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ATTITUDE WHAT IS ATTITUDE? � An attitude can be defined as a persistent tendency to feel and behave in a particular way toward

some object. CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDES � They tend to persist unless something is done to change them. � Attitudes can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favourable to very unfavourable. � Attitudes are directed toward some object about which a person has feelings and beliefs.

COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE � Emotional: It involves the person’s feelings or affect- positive, neutral or negative. � Informational: It consists of the beliefs and information the individual has about the object. � Behavioural: It consists of a person’s tendencies to behave in a particular way toward an object. BARRIERS TO CHANGING ATTITUDE � Escalation of Commitment � Insufficient Information HOW TO CHANGE ATTITUDE � Providing new information � Use of fear � Resolving discrepancies � Influence of friends and peers � The co-opting approach ATTITUDES RELATED TO ORGANISATIONS � Job Satisfaction � Organisational Commitment JOB SATISFACTION � It is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job

experience � Job satisfaction is a result of employees’ perception of how well their job provides those things

that are viewed as important. DETERMINANTS OF JOB SATISFACTION � The work itself � Pay

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� Promotion Opportunities � Supervision � Coworkers OUTCOMES OF JOB SATISFACTION � Satisfaction and Performance � Satisfaction and Turnover � Satisfaction and Absenteeism WAYS TO ENHANCE SATISFACTION � Make job more fun � Have fair pay, benefits and promotion opportunities � Match people with jobs that fit their interests and skills � Design jobs to make them exciting and satisfying ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT � This is an attitude reflecting employees’ loyalty to their organisation. COMPONENTS OF ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT � Affective Commitment: Involves the employee’s emotional attachment to, identification with,

and involvement with the organisation � Continuance commitment: Involves commitment based on the costs that the employee

associates with leaving the organisation � Normative Commitment: Involves employees’ feelings of obligation to stay with the

organisation because they should; it is the right things to do GUIDELINES TO ENHANCE ORGANISATIONAL COMMITMENT � Commit to people-first values � Clarify and communicate your mission � Guarantee organisational justice � Create a sense of community � Support employee development

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GROUP DYNAMICS

WHAT IS A GROUP? � A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting & interdependent, who

come together to achieve a particular objective.

� Huse and Bowditch (1977) defined the group as � A Group is any no of people who � have a common purpose or objective � Interact with one another to accomplish their objective � Are aware of one another � Perceive themselves as part of the group

THE NATURE OF THE GROUP � Own property that is different from that of individual members � Synergy

GROUP DYNAMICS � In 1930s Kurt Lewin popularised the term. � It is concerned with the interaction & forces among group members in a social

situation. � It describes the internal nature of the groups, how they form, their structure and

processes.

� Normative view describes how a group should be organised and conducted. Democratic leadership , member participation and overall cooperation are stressed. � Another view demonstrates that it is a set of techniques to make the leader as well

as members effective.

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WHY THE GROUPS ARE FORMED

� Propinquity Theory: Individuals associate with one another because of spatial or geographical proximity. � Social System Theory: Basis of group formation is activities, interaction and

sentiments of people. � Exchange Theory: It is based on Reward-Cost outcomes of interaction � Balance theory: The persons are attracted to one another on the basis of similar

attitudes toward commonly relevant objects and goals.

BALANCE THEORY

BASIC REASONS OF GROUP FORMATION � Economic � Security � Relatedness/ Belongingness � Esteem & Growth

TYPES OF GROUP � Primary Group: Face to face Interaction, family and peer group � Informal Group: Formed within the organisation by the members themselves � Formal Group: Established by the organisation to accomplish specific tasks

FORMAL GROUPS � Committee: Established by the organisation to accomplish specific tasks � Command Group: Comprises of a manager and his immediate subordinates � Task Force: Consists of employees who work together to complete a particular

task or project

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STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT � Forming: Characterized by Uncertainty, Members are wary of each other, a stage

of mutual suspicion � Storming: Initially inter group conflict, when conflict is over team spirit starts � Norming: Evolving standards of behaviour � Performing: The structure at this point is fully functional � Adjourning: (temporary group) Wrapping up activities

GROUP DEVELOPMENT MODEL: FOR TEMPORARY GROUP WITH DEADLINES

� The first meeting sets the group’s direction. � The first phase of group activity is one of inertia. � A transition takes place at the end of this first phase, which occurs exactly when

the group has used up half of its allotted time. � A transition initiates major changes � A second phase of inertia follows the transition. � The group’s lat meeting is characterised by markedly accelerated activity.

GROUP BEHAVIOUR MODEL

� External conditions imposed on the group � Group member resources � Group Structure � Group Processes � Group Task � Performance and Satisfaction

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EXTERNAL CONDITION IMPOSED ON THE GROUP � Organisation’s overall strategy � Authority Structure � Formal Regulations � Resources � Performance and reward system � Organisation’s culture � Physical work setting

GROUP MEMBER RESOURCES � Knowledge, Skills and Abilities � Personality characteristics: sociability, Initiative, Openness and flexibility

GROUP STRUCTURE � Formal Leadership � Roles � Norms � Status � Size � Composition � Cohesiveness

ROLES � Role: A set of expected behaviour patterns attributed to someone occupying a

given position in a social unit � Role Identity: Certain attitudes & behaviour consistent with a role � Role Perception: An individual’s view of how he is supposed to act in a given

situation � Role Expectations: How others believe a person should act in a given situation � Role Conflict: A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role

expectations

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NORMS � Accepted standards of behaviour within a group that are shared by the group

members � Common classes of norms: Performance Norms, Appearance Norms, Social

Arrangement Norms, Allocation of Resources Norms

CONFORMITY � Adjusting one’s behaviour to align with the norms of the group.

STATUS � A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. � Sources of Status: Ascribed-Achieved, Scalar- Functional, Positional-Personal,

Active-Latent � Status and Norm: High-status members of groups often are given more freedom to

deviate from norm than are other group members. � Status and group interaction: The high status people tend to be more assertive. � Status inequity results in problematic situation.

SIZE � Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks than are larger ones � If the group is engaged in problem solving, large groups are consistently better � If the goal of the group is fact finding, larger groups are more effective

� Social Loafing: The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working

collectively than when working individually.

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COMPOSITION � Group Demography- The degree to which members of a group share a common

demographic attribute such as sex, race, educational level in the organisation. � Cohort- Individual who, as part of a group, hold a common attribute.

COHESIVENESS � Degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to

stay in the group � Relationship of cohesiveness and productivity depends on the performance

related norms established by the group

COHESIVENESS, PERFORMANCE NORM AND PROUCTIVIY HOW TO INCREASE GROUP COHESIVENESS

� Make the group smaller � Encourage agreement with group goals � Increase the time members spend together � Increase the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of attaining

membership in the group � Stimulate competition with other group � Give reward to the group rather than to individual members � Physically isolate the group

GROUP PROCESSES � Potential group effectiveness + Process gains – process losses = Actual Group

Effectiveness � Synergy: An action of two or more substances that results in an effect that is

different from the individual summation of substances � Social loafing: The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working

collectively than when working individually

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SOCIAL FACILIATATIN EFFECT � The tendency to improve or decline performance in response to the process of

others.

GROUP TASK � Size- performance relationship is moderated by the group’s task requirement � Large group facilitates pooling of information � For coordinating or implementing a decision small group is effective.

GROUP TASK � More complex the task, the more the group will benefit from discussion among

members � If the task is simple and routine, no discussion is required � If there is a high degree of interdependence among the tasks, more interaction is

necessary.

PERFOMANCE AND SATISFACTION � Are the outcome of all the variables discussed

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MOTIVATING OTHERS

DEFINITIONS � Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological

deficiency or need that activates a behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.

� Motivation is what makes people to do things. � In Industrial setting, it means- To make the subordinate act in a desired manner

� Needs are created whenever there is a physiological or psychological imbalance. � Drives are usually set up to alleviate needs � Incentives will tend to restore physiological or psychological balance and will

reduce or cut off drive

BASIC MOTIVATION PROCESS � Needs Drives Incentives

TYPES OF MOTIVES � Primary Motives: Unlearned and Physiologically based e.g., Hunger, Thirst, Sex

etc. � Secondary Motives: Social and Psychological e.g., need for achievement, need for

power � General Motives: Unlearned but not physiologically based , e.g., curiosity,

activity, affection

CHARACTERISTICS OF SECONDARY MOTIVES

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� Secondary needs are strongly conditioned by experience. � Vary in type and intensity among people. � Are subject to change within any individual. � Work in groups rather than alone � Are often hidden from conscious recognition. � Are vague feelings instead of specific physical needs � Influence behaviour

COMMON INDICATORS OF DEMOTIVATION � Absenteeism � Labour Turnover � Accident � Wastage of Materials � Indiscipline, Frustration, Unrest � Defiant or violent behaviour � Non-cooperation, strike, gherao, abusive and violent demonstration

DIAGNOSING WORK PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS � Performance = Ability X Motivation (Effort) Where, Ability = Aptitude X Training X Resources Motivation = Desire X Commitment � Aptitude refers to the native skills and abilities a person brings to a job.

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

� Content Theories: Attempt to determine what it is that motivates people, concerned with types of incentives or goals that people strive to attain

� Process Theories: Explain how and why workers select behaviours and how they determine whether their choices were successful

MASLOW’S NEED HIERRCHY THEORY OF MOTIVATION � Five Groups of Needs � Physiological/ Bodily Needs: Hunger, thirst, sleep, sex, comfortable temperature Physiological needs are preeminent in importance, when they are thwarted � Safety needs: Security and protection from physiological and emotional harm-

protection from danger, threat & deprivation � Social Needs: Need for belonging, for association, foe acceptance, by one’s

fellows, for giving & receiving friendship and love � Esteem/Ego Need:

1. External Esteem Factors: Need for status, recognition, appreciation, Attention, Respect

2.Internal Esteem Factors: Need for self respect, self confidence, autonomy, achievement, adequacy, knowledge, independence and freedom � Need for Self-Actualisation: Need for self-fulfillment, realising one’s own

potentialities, for continued self-development; becomes everything what one is capable of being

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NEED HIERRCHY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

� Human needs arrange themselves in a hierarchy of prepotency � As soon as one of his needs are satisfied, another appears in its place � As the lower order needs are satisfied, higher order needs emerge � Higher order needs cannot be satisfied unless lower order needs are fulfilled � A satisfied need is not a motivator of behaviour

ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY � E- Existence needs are concerned with survival and psychological well-being � R- The relatedness needs stress the importance of interpersonal relationships � G- The growth needs are concerned with the individual’s intrinsic desire for

personal development. � Needs are lying on a continuum � More than one need may be operative at the same time. � A lower level need may not be fulfilled before a higher level need become

motivating � Deprivation is not the only way to activate a need � Frustration in attempting to satisfy a higher level need can lead in regression to a

lower level need

HERZBERG’S TWO- FACTOR THORY � Psychologist Frederick Herzberg developed the theory in the 1950s � Based on research on engineers and accountants

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� Subjects were asked two questions- � -When did you feel particularly good about your job-What turned you on? � -When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job – What turn you off?

� Employees named different types of conditions for good and bad feelings � Opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, it is “No Satisfaction” � Different factors related to job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction � Extrinsic and Intrinsic factors are the two kinds of motivators

MOTIVATORS � Reported good feelings were generally associated with job experiences and job

content � Motivators- Achievement, Recognition, Work itself, Responsibility,

Advancement

HYGIENE FACTORS � Reported bad feelings were generally associated with the surroundings or

peripheral aspects of the job- the job context � Company Policy & Administration, Supervision, Salary, Working Condition, job

security � Prevent job dissatisfaction, but do not lead to satisfaction

� Job enrichment is an outgrowth of Herzberg’s theory � It is vertically expanding jobs to allow worker’s greater responsibility in planning

and controlling their work.

McCLELLAND’S THEORY OF NEEDS � David McClelland & his associates focus on three needs – Achievement, Power &

Affiliation � Need for Achievement- An internal impetus to excel � Need for Affiliation- A drive to relate with people � Need for Power- A drive to influence people and situation

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HIGH n-ach PERSONS

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� Moderate risk taking � Need for immediate feedback � Satisfaction with accomplishment � Preoccupation with task

DEVELOPING ACH-MOT � Periodic Feedback � Provide good models of achievement � Moderate challenge and difficulty

EXPECTANCY THEORY (VIE THEORY) � Developed by Victor Vroom � Motivation is a function of anticipated values from an activity and the probability

of it being accomplished. � Motivation is a product of three factors Valence X Expectancy X Instrumentality � V-Valence- Amount of one’s desire for a goal � I- Instrumentality- One’s estimate of probability that performance will result in

receiving the reward � E- Expectancy- One’s estimate of probability that effort will result in successful

performance, probability of connection between effort and performance � It is possible to foster connection between work and outcome through improved

communication.

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PORTER AND LAWLER’S PERFORMANCE- SATISFACTION MODEL

� Porter and Lawler refined and extended Vroom’s model � Satisfaction leads to performance and vice versa. � Effort exerted on a task determined by the value of reward, and effort-reward

probability. � Performance is determined by effort, abilities and role perception. � Satisfaction is a function of perceived and actual rewards.

EQUITY THEORY � Developed by J. Stacy Adams � Major input into job performance & satisfaction is the degree of equity (or

inequity) that people perceives in the work situation � Inequity occurs when a person perceives that the ratio of his output to input and

the ratio of a relevant other’s outcomes to inputs are unequal. � Person’s Outcomes Other’s Outcomes = Person’s Inputs Other’s Inputs

� Input variables- Age, Sex, Education, social status, how hard the person works � Outcome variable- Pay,status, promotion and intrinsic interest in jobs � If the person’s perceived ratio is not equal to other’s, he will strive to restore the

equity. � When employees perceive an inequity, they can make one of six choices: � Change their input � Change their outcome � Distort perception of self � Distort perception of others � Choose a different referent � Leave the field

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EQUITY THEORY

� Deals with- � Distributive justice: Perceived fairness of the amount of allocation of rewards

among individuals � Procedural justice: The perceived fairness of the process used to determine the

distribution of rewards

IMPROVING EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION

� Goal Setting- Goals must be SMART i.e., Specific, Measurable, Achievable but Challenging, Realistic, Time-bound & Timely feedback about progress

� Establish moderately difficult goals that are understood and accepted. � Recognise individual difference � Reward Management � Link reward to performance � Use reward and discipline appropriately to extinguish acceptable behaviour and

encourage exceptional performance. � Distribute rewards equitably � Provide timely reward and honest feedback on performance.

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DESIGNING HIGHLY EFFECTIVE JOBS

� Enrich Jobs through Job enlargement and Job enrichment � Motivating Potential Score (MPS) = (Skill Variety+ Task Identity+ Task Significance)/3 x Autonomy x Feedback

� Skill Variety- The degree to which the job requires the person to do different

things and involves the use of a number of different skills, abilities and talents � Identity of the task: This involves a complete module of work; the person can do

the job from the beginning to the end with a visible outcome � Significance of the task: Importance of the job, impact on others- both internal and

external to the organisation � Autonomy: Amount of Freedom � Feedback: The degree to which the job provides the person with clear and direct

information about job outcomes and performance

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PERSONALITY

DEFINITION

� The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others. � Personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychological systems

that determine his unique adjustment to the environment.”- Gordon Allport

DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY � Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception � Environment: Culture in which we are raised, norms among our friends, family and social

groups � Situation

DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY � It is not automatic unfolding of intrinsic characteristics. � A continuous process of learning to cope with conflicts and adjustment

DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY- ERIKSON’S EIGHT LIFE STAGES

� Stage 1: Infancy � Basic Crisis: Trust versus Mistrust � Love and Affection- Trust � Lack of Love- Mistrust

� Stage 2: Early Childhood � Child begins to assert independence. If allowed to control those aspects of life that child is

capable of controlling, sense of autonomy will develop. � If he encounters constant disapproval and inconsistent role setting self-doubt and shame will

develop

� Stage 3: Play Age � A sense of Initiative develops if encouraged to experiment and to achieve reasonable goals � If blocked and made to feel incapable- Develops a sense of guilt and lack of self confidence

� Stage 4: School Age � A sense of industry develops if experiences real progress at a rate compatible with ability � A sense of inferiority develops in case of reverse situation

� Stage 5: Adolescence � Tries to establish as socially separate � Basic question- Who am I? � If successfully resolved, a sense of identity develops � If not resolved- Role diffusion

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� Stage-6: Young Adulthood � Tries to develop deep and lasting relationships. � If successful a sense of Intimacy � If unsuccessful a sense of isolation

� Stage 7: Adulthood � Generativity versus Self-absorption � To give something to the next generation or absorbed in own career advancement

� Stage 8: Later Life � Ego integrity versus Despair � A sense of happiness by looking at consolidated life long achievement or a sense of

worthlessness and despair

CAREER SATGE MODEL- DOUGLS T. HALL � Exploration: Self Exploration and Role tryout, Unstable and relatively unproductive period,

Need- Identity � Establishment: Advancement, Growing and productive period, Need- Intimacy � Growth/Maintenance/ Stagnation, Need- Generativity � Decline: Need- Integrity

THE ARGYRIS IMMATURITY- MATURITY CONTINUUM

� Immaturity Characteristics � Passivity � Dependence � Few ways of Behaving � Shallow Interests � Short time perspective � Subordinate Position � Lack of Awareness � Maturity Characteristics � Activity � Independence � Diverse Behaviour � Deep Interests � Long time perspective � Superordinate Position � Self awareness and control

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THE ARGYRIS IMMATURITY- MATURITY CONTINUUM � Personality progresses along a continuum from immaturity to maturity � All persons may not reach or strive for the mature end of the continuum � Continually change in degree � Based upon latent characteristics of personality, may be quite different from the observable

beahviour

� Some incongruencies occur and between growth of a healthy personality and requirement of a formal organisation � Incongruency increases as the employees are of increasing maturity, as the job become more

mechanized, for a highly formal, logically tight organisation.

SOCIALIZATION PROCESS � The continuous impact of social environment is called socialization process � It takes place throughout one’s life � It has long term impact on adjustment of the new comers in the organisation � Provided by training, orientation program, mentoring, placing the new recruits in work group

with high morale

TRAIT THEORIES OF PERSONALITY � Personality Traits- Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behaviour � Trait theorists seek to map personality by pinpointing key dimensions along which individuals

differ

RAYMOND CATTEL-16 PERSONALTY FACTORS (PF) � Identified 16 basic dimension of personality, these are called Source Traits � Source traits interact with one another to yield almost infinite number of surface traits � 16 traits are steady and constant sources of behaviour, allowing prediction of an individual’s

behaviour in specific situation by weighing the characteristics of their situational relevance

16 PERSONALITY TRAITS � Reserved versus Outgoing � Less intelligent versus More intelligent � Affected by feelings versus Emotionally stable � Submissive versus Dominant � Serious versus Happy-go-lucky � Expedient versus Conscientious � Timid versus Venturesome � Tough-minded versus sensitive � Trusting versus Suspicious � Practical versus Imaginative � Forthright versus Shrewed � Self-assured versus Apprehensive � Conservative versus Experimenting

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� Group-dependent versus Self-sufficient � Uncontrolled versus Controlled � Relaxed versus Tense

THE MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MBTI) � A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into one of the 16

personality types � Extroverted versus Introverted � Sensing versus Intuitive � Thinking versus Feeling � Perceiving versus Judging

� EXTROVERSION (E) � Outgoing � Interacting � Speaks, then think � Gregarious � INTROVERSION (I) � Quiet � Concentrating � Thinks, then speak � Reflective

� JUDGING (J) � Structured � Time-oriented � Decisive � Organized � PERCEIVING (P) � Flexible � Open-ended � Exploring � Spontaneous

� SENSING (S) � Practical � Detail � Concrete � Specific � INTUITING (N) � General � Possibilities � Theoretical � Abstract

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� THINKING (T) � Analytical � Head � Rules � Justice � FEELING (F) � Subjective � Heart � Circumstances � Mercy � INTJ- Visionaries. Have original minds, and great drive for their own ideas & purposes.

Skeptical, critical, stubborn, independed, determined � ESTJ- Organiser. Realistic, logical, analytical, decisive, have a natural head for business, like

to organise and run activities � ENTP-Conceptualizer, Innovative, Individualistic, Versatile, Attracted to entrepreneurial ideas,

Resourceful in solving challenging problems, but may neglect routine assignment

THE BIG FIVE MODEL � Five basic dimensions encompass most of the significant dimensions of human personality.

These are Extroversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability and Openness to Experience.

� Extroversion- Describes one’s comfort level with relationship. � Extroverts are gregarious, sociable and assertive. � Introverts tend to be reserved, timid and quiet. � Conscientiousness: It is a measure of reliability. Person is responsible, dependable, persistent

and organized. � Emotional Stability: Person’s ability to withstand stress. The person is calm, self-confident and

secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed and insecure (negative) � Agreeableness: Individual’s propensity to defer to others. The person is good natured,

cooperative and trusting. � Openness to experience: One’s range of interest and fascination with novelty. People are

creative, curious and artistically sensitive � Conscientiousness predicts job performance in all occupations. Consistent and strong

relationship exist between Conscientiousness and OCB � Extroversion predicts high performance in managerial and sales position � Openness to experience is important in predicting training proficiency

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� Locus of Control: The degree to which they believe they are master of their own fate. � Internals: Individuals who believe that they control what happens to them � Externals: Individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces

such as luck or chance

� EXTERNALS � Less satisfied, less involved with their jobs � Higher absenteeism rate � More alienated from the work setting � More compliant & willing to follow direction � Do well in jobs that are well structured and routine � INTERNALS � More satisfied � Lower absenteeism � Good health habits � More suited to jobs that require initiative and independence of action � Machiavellianism: Degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance,

and believes that end justify means. � High Machs manipulates more, win more, are persuaded less and persuades others more than

do low Machs � They flourish- when they interact face-to-face with others , when the situation has a minimum

number of rules and regulations, when emotional involvements with details distract low machs � Sucessful in jobs that require bargaining skills or that offer substantial reward for winning � Type A – Type B Personality � Type A personality- An aggressive involvement in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve

more and more in less and less time and if necessary, against the opposing efforts of other things or other people

� TYPE A’s � Are always walking, moving and eating rapidly � Feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place � Strive to do two or more things at a time � Cannot cope with leisure time � Measure success in terms of quantity � TYPE B’s � Never suffer from a sense of time urgency � Feel no need to display or discuss their achievement � Play for fun and relaxation � Can relax without guilt

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� Self Esteem: Individual’s degree of liking or disliking themselves � High SE persons believe that they possesses the ability they need in order to succeed in work � Take more risks in job selection, may choose unconventional jobs � Are more satisfied with their jobs than low SE persons � Low SE persons are more susceptible to environmental influence

SELF-MONITORING � A personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behaviour to external

situational factors � Highly sensitive to external cues and can behave differently in different situations.

RISK TAKING PERSONALITY-JOB FIT THEORY

� Identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover

� Key Points � There are intrinsic differences in personality among individuals � There are different types of jobs, and � People in job environments congruent with their personality types should be more satisfied and

less likely to voluntary resign than should people in incongruent jobs

� TYPE: Realistic: Prefer physical activities � Investigative: Prefers activities involve thinking, organizing and understanding � Social: Activities involve helping and developing others � PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS � Shy, genuine, persistent, conforming � Analytical original, curious, Independent � Sociable, friendly, cooperative , understanding

� TYPE � Conventional: Prefers rule regulated, orderly and unambiguous activities � Enterprising: Prefers verbal activities in which there are opportunities to influence others and

attain power � Artistic: Prefers ambiguous and unsystematic activities that allow creative expression � PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS � Conforming, Efficient, Practical, Unimaginative, inflexible � Self-confident, ambitious, energetic, domoneering � Imaginative, disordrly, idealistic, emotional, impractical

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� TYPE � Realistic � Investigative � Social � CONGRUENT OCCUPATION � Mechanic, Assembly–line worker, Farmer � Biologist, Economist, Mathematician, News reporter � Social Worker, Teacher, Counselor, Clinical Psychologist

� TYPE � Conventional � Enterprising � Artistic � CONGRUENT OCCUPATION � Accountant, Manager, Bank Teller, File Clerk � Lawyer, Real Estate agent, Public Relations Specialist � Painter, Musician, Writer, Interior Decorator

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TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS • A method of analysing and understanding behaviour • The study of social transactions between people • Developed by Eric Berne in 1950s.

OBJECTIVE OF TA • To provide better understanding of how people relate to one another, so they may

develop improved communication and human relationship.

EGO-STATES • Two people interact with each other from one of the three psychological positions,

known as Ego-states • It is a consistent pattern of feelings and experiences relating to corresponding

consistent pattern of behaviour • These ego states are called Parent, Adult and Child, and a person can operate

(communicate or act) from any one of the three.

PARENT EGO STATE

• It incorporates the attitude and behaviour of all emotionally significant people who serve as parent figure when the individual was a child.

• The value and behaviour of these people were recorded in mind of the individual and these becomes the basic values of personality.

NURTURING AND CRITICAL PARENT EGO STATES

• Nurturing Ego state reflects nurturing behaviour not only toward children but also to other people in interaction.

• Critical Ego state shows critical and evaluative behaviour • Each individual has unique parent ego state: a mixture of helpfulness and hurtfulness.

REPRESENTATION OF PARENT EGO STATE (CRITICAL PARENT) • You should not do that. • It was your carelessness. • That was a bad mistake.

REPRESENTATION OF PARENT EGO STATE (NURTURING PARENT) • Well done! That was a fine piece of work. • You have my wholehearted support in the matter.

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ADULT EGO STATE

• It appears as rational, calculating, factual and unemotional behaviour. • It is based on rationality. • It is characterised by logical reasoning and thinking.

CHILD EGO STATE • It reflects the emotions developed in response to childhood experiences. • It may be spontaneous, fun-loving, energetic, compliant, polite, dependent, creative or

rebellious, depending on the individual. • It desires approval from others and immediate rewards. • Child Ego States: Natural or Adapted

NATURAL CHILD • Displays genuine feelings • Acts on impulses • Demonstrates a considerable capacity for friendliness and affection • Curiosity, creativity are associated • Too much of this ego state- labeled as immature, childish, emotional

ADAPTED CHILD • Gets along politely with other people • Behaves in a socially accepted way • Adapts in a variety of ways so that other people will find us acceptable and amenable • May be perceived as lacking confidence • Alternatively, one may have learned during childhood to overcompensate so that now

he appears aggressive and rebellious.

DIAGNOSIS OF THE EGO STATES • Basic Concern • NP- To be right, • CP- To be on the target • Adult: To be recognised as a good decision maker & a competent person • Child: To be liked

• Thoughts, Words, Phrases • NP- Do your best, work hard, don’t worry, take care, well done, God bless you, Relax • CP- Do/ Don’t, Good/Bad, Should/ Shouldn’t, That’s ridiculous, Because I said so • Adult: Who? What? When? Where? What are the options? Let’s look at it again. NC: I wish, I want, Great, Fantastic, I wonder, I hope. AC: May I, Help me, Love me, Thank you, Sorry, I’ll Try hard

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A HEALTHY PERSONALITY • All people behave from these three ego states at different times • A healthy person has a personality that maintain balance among Nurturing Parent,

Adult and Natural Child

WHEN NEEDED • Nurturing Parent: Need this ego state at those times when it is appropriate to care for

someone else. • Controlling Parent: When we need to be firm • Adult: At the time of problem solving and decision making

TYPES OF TRANSACTIONS • Complementary: The message transmitted from one ego-state elicits an appropriate

response from the proper ego state of the other individual. • Crossed:The message sent by one ego-state is responded to from an incompatible,

unexpected ego state of the other individual. • Ulterior: Ulterior communication has double meaning. Literal and intent meaning are

not same.

COMPLEMENTARY TRANSACTION • CHILD-PARENT TRANSACTION • Sender: I’m afraid, we have to rewrite the initial part in that report. • Responder: Don’t worry, I’ll take care of it.

CROSSED TRANSACTION

• Sender: What is the time? • Receiver: Why don’t you use your own watch?

ULTERIOR TRANSACTION

• FATHER: Do you know what time is it? (Are you aware, you’re late?) • SON: It’s half past ten (I really don’t care!)

LIFE POSITIONS

• A life-position is the combination of assumptions about one’s self-worth and the worth of significant people in the environment.

• TA believes that an individual’s life position at any given time expresses in some manner just how that individual is relating to others in terms of relating, feeling and behaving.

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LIFE-POSITIONS

• I’m not OK, You’re OK- Person feels powerlessness in comparison to others. Grumbles about something or the other.

• I’m not OK, You’re not OK – A desperate life-position and is accompanied by feelings of confusion or aimlessness and pointlessness.

LIFE-POSITIONS

• I’m OK, You’re not OK - Distrustful Life Position. This position is taken by people who feel victimised or persecuted. They blame others for their miseries.

• I’m OK, You’re OK – A rationally chosen life-position. People in this life-position feel confident about themselves and have trust and confidence in others. They are optimistic and happy about work and life.

LIFE-POSITIONS

• An individual’s life-position is established at about 3 or 4 years old age. • One of the four positions dominates each individual’s life. • The desirable position is I’m OK, You’re OK. • Mature individuals move into this life-position through psychological understanding and

conscious choice. •

STROKING • It is as an act of physical, verbal or visual recognition of another’s presence. • Every individual has the need to be recognised and praised by others. • During transaction strokes are being exchanged. • Two types of strokes: positive and negative

STROKING • Positive Stroke: A stroke that makes one feel OK and creates pleasant feelings. Words

of praise and appreciation, affection, pat on the back etc. are positive strokes. Complimentary remarks about our work, our appearance, our family, our hobby all are positive strokes.

• Negative Stroke: A stoke that creates unpleasant feelings. Examples – Criticism, hating, scolding.

STROKING

• An individual requires positive strokes. • Usually those individuals who learn a negative stroking pattern in their childhood , tend

to seek when positive strokes are not available. • Individuals may seek negative strokes also for such reasons as guilt or low self-image. • We must all get a minimal level of attention from others if we are to function as healthy

individuals. • Exchange strokes. • You must be aware of your stroking profile.

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PSYCHOLOGICAL GAMES • Psychological games are special transactions programmed by the child to deal with its

burden of NOT OK feelings. • Games refer to recurring transactions. • They have a concealed motivation.

ELEMENTS OF A PSYCHOLOGICAL GAME • Repetition • Predictability • Ulterior Transaction • Negative payoff

ROLES IN THE GAME PLAYING • Persecutors: Make unrealistic rules, enforce rules in cruel ways, and acts from the

negative aspects of critical parent ego state trying to control others. • Some typical games: • “See what you made me to do” (the person who will not accept responsibility for the

mistakes they make) • “If it weren’t for you” (The person who blames others for their unhappy life) • “ How you can be so stupid”

ROLES IN THE GAME PLAYING • Victims: Provokes others to put him down, use him, and hurt him; who send messages

of helplessness, who forgets conveniently, and who acts confused. • Some typical games: • “Poor me”: The whole world is against me. See how they are taking advantage of me. • “Wooden leg”: I could have done many things, but for this wooden legs! • “No matter what I do, it always turns out wrong”.

ROLES IN THE GAME PLAYING • Rescuers: Offers helpfulness to keep others dependent on him, does not really help

others and may actually dislike helping. • Some typical games: • “I’m only trying to help you” • “What would you do without me”

REASONS FOR PLAYING GAMES • Games are powerful source of strokes. • In strengthening life-positions. • In avoiding responsibility, competition, risks, and problems.

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• In avoiding intimacy or controlling it.

EFFECTS OF GAME-PLAYING • Most games cause trouble. • Games end in predictable negative pay-off.

HOW TO STOP GAME-PLAYING? • Avoidance of acting roles involved in games, particularly victim roles. • Avoidance of putting other people down. • Avoidance of putting oneself down. • Giving positive strokes as against negative strokes. • Structuring most of life’s time in activities and intimacy.

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• To discuss different Learning theories • To describe how to shape behaviour • To describe the contingencies of reinforces • To describe the process and principles of behavioural modification

DEFINITION • Learning is any relatively permanent change in knowledge or skill which occurs as a result of

practice or experience.

LEARNING AND ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR • Attitude, Skill, Motivation are all learned • It has marked effect on Training • It offers significant insights into controlling employees’ behaviour • Learning has its contribution in the process of socialisation in organization

THEORIES OF LEARNING • Classical Conditioning • Operant conditioning • Cognitive Learning • Social Learning

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • Developed by Ivan P. Pavlov • A procedure for studying the development of associations between stimuli and reactions that

are not themselves under the control of the individual • Example Stimulus (S) Response (R) The individual stuck by a pin Flinches

BASIC PROCEDURE • It begins with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that is, known, a priori, to elicit certain action or

unconditioned response (UR) • A neutral stimulus is introduced and paired its presentation with the unconditioned stimulus. • Eventually, given the appropriate time interval and sequence of events, this neutral ,

conditioned stimulus (CS) elicits a conditioned response (CR) similar to the original UR.

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STAGES OF PAVLOVIAN CONDITIONING

Stage 1: Before Conditioning US UR CS Orienting Response Stage 2 : Acquisition CS (then) US UR Stage 3 : After Conditioning CS CR

• EXTINCTION: The ability of the CS to elicit CR would gradually diminish and disappear if the

CS were presented without the US for a number of trials.

Applications of Classical Conditioning in Human Behaviour • Treatment of phobias, in which an irrationally severe emotional response is elicited by

particular stimulus • Customer preferences for certain products can be explained through classical conditioning • Training- Learning to response in a novel/ different stinulus

LAW OF EFFECT • E. L. THORNDIKE • Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely

followed by satisfaction (reinforcement) … will be more likely to recur, those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort will be less likely to occur

OPERANT CONDITIONING

• Operant conditioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences. Learning occurs as a consequence of behaviour.

Response (R) Stimulus (S) The individual increases productivity Receives Merit Pay

REINFORCEMENT • Reinforcer in operant conditioning is any stimulus or event which when produced by a

response, makes that response more likely to occur in future and increases the strength of response.

• Positive reinforcement- When a response is followed by something pleasant is called Positive Reinforcement

• Negative response- When a response is followed by the termination of something unpleasant is called Negative Reinforcement.

• Reward- A reward is something that the person who presents it deems to be desirable. • Punishment- Anything that weakens behaviour and tends to decrease its subsequent

frequency. Punishment usually consists of the application of an undesirable or noxious consequence or withdrawal of a desirable consequence.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING • Classical Conditioning: SR bond • Operant Conditioning: RS bond • Classical Conditioning: Behaviour elicited • Operant Conditioning: Serves as a cue for person to emit a response • Classical Conditioning: The unnconditioned simulus, serving as a reward, is presented every

time • Operant Conditioning: The reward is presented if the organisms gives the correct response

COGNITIVE LEARNING • Propounded by Edward Tolman • Cognitive learning situations are those in which without explicit reinforcement, there is a

change in the ways in which information is processed as a result of some experience a person has had

• Cognitive Learning consists of a relationship between cognitive environmental cues and expectation

• Learning the association between cues and expectancy (Stimulus- stimulus)

• Expectancy is a three-unit association (a) Knowledge that in a certain situation (b) a certain type of behaviour (c) will be followed by a certain stimulus • Reward is unnecessary for learning and the key result of learning is the knowledge about the

correlation between events

INSIGHT LEARNING • A type of Cognitive Learning. In a typical insight situation, a problem is posed, a period follows

during which no apparent progress is made, and then the solution comes suddenly. • The insight involves a perceptual reorganization of elements in the environment- new

relationships among objects and events are suddenly seen

SOCIAL LEARNING • Learning through observation & direct experience. The influence of model is central to the

social learning process • Learning is largely an information processing activity in which information about the structure of

behaviour and about environmental events is transformed into symbolic representations that serve as guides of behaviour (Bandura, 1986)

Process of Social Learning • Attention Process- People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its

critical features • Retention process: A model’s influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the

model’s action after the model is np longer readily available. • Reproduction Process- Watching must be converted to doing.

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• Reinforcement Process- Reward motivates the individual exhibit the learned behaviour

METHODS OF SHAPING BEHAVIOUR • Positive Reinforcement • Negative Reinforcement • Punishment • Exinction

PUNISHMENT • Punishment is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable

behaviour • It is contingent on the occurrence of a particular response • It tends to decrease the likelihood of occurrence of a particular response • It promotes the learning of what not to do

EFFECTS OF PUNISHMENT • Punished behaviour tends to be only temporarily suppressed rather than permanently changed • Punished person tends to get anxious & resentful of the punisher • It is a lose-lose approach • Punisher may feel guilty

EFFECTIVE PUNISHMENT It must be • applied before the undesirable behaviour has become well learnt • fairly intense • Followed immediately the undesirable behaviour • Specific • Consistent across persons • Applied every time the act occurs • Accompanied by reward for the desired behaviour

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT • Continuous: Reinforces desired behaviour each and every time it is demonstrated • Intermittent:Each reinforcement is not reinforced, but reinforcement is given often enough to

make the behaviour worth repeating

INTERMITTENT SCHEDULES • Fixed Interval:Critical variable time is held constant • Variable Interval: Rewards are distributed in time so that RF is unpredictable • Fixed Ratio: A reward is given after a fixed or constant number of responses • Variable Ratio: Reward varies relative to the behaviour of the individual

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SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT & BEHAVIOUR

• Continuous: Helps to direct behaviour towards desired goals quickly; Likely to weaken very rapidly when RF is stopped; Important for learning new responses

• Fixed Interval : Reduce motivation for hard work; behaviour vary in rate during interval; necessary to reduce anxiety

• Variable Interval: Moderate and steady rate of response; desired behaviour s are sustained over time

• Fixed Ratio : High rate of vigorous & steady response • Variable Ratio : High rate of vigorous, steady response, resistant to extinction

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT : A COMPARISON • Continuous RF: Effective in the early stage of learning • Ratio schedules are more effective because RF is contingent upon behaviour • Variable schedules generate responses that are more difficult to extinguish • Some fixed interval RF is necessary to reduce anxiety • A fixed ratio schedule is easier to handle than variable schedule

ORGANISATION BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION • Step1: Identification of Critical Behaviours that play key role in job performance • Step 2: Measurement of base rate at which critical behaviour are occurring • Step 3: Functional Analysis- ABC analysis • Step 4: Design of the Intervention Strategy- Identification of positive reinforcers and arranging

conditions so that these are contingent upon performance of the desired behaviour • Step 5: Systematic Evaluation- Final behaviour is compared with the initial behaviour to assess

changes produced by OB

FEW APPLICATION OF LEARNING THEORIES IN ORGANISATIONS • Using lotteries to reduce absenteeism • Well pay versus sick pay • Employee Discipline • Developing Training Program • Creating Mentoring Program • Self-management

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ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

WHAT IS AN ORGANISATION? � A consciously coordinated social unit , composed of two or more

people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals.

WHAT IS MANAGEMENT?

� Management is a process consisting of planning, organising, actuating & controlling, performed to determine and accomplish the objectives by use of people and resources

WHO ARE MANAGERS? � Individuals who achieve goals through other people � The people who oversee the activities of others and who are

responsible for attaining goals of the organisations

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MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS

� French Industrialist Henri Fayol identified five management functions

� Planning: A process that includes defining goals, establishing strategy, and developing plans to coordinate activities.

A function that determines in advance what should be done – looking ahead preparing for the future. � Organizing: Determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do

them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made

� Leading: Motivating Employees, directing the activities of others, selecting the most effective communication channels, resolving the conflict among members

� Controlling: Monitoring, comparing and potential correcting

MANAGEMENT ROLES

� INTERPERSONAL ROLES: � Figurehead- Perform duties of a ceremonial nature � Leader: Motivating and directing his employees � Liaison:Maintains a network of outside contacts who provide

favours and information

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� INFORMATIONAL ROLES: � Monitor Role: Manager scan his environment for information � Disseminator Role: Transmit information to organizational

members � Spokesperson Role:Transmits information to outsiders on

organization’s plans, policies, actions and results � DECISIONAL ROLE: � Entrepreneur role: Initiates new projects � Disturbance Handler: Responsible for corrective action when

organization faces important, unexpected disturbances � Resource Allocator: Allocates human, physical and monetary

resources � Negotiator:Representing the organization at major negotiations

MANAGEMENT SKILLS � Technical Skills: The ability to apply specialised knowledge or

expertise � Human Skills: The ability to work with, understand and motivate

other people, both individually and in groups � Conceptual Skills: The mental ability to analyze and diagnose

complex situations

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WHAT IS ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR? � It is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals,

groups and structure have on behaviour within organisations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving organisational effectiveness.

� It is the field of study that seeks to comprehend and predict human behaviour in organisational settings through the scientific or systematic study of individual processes and organisational structure and function.

GOALS OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR � To describe systematically, how people behave under a variety

of conditions � To understand why people behave as they do � To predict employees’ behaviour � To control and develop some human activity at work

� In OB , data gathered systematically, under controlled conditions and interpreted in a reasonably rigorous manner

� There are certain fundamental consistencies underlying the behaviour of all individuals

� OB studies and applies the knowledge about how people act within the organisation

� OB provides a useful set of tools at many level of analysis

KEY FORCES AFFECTING ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES � Psychology: The science that seeks to measure, explain, and

sometimes changes the behaviour of humans. � Sociology: Studies people in relation to their fellow human

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beings; studies the social system in which individual fills their roles

� Social Psychology: Focuses on the influence of people on one another

� Anthropology: Study of societies to learn about human beings

and their activities � Political Science: Studies the behaviour of individuals and

groups within a political environment

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HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

� ADAM SMITH � “Wealth of Nations” published in 1776 � Included a brilliant argument on the economic advantages that

organisation and society would reap from the division of labour

� THE CLASSICAL ERA: � 1900-Mid 1930s � Contributors- Frederick Taylor, Henri Fayol, Frank and Lillian

Gilbreth

Scientific Management � Father of Scientific Management: Taylor � Taylor’s Contributions- Time and Motion Study, Differential

payment, Scientific recruitment and training, Intimate friendly cooperation between management and worker

� Frank and Lillian Gilbreth � Motion and Fatigue study � Tried to find out most economical motions � Classified all movements employed in industrial work into 17

basic types called THERBLIGS

Administrative Management � Henri Fayol (1841-1925) � Presented 14 principles of management process and

management practice

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HUMAN RELATIONS MOVEMENT � The essence of human relations movement was the belief that

the key to higher productivity in the organisations was increasing employee satisfaction � Early management pioneers were influenced by individualism

and utilitarianism. � They did not emphasize the human aspect.

HAWTHORNE STUDIES � Experiment conducted at Western Electric Company’s

Hawthorne Workshop by Elton Mayo and G. Pennock � The bulk of the Hawthorne Experiment was preceded by two

preliminary experiments: The Philadelphia Spinning Mill Experiment and the Illumination Experiment

PHILADELPHIA SPINNING MILL EXPERIMENT

� Textile Mill near Philadelphia � Period of Study: Before October, 1923 and After, 1924 � Experimenter: Elton Mayo � Objective: To find out cause of Absenteeism, High Labour

Turnover, Low Morale

EXPERIMENT- PHASE 1: � Introduction of Two Ten-Minute rest pauses in the morning and

two in the afternoon � Duration: More than 4 months � Result: Production increased from 70% to 80% � Unfavourable attitude of the supervisors

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EXPERIMENT

� PHASE 2 � Rest Pauses dropped � Result: Production under 70% � PHASE 3 � Rest pauses reintroduced but conditions imposed � Result: Production at 70% level

� PHASE 4: � Reintroduction of the rest pause, modified conditions Production

upto 77%, Absenteeism decreased, Pessimism disappeared, morale and health improved

� PHASE 5: � Important change was introduced, group took decision how the

rest pauses had to be taken � Result: Production- record of 86%, High morale

HAWTHORNE EXPERIMENTS : (1) ILLUMINATION EXPERIMENT

� Preliminary Experiment � Period: Between November, 1924- April, 1927 � Director: G. A. Pennock � Objective: To find out the relation between quality and quantity

of light and output � Workers were divided into two groups- Experimental and Control

� Phase-1: Illumination in the experimental room improved. � Result: Production Improved. � No change in illumination in the Control Room � Result: Production Improved

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Phase-2 � Experimental Room: Light lowered from 10 to 3 foot candles � Result: Output went up � Same result in the control room, where no change in illumination

Phase- 3 � Workers were told “Illumination has improved” but remained

constant � Result: no appreciable change in output � Workers were told “ Illumination has deteriorated” but remained

constant � Result: Workers grumbled, but no appreciable change in output.

Phase-4 � Intensity of light was brought down to .06 of a foot candle � Operators complained that they could not see well � For the first time a perceptible decrease in output

Conclusion � No conclusion could be drawn regarding the behaviour of the

workers observed � They concluded: Illumination Intensity was not directly related to

Group Productivity

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RELAY ROOM EXPERIMENT � Experimenters: Elton Mayo & his collaborators from Harvard

University and G. A. Pennok and others from Western Electric Company

� Period: 1927-1932 � The study tested the effects of variables like method of payment,

rest pauses, length of work day, length of work week on productivity.

� Every test period was resulting in higher productivity. � This implied the presence of another variable which was

accounting for increase in output.

BANK WIRING ROOM STUDY � METHOD: 14 Bank wirers were placed in separate room. An

observer and an interviewer gathered data. Regular supervisors were used to maintain order and control.

� Findings: Restriction of output. Production standard set by Industrial Engineers –2.5 equipments. Actual output- 2 equipments (Informal group norm)

� Conclusion: The incentive plan had less effect on a worker’s output than did group pressure and acceptance. Social norms are the key determinants of individual behaviour.

THE INTERVIEW PROGRAMME

� Objective: To find out what are the basic factors responsible for human behaviour at work

� Method: More than 20,000 workers were interviewed. Interviewers started with structured questionnaire, later non-directive & Open-ended method was used. Interviewers were friendly, sympathetic. They had taken impartial, non- judgmental approach. Identity of the workers not disclosed.

� Findings: Workers’ social relations inside the organisation has

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an unmistakable influence on their attitude and behaviour.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES � Results of a questionnaire administered to the subjects of relay

room. � Specific items in the test room situation, for which they felt

better, in order of preference are- � 1. Small Group � 2. Type of Supervision � 3. Earnings � 4. Novelty of the situation � 5. Interest in the experiment � 6. Attention received in the test room � The last three areas are associated with famous HAWTHONE

EFFECT

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PERCEPTION

WHAT IS PERCEPTION? FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

� The Perceiver � The Target � The Situation

PERCEPTUAL PROCESS SENSATION VERSUS PERCEPTION

� Sensation – Physiological Process � Perception – Interaction of Selection, Organisation & Interpretation � Sensation – Raw Data � Perception – Processed Data

PERCEPTUAL SELECTIVITY � Key Factors � Focus and Margin � Focus – The events and objects we perceive clearly � Margin – Objects/ events dimly perceived or not at all perceived � Attention is the process that selects certain inputs for inclusion in the

focus of experience � Filtering – Filter out or block irrelevant information

WHAT DIRECTS OUR ATTENTION? � External Factors : Factors in the target: � Internal Factor : Factors in the perceiver � Factors in the situation

� A given perceptual principle cannot stand alone in explaining complex

human behaviour. � Any principle is only a part of the perceptual process. � For the development of basic understanding, these small parts are

isolated for study and analysis. EXTERNAL FACTORS

� Intensity: The more intense the external stimulus, the more likely it is to be perceived

� Size: Lager the object, the more likely it will be perceived

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� Contrast: The external stimuli that stand out against the background or that are not what people are expecting will receive their attention

EXTERNAL FACTORS � Repetition: A repeated external stimulus is more attention getting than a

single one. � Movement : The people will play more attention to moving objects in

their field of vision than they will to stationery objects. � Novelty & Familiarity: Either a novel or a familiar external stimulus

can serve as an attention getter. INTERNAL FACTORS

� Learning � Attitudes � Motives � Interests � Experience � Expectations

FACTORS IN THE SITUATION � Time � Work Setting � Social Setting

PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION � Organising the perceptual inputs in such a manner that would facilitate

to extract meaning

PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION � Figure- Ground � Perceptual Grouping � Perceptual Constancy � Perceptual context

FIGURE – GROUND � Figure – Ground Principle -Perceived objects stand out as separable

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from their general background and occupies cognitive pace of the individual

� Contour – Contours determine shape, but they themselves are shapeless PERCEPTUAL GROUPING

� Grouping principle of perceptual organisation states that there is a tendency to group several stimuli together into a recognizable pattern

PRINCIPLES OF GROUPING

� Closure: Organizes the perceptual world by filling in gaps or stimulation

� Continuity: The tendency to perceive a line that starts in one way as continuing in the same way.

� Proximity: Items which are close together in space or time tend to be perceived as belonging together or forming an organised group

� Similarity: The greater the similarity of stimuli, the greater the tendency to perceive them as a common

PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY � A process in which we ignore or overlook certain aspects of our sensory

experience. It gives stability of the environment. � The stability of the environment as we experience, is termed as

Perceptual Constancy. � Constancy principle is applicable in size, shape, brightness � Learning plays a much bigger role in constancy phenomenon

PECEPTUAL CONTEXT � Gives meaning and values to simple stimuli, objects, events, situations

and other person in the environment. � Most sophisticated form of perceptual organisation. � The organisational culture and structure provide the primary context in

which workers and managers do their perceiving.

SOCIAL PERCEPTION Accurate perception of physical world is important. Indeed, without them we could not survive very long. But important as such knowledge is, it is not, by itself, enough. In order to function effectively in a complex human society, we also need something else, accurate perception of the

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persons around us. Specifically, we require knowledge of their behaviour, current moods, motives and major traits. Information of this type is extremely useful and assists us in attaining predictable, orderly relationship with others. Thus, we often expend considerable efforts in our attempts to obtain it.

� The process through which we gather knowledge of other people’s behaviour, current moods, motives and major traits, is known as Social Perception and it often does yield accurate perception of other persons.

As in case of the physical world, however, it is also subject to sources of error, bias and distortion. Social perception plays an important role in OB. Social perception is greatly influenced by perceiver’s own characteristics. The manager who has a low self-esteem may perceive his subordinate’s effort for doing excellent job as a threat to his position.

PERCEIVER’S CHARACTERISTICS WHICH INFLUENCE PERCEPTION

� Knowing yourself makes it easier to see others accurately. � One’s own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see

in others. � People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see

favourable aspects of other people.

SOCIAL PERCEPTION Few Factors � Non-verbal Communication � Attribution � Stereotyping � Halo Effect � Contrast Effect � Projection

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION One of the major tasks we face in our attempts to form accurate perceptions of the persons around us involves knowledge of their temporary states- their moods and emotions. Accurate information

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of this state of mind is very important to us, for behaviour is often strongly affected by such reactions. Individuals tend to behave very differently when they are in a good mood than when they are in a bad one. And their relations with us may vary greatly depending on whether they are experiencing anger, joy, sorrow or any other emotion. Thus, knowing something about the current moods or feelings of others can often help us to interact with them in more desirable ways. In many cases, we learn about the moods and emotions of other persons in a straightforward way: they simply tell us how they feel. In other instances, they do not provide us information or they may seek to conceal their true reactions. Even then we can often learn much about them through careful observation of certain non-verbal cues, i.e., their facial expressions, the position and movement of their bodies, and the pattern of eye contact with us. Facial Expression:

� Non-verbal Communication: Perceiving the temporary state (moods and emotions) of others

� Non-verbal cues: Facial Expression, Pattern of eye contact, Body language ( gesture & posture)

ATTRIBUTION THEORY � Developed by Harold Kelly (1973) � When individuals observe behaviour, they attempt to determine

whether it is internally or externally caused ATTRIBUTION: UNDERSTANDING THE CAUSES OF OTHERS

BEHAVIOUR

� Dispositional Attribution ascribes a person’s behaviour to internal factors such as personality traits, motivation or ability

� Situational Attribution attributes a person’s behaviour to external factors such as equipment or social influence from others

� Internally caused behaviour are those that are believed to be under the

personal control of the individual � Externally caused behaviour is seen as resulting from the outside causes

PROCESS OF CAUSAL ATTRIBUTION

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People focus on three major factors in making their attribution 1. Consensus relates to the extent to which other individuals – when

faced with the same situation- would behave in a manner similar to the perceived person

2. Consistency is the extent to which the perceived person behaves in the same manner on other occasions when faced with same situation

3. Distinctiveness is the extent to which the perceived person displays different behaviour in different situations.

One day when you went to your office cafeteria during lunch you found

one worker was complaining about the poor quality of food. Other workers who were present there were not doing so. Next day you observed the same thing. Later you found he always grumbles for one thing or another.

� Low consensus, high consistency, low distinctiveness – Attribute

other’s behaviour to internal causes � High consensus, low consistency and high distintiveness - Attribute

other’s behaviour to external causes

� Distinctiveness High External Low Internal Consensus High External Low Internal Consistency High Internal Low External CAUSAL ATTRIBUTION: SOME POTENTIAL SOURCES OF BIAS � The Actor- Observer difference: The tendency to attribute our own

behaviour to external or situational causes but of others to internal causes

� Self-serving bias: Taking credit for success, avoiding blame for failure FREQUENTLY USED SHORTCUTS IN JUDGING OTHERS

� Stereotyping: Tendency to perceive another person as belonging to a single class or category

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� Halo Effect: Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic

� Contrast Effect: Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristic

� Projection: Attributing one own characteristics to other people APPLICATIONS IN ORGANISATION

� Employment Interview � Performance Evaluation � Performance Expectations Self-fulfilling Prophecy (Pygmalion Effect)- One person’s

expectations determine other’s behaviour This concept has come from a character in Greek mythology named Pygmalion. He saw a female figure carved in ivory and he thought of her as a living being and this has brought life to her. The Pygmalion effect as we know it today suggests that people give back to others the behaviour they sense others expect of them. Thus a student strives to be a scholar when his teacher communicates such expectations.