Up from slavery’ furthered fame

3) Criticisms:• Seemed to accept white supremacy and did not challenge inequality,

lynching and played down importance of vote.• Despite his effort, educational gap widened further after 1900 with funding

differences.• William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (1868-1963), the 1st AA to gain a PhD

from Harvard in 1895 was an early sociologist who helped fund the 1905 Niagara Movement and the 1909 NAACP, but moved away from this and was arrested as a communist in the McCarthy era, turned communist and moved to Ghana (61).

• Claimed that BTW limited/endangered the future of AAs as his ideas were necessary but were wrong as a basis for AA CRs as it did not mention segregation or defanchisation.

• Hurt, BTW resorted to petty rebuttals but his followers remained numerous. • In later years, he realised his campaign was not working.• Gave money to individual segregation challengers and encouraged others to

publish articles on AA CR progression.

4) Successes:• Career from slave to Collage Principle was inspiring.• Set strict behavioural standards that helped students.• From 1895 he was the main leader/spokesman for

AAs.• Created valuable political links for future AAs.• Long term aim was to show whites that AAs could be

equal if they learnt practical skills.

5) Failures:• Seemed to accept low AA position.• Tried to work in the system, not change it.• Did not focus on the vote.• After 1905, leadership was questioned by

AAs.• Not effective as he didn’t change law and

paranoia over critics.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People - 1909

CIVILIAN GROUPNAACP in 40s

NAACP SC cases by 41NAACP IN 1945-55

1) 1908 Springfield Riot:• Serious race riot in Illinois which began

over rape allegations.• Police refused to hand over AA – white

residents rioted/attacked/burned AA homes/businesses.

• Most AAs fled the city.• 84 year old AA Donnegan was lynched

over the crime of being married to a white women for 32 years.

• Not the violence that caused change, but location – Lincoln lived/died there and Donnegan was rumoured to be his shoe maker.

2) Impact:• As a direct response, Du Bois teamed up with

other prominent AA leaders at the New York National Conference of the Negro to form first proper, national AA CR organisation.

• They issued a passionate enunciation of this treatment.

• Du Bois was eager (unlike Trotter) for white members as he was convinced that the scientific community were realising racial superiority was stupid and the group gained many supporters of both races.

• It remained a peaceful and Constitutional organisation.

• Successes were not spectacular but important in the long-term.

3) NAACP operation:• Aim was to investigate then publicise racism, then make

legal solutions to enforce the law/Constitution to ensure CRs.

• Adopted a constitutional approach to lawsuits as though persecution was against constitutional amendments.

• BACK BY SUPREME COURT: Guinn vs. US stated that the Grandfather clause was unconstitutional.

4) 1911 Nation Urban League:• Early NAACP successes inspired

development of the NUL to focus on AA welfare in north.

• Although not a CR campaign group/no southern power, the NUL did campaign against housing/job discrimination.

5) Du Bois:• Despite Du Bois, most early NAACP leaders were

white which lead to race-cooperation questions which continued into the 1960s.

• Played crucial role by editing magazine for 20+ years to increase awareness.

Marcus Garvey 1887-1940CIVILIAN

CAMPAIGNER

1) Garvey state-side (1916):• He exploited WWI social changes briefly and

efficiently after arriving from Jamaica • Rapidly gained dynamic followers within a year

but downfall was just as fast. • Main AA leader for those years and although his

policies did not have immediate affects, they shaped next generation of campaigners by creating ‘Black Power’.

2) Ideals:• Inspired by BTW’s TI, he created the 1914

Universal Negro Improvement Association in Jamaica to go further than BTW and improve economic prospect/white acceptance/AAs taking control of problems.

• Saw the only solution to move back to Africa but was vague on details. Short term, believe AAs should focus on building education/businesses/pride in being AAs.

3) UNIA:• Aim; to campaign for equal rights and the

independence of AAs rather than absorption into melting pot.

• Did not ask for government help, but told AAs to develop their own means of salvation through self-help groups/own industries/factories.

4) Why successful:• In tense atmosphere, his movement made

progress.• His 1917 Harlem speech was cheered and he

moved his base to NY.• Made use of growing interest in AA newspapers to

laugh ‘The Negro World’, funded by northern AA middle-class.

• Talented speaker.• Aided by BTWs death and post-war tensions.• Idea that AAs had to be proud of heritage appealed

to ghetto AAs as they could relate.• Disagreed with Du Bois that integration would work

which also appealed to poor AAs who felt true equality would never happen.

• Black Eagle Star Steamship line (4 ships) to raise capital was popular but then became broke.

5) Why failure:• Lacked political strategy/more bothered with

fancy ventures than immediate social and economic problems.

• Ran out of money.• As immediate post-war tensions calmed, so did

support.• Suspicion increased when he talked to the KKK

in 1922 and colleague (Easton) was murdered soon after.

• ‘Garvey Must Go’ – attack in popular magazines. AA TU/NAACP opponents created Friends of Negro Freedom to highlight his failures.

• Arrested in 1925 and deported in 1929 on release back to Jamaica – leaving AA CR behind.

1) Background:• Born in Atlanta was brought up in well off

family but suffered from inequality.• Forced to move north to Boston to gain his

PhD.• Became a Baptist Minister in 1954 to 1960

after which he returned to Atlanta and ran his fathers church and became fully involved in the CR campaign.

• Assassinated in 1968.

Martin Luther King – 1929-1968 CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER60s

2) Turing point?:• Chosen for his cautious reputation, was an

effective organiser, brilliant speaker and great motivator.

• Organised night-time church rallies that recharged AA commitment and determination.

• By articulating all AAs frustrations in persuasive way, made vital link between CR campaigners and less educated general public (NAACP/Du Bois failed at).

• Non-violence argued throughout life which set next 10 years of campaigning agenda.

• Set up the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957 – widened CR field to react to events, not individuals (NAACP)

1) Background:• Disillusioned by lacking white

support for campaigns.• Realising that CR movement

must address social/economic problems to achieve northern equality.

Martin Luther King – 1929-1968 CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNERBeginning

2) 1966 Chicago Campaign:• Confirmed MLK’s pessimism. • Invited to Chicago and tried

to address their de facto segregation in education, housing and employment.

• Found less cooperation from AAs and resistance from racist whites.

• Mayor Daley more weasely than Connor so no direct violence towards SCLC but also no co-operation/evasive.

• Highlighted the housing problem but did not solve it as Daley broke promise to improve housing and end housing segregation.

3) Vietnam:• 1966 – drastic reduction in CR support

from LBJ and Congress because of war.• 1967 – MLK spoke out in NY’s Riverside

Church – violence against most basic principles/diverted funds/attention away from CRs in newspapers/TV.

• Ended tenuous relations with President.• Ended CR legislation except for 1968 Fair

Housing Act – no discrimination allowed on sale, rent or mortgaging of properties (LBJ used emotion over MLK’s death to pass it through Congress)

4) View change:• Never changed non-violent views but

was disillusioned in 60s to lack of de facto change

• Realised that unless problems stopped, rioting (big in 65-8) would continue – undermining non-violent strategy.

• Moved towards socialism bordering on Communism and planned a Poor Man’s March from Mississippi to D.C. to protest poverty.

• 4/4/68 – assassinated in Memphis while supporting AA dustmen’s fight.

5) Impact of death:• After, non-violent

wishes were ignored and there was a swathe of rioting nationwide.

• The movement was now leaderless, directionless, divided and confused.

1) Background:• Born into poor AA family in

Nebraska.• Garvey supported farther murdered

in 1931 and in 37 his mother when insane.

• No educational opportunities – went to drugs/crime in NY.

• When in jail in 1946-52, converted to the Nation of Islam (aka Black Muslims – founded/led in 30s by Wallace Fard until his disappearance in 34, when Elijah took over until his death in 75)

• Changed his life – dropped Little (slave name) to become Malcolm X.

• Minister in NOI temples in 50s and spokesman for organisation in 60s.

Malcolm Little – 1925-1965 CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER

2) Support:• Northern AAs did not support MLK

as southerners did as he focused on desegregation/voting and not social issues. Also – non-violent Christian part didn’t strike northern cultural cords (complained Washington March ignored half of its aim; ‘for JOBS and freedom’.)

3) Importance:• Northern and critical of non-violent

approach, X was a prominent member of NOI until 1963. Here he heard of AA supremacy (all humans first made black until unpure white race emerged).

• Proud to be an AA and critical of white society, thinking that they should not ‘beg’ whites for favours as he felt NAACP and MLK were doing.

• Views spread quickly among poor northern AAs in way MLK failed.

• Quick-witted debater and power over supporters.

• Restricted from speaking in direct political terms by leader of NOI, Elijah Muhammad, which meant he lacked platform for campaigning.

• However, did used NOI’s magazine/TV/campus talks/radios to get message across.

• Dismissed from NOI in 1963 for criticising Elijah/talking out.

• Changed to mainstream Sunni Muslim faith – got greater opportunities to speak

4) Elijah Muhammad 1897-1975:• Born Elijah Poole.• Converted to Muslim as a young man

and became NOI leader in 34.• Jailed for avoiding draft in 1942-46.• Called for separate homeland for AAs

but avoided political announcements.• Revered by X until discovered that he

was immoral (affairs with secretaries)

5) Emphasis:• Disliked focus of CR and preferred

focus on appalling economic and social conditions of inner-cities AAs

• Rejected white-AA integration as thought whites were inherently racist and never apply their values to AAs (saw them as Africans, not American but dismissed moves to Africa for practicality)

• Rejected non-violent emphasis but did not encourage violence – only self-defence.

• MLK avoided commenting/FBI ran surveillance from 60s onwards but X was focused on NOI threats and cared little of white opinions on him, even praise.

6) View Change:• X dismissive of CR but

re-thought after 63 successes.

• Could not do a public change of views.

• After NOI dismissal, travelled Africa/Asia and realised that many Muslims were white.

• Came around on other campaigns just as MLK moved towards X’s.

• Needed time to make an impact but was assassinated by NOI – ideas remained influential.

3) Significance:• Highlighted importance of AA vote as they

tended to vote for AAs.• Some saw him as old-fashioned minister

dictating to flocks – unnecessary now they have the vote.

• Promoted aim to move from individuals to proportional representation of AAs in political life as a whole.

• Accepted by whites – 1992 Bill Clinton wanted his administration to ‘look like America’.

Jesse Jackson – 1941 CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER

2) 1980s:• In position to be strong leader of AAs and

MLKesque style was popular and persuaded AAs to have faith in political system.

1) Background:• Emerged as prominent SCLC official in youth.• MLK used Jacksons knowledge of poor

northern AAs to win support.• Founded 1971 People United to Serve

Humanity which got 1000s jobs using affirmative action.

• Campaigned twice for democrat presidency with the Rainbow Coalition (all minority races – came second in 88).