agriculture,forestry & fisheriesDepartment: Agriculture, Forestry and FisheriesREPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA

— Production guideline —

Oats

Oats— Production guideline —

2010

Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries

2010

Printed and published by

Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries

Compiled by

Directorate Plant Production in collaboration with the ARC

Design and layout by

Directorate Agricultural Information Services

Obtainable from

Resource Centre Directorate Agricultural Information Services Private Bag X144 PRETORIA 0001

CONTENTCONTENT

General .................................................................................................... 1

Cultivation practices ................................................................................ 7

Post-harvest handling .............................................................................. 16

Production schedules .............................................................................. 19

Utilisation ................................................................................................. 19

Acknowledgements ................................................................................. 19

11

GENERAL GENERAL

Classifi cationScientific name: Avena sativaCommon names: Hawer (Afrikaans), habore (Sotho), oats (English)

Origin and distributionOats is believed to be mainly Asiatic in origin. Different kinds of oats prob-ably came from various parts of that continent or Europe. Cultivation of oats was extensive in Europe prior to the discovery of America, and the earliest settlers brought the seed to the new world.

It is found in the fields under continuous cropping of small grains in North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota and Montana. It is also found throughout the United States except in the southeast (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, the Carolinas, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee and West Virginia) and the Delmarva Peninsula.

Production levels in South AfricaThe local consumption of oats for processing in the cereal market is ap-proximately 40 000 to 50 000 ton. Because of the low quality of oats grain produced (mainly of a low hectolitre mass), a major part of this local grain production is not suited for commercial processing, and the requirement of the market is filled via imports. However, local cultivars have the potential to produce quality oats and the required yield.

Major production areas in South AfricaBecause of its wide planting spectrum and adaptability as well as high biomass production, oats are suitable for all regions of South Africa.

Cultivars

The choice of cultivar by a producer depends mostly on the end-market for the production, e.g. grain, grazing or feed. Cultivars that are more suited for grazing and hay production have different characteristics, and a cultivar for grain production must be chosen according to the needs of the buyer and end-user of the product, but must also fit into the production system of the farmer. Once this decision has been made, the chosen cultivar must

22

Cha

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eber

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212

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SS

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80

90

75

85

100+

80

80

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100+

MS

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33

be planted and all production practices optimised as shown in the cultivar tables. Certified seed must be used to ensure that the correct cultivar is planted for the proposed end-user, and to ensure good germination and seedling establishment.

Planting spectrum of currently available cultivars in the cooler irrigation areas

CultivarMay June July

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Kompasberg

Sederberg

Overberg

Heros

SSH 405

SSH 491

Pallinup

Planting spectrum of currently available cultivars in the warmer irrigation areas

CultivarMay June

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Kompasberg

Sederberg

Overberg

Heros

SSH 405

SSH 491

Pallinup

Seeding density: The target plant population (plants/m²) for the early plant-ing is 175 to 200, for plantings in the middle of the spectrum 200 to 275, and for late plantings 275 to 350. Depending on the specific seed lot and thousand kernels mass the seeding density can range from 60 to 100 kg of seed per hectare.

44

Planting spectrum of currently available cultivars for dryland in the eastern highveld

CultivarMay June July

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Kompasberg

Sederberg

Overberg

Heros

SSH 405

SSH 491

Pallinup

Description of the plantOats, like wheat, are an annual grass and belong to the Gramineae family, genus Avena.

Roots

The plant has two root systems, the seminal and the adventitious. The seminal roots originate during the development of the embryo and consist of the primary root (radicle) and two or three lateral roots which arise in the first node. Adventitious roots arise in the nodes of the main stem and of the tillers just beneath the soil surface. The adventitious roots constitute the major root system of the plant.Root development is fibrous and will vary according to the above-ground growth as well as maturity, but is approxi-mately 1 m deep.

Stem

Each plant produces about five stems, depending on the growth season. Each stem produces a terminal panicle where the seeds develop. The stem is composed of a series of nodes and internodes. The

55

nodes are solid. The elongated internodes of the mature stem are hollow in the centre, but during the early vegetative stage of development the internodes are solid.

Leaves

The leaf consists of the blade, sheath and ligule. Leaves develop at regular intervals until panicle emergence. The blade is elongated, flat, narrow and linear. The margin of the blade is entire and its tip is acute. The leaf sheath is an open cylinder. In the young plant the sheath of the older leaves en-closes all or a portion of the elongated internodes above it.

Flowers

The flower consists of a lemma and a palea, two lodicules, three stamens, and one pistil. Flowering or anthesis occurs when pollen is shed on the feathery stigmas enclosed by the lemma and palea with outer tissue called glumes.

Tillers

The oat inflorescence is a loose, open panicle. The main axis of the panicle is a continuation of the stem and it ends in a single spikelet. The spikelet consists of two empty glumes (bracts) on a rachilla, which bears several flowers, but usually only the two basal flowers are fertile.

Ear

The oat inflorescence is a loose, open panicle. The main axis of the panicle is a continuation of the stem and it ends in a single spikelet. The spikelet consists of two empty glumes (bracts) on a rachilla, which bears several flowers, but usually only the two basal flowers are fertile.

Grain

The mature grain consists of a groat or caryopsis tightly covered by a hull. The hull represents between 30 % and 40 % of the total grain weight. It comprises cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The oat groat is long, slen-der and elliptical in shape and covered with hairs under the hull. There is a groove on the inner surface that extends over the entire length of the groat. The embryo is located on the anterior side near the base of the groat. There are two major parts to the embryo, namely the scutellum (or cotyledon) and the primary axis of the embryo, which is composed of the plumule and the primary root (or radicle).

66

Groat versus hull

The kernel is enclosed by two hulls that are worthless to the industry. Plenty of groats and few hulls are therefore needed and processors require no more than 30 % hulls against 70 % or more groats. This characteristic is generally also reflected in the hectolitre mass and is environmentally as well as genetically determined. In shrivelled grains the hulls make out a greater percentage of the groats:hull ratio and in this case is undesirable.

Climatic requirementsTemperature

Small grains in the germinating, seedling and vegetative stages are not sensitive to low temperatures and frost. Winter types require very low soil temperatures (3 °C to 4 °C) for at least 10 days to 8 weeks for vernalisa-tion and to reach their tillering potential. These cultivars can be planted at very low seeding densities (15 to 30 kg/ha). Spring wheat, like the cultivars planted in the irrigation areas and in the Western Cape, does not require low temperatures, but will not be damaged by low temperatures and frost during the early growth stages. Tillering in spring oats will be lower than in winter types, and therefore much higher seeding rates (80 to 120 kg/ha) are needed in these production areas. However, all small grains are sensitive to frost in the reproductive stage (when the growth points are above ground) or after ear emergence. Frost during this time (usually in September and October) can cause severe damage to the crop. Small grains can also be damaged by dry, warm periods. Heat stress is caused when drought conditions are experienced and is usually associated with high temperatures and warm, dry winds. Heat stress can be particularly damaging during the flowering stage of the plant.

Rainfall

As small grains need moisture during winter, spring and early summer, it is important that water be provided to the crop during this period. In the winter rainfall region of South Africa (e.g. Western Cape Province) sufficient rain-fall is usually received during the winter months to provide in the needs of the crop. In the other regions, very little rain is received during winter. Good moisture conservation or 300 mm water over the growth period is required.

Soil requirements

Although oats are widely adapted to moist soil conditions, they have gener-ally similar soil requirements to wheat with regard to both macronutrients

77

and micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn and Mo) that have a major influence on production. Soil acidity levels of pH 4, 8 to 5, 5 (KCI) are regarded as opti-mal. Oats are more acid tolerant (up to 15 % acid saturation) than wheat, but less saline tolerant than wheat and barley.

CULTIVATION PRACTICESCULTIVATION PRACTICES

Propagation

Oats is propagated by seed.

Soil preparation

Irrespective of the crop rotation system followed, the main aim is to accu-mulate the maximum quantity of soil water, alleviate compacted soil layers, and prepare a seedbed that will ensure good germination and seedling establishment.

Field layout and design

In general, small grains require a well-prepared seedbed to ensure optimal emergence and development of the crop. A well-prepared seedbed will be level and without growing weeds to give the young seedling a chance

88

to grow and develop without competition. A seedbed can be prepared by conventional tillage methods where the field is worked with various imple-ments prior to planting. Conservation tillage methods aim to retain stubble on the soil surface and the soil is not ploughed.

Planting

Preceding the planting of oats, the standard seed treatments against seed-borne diseases must be applied in grain production, while it is optional in grazing and hay production. The planting time for oats is from September to October in cooler areas and January to April in warmer areas. For hay production under irrigation, the cultivars Maluti, Witteberg, Drakensberg and SWK 001 can be planted from March to June and Kompasberg, SSH 421, SSH 405 and SSH 491 can be planted from May to June. Thanks to the wide adaptability, nutritional value and regrowth characteristics of oats, grazing is available over a long period. Planting for this purpose can start in February and continue up to July. Contact experts for further information in this regard.

Row spacing

Planting activities of oats are similar to those of wheat with regard to depth and row widths used. The required depth for seeding is 2 cm to 5 cm. The spacing in the row is about 30 cm and 50 cm to 100 cm between the rows, depending on the available soil moisture or the farming method (narrow rows under irrigation and wide under dryland).

Seed placement

When a planter is used, the seed is usually placed 2 cm to 4 cm below the soil surface. Under irrigation, seed placement is not as critical as moisture from the surface will be available for the germination process. In dryland production areas, seed placement is very critical because seed must be placed within the moist soil layer. Seed placed above this layer or too deep will not germinate or will not reach the surface.

Fertiliser placement

Fertiliser placed directly with the seed can damage the young seedling and this is called fertiliser burn. It can affect the development of the seedling by temporarily or permanently damaging the roots. In the most severe cases, it may result in die-off. It mostly happens when a dry period occurs after

99

planting. For this reason, most planters have the ability to place fertiliser separately from the seed. If this is the case, placing the fertiliser 2 cm to 3 cm next to, or below the seed, is ideal. When planters that cannot do this are used, care must be taken not to place too much fertiliser with the seed. As a guideline not more than 15 kg of the nitrogen component of the total fertiliser should be placed directly with the seed. For example, if 30 kg N per hectare has to be applied, only half of this can be placed directly with the seed. The other half must then be broadcasted beforehand and worked into the soil during the final seedbed preparation. Alternatively, it can be applied as topdressing three to four weeks after planting.

Seeding rate

The seeding density for dryland plantings is 20 to 25 kg/ha. The planting spectrum is based on available data; planting outside this spectrum is at the farmer’s own risk. For hay production under irrigation, the cultivars Maluti, Witteberg, Drakensberg and SWK 001 can be planted at a seeding density of 40 to 50 kg/ha while the Kompasberg, SSH 421, SSH 405 and SSH 491 can be planted at a density of 70 to 100 kg/ha.

FertilisationThe nitrogen management of the oats crop is determined by soil and nutri-ent management strategies, including the previous crop (type), soil water availability, soil nitrogen availability, yield potential, risk of lodging, timing of nitrogen applications and nitrogen sources available for use. For hay production under irrigation, 100 kg N per hectare is recommended, with an additional 25 to 50 kg/ha after each grazing and/or fodder harvest, depending on level of production. For grain production the general recom-mendation per hectare is 90 kg N per 25 kg P and 20 kg K for a grain yield potential of 4,5 t/ha. The general guideline is 20 kg N per ton of grain for soils with low organic carbon content. For soils with a high-quality residue available for utilisation, 30 kg N per ton of grain yield potential must be ap-plied. Phosphorus is vital for establishment, especially early in the growth season, while sufficiently available potassium can reduce lodging and ensure uniform ripening.

Under dryland conditions in the high-rainfall regions, the recommendation per hectare is 40 kg N, 10 kg P and 10 kg K (optional). A maximum of 20 kg N per hectare or a total of 50 kg N and K per hectare can be seed-placed safely, and higher applications must be band-placed away from the seed. The phosphorus fertiliser recommendations (kg P per hectare) at the yield potential levels and soil analysis value (mg/kg P-Bray 1), as well as the po-

1010

tassium fertiliser recommendations (kg K per hectare) at the relevant yield potential levels and soil potassium analysis value (mg/kg K) currently used for dryland wheat production can also be applied for oats production. Keep in mind that the yield potential of oats is lower than that of wheat under both dryland and irrigation. The same fertiliser recommendations can be used for grazing establishment, with the option of additional N applications after grazing events combined with rainfall occurrence.

Irrigation

Under movable irrigation systems and supplemental irrigation applications, the current recommendation is five irrigations during the growth season if production is started on a full soil profile. These irrigations are applied at the 5-leaf, early stem elongation, flag-leaf, flowering and during the grain-filling stages.

Under centre pivot irrigation systems, an irrigation management pro-gramme similar to wheat is used. Irrigation during the later growth stages tends to disrupt uniform ripening, thereby delaying harvesting. Like the other small grains, oats are susceptible to high temperatures and water stress during grain filling and these necessitate well-timed and effective soil water management.

1111

Weed control

Weed control is important in obtaining maximum yields. Broadleaf weeds can be controlled easily with the recommended quantities of appropriate herbicides. Because oats are often used as nurse crops for establish-ing small-seeded legumes, it is important that the herbicides should be chosen with this in mind. Weeds can reduce yields and the quality of the crop. Weed seeds that cannot be cleaned out and are considered foreign matter causing downgrading are: other cereal crops, grains other than cereal crops and wild oats. There are no herbicides available for control-ling wild oats. There are various herbicides registered for the control of broadleaf weeds. Some of these herbicides are registered only for use in the winter rainfall area. It is important always to refer to: “A guide to the use of herbicides,” to check if a certain herbicide is registered for use on oats. Also remember that smaller weeds are easier to control than bigger weeds. However, the recommended leaf stage for herbicide application must always be taken into consideration. Always use the proper crop rota-tions and cultural strategies to ensure that oats are planted on fields free of these weeds. Other measures that should be taken when controlling weeds are these:

• Carefully read the instructions on the label before spraying.

• Spray the herbicide at the correct leaf stage.

• Make sure the calibration of the sprayer was done correctly.

• Check that the environmental conditions are favourable for spraying, (e.g. no wind or rain).

• The person spraying the crops should always be wearing protective clothing.

Pest control

Pests in the winter rainfall region

APHIDS

Aphid species causing problems in the winter rainfall area are mainly oat aphid, English grain aphid and grain-rose aphid. Russian wheat aphid, which is the most severe wheat aphid in South Africa, is a sporadic pest in this area. The former aphids prefer high plant densities with damp con-ditions, which are typical of the winter rainfall region as well as irrigated fields. During dry conditions in this area aphid numbers are low, with the exception of the Russian wheat aphid, which prefers dry conditions.

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BOLLWORM

The presence of bollworm is generally noticed only once the larvae have reached the mid-instar stage inside the awns. Producers should scout their fields in order to detect the younger larvae, as the older (more mature) larvae are generally less susceptible to insecticides and obviously cause greater damage than small larvae do. Chemical intervention can be con-sidered when five to eight larvae are present per square metre. However, producers should take care to apply the correct dose of registered insecti-cide under weather conditions conducive to insect control.

GRAIN CHINCH BUG

Damage is more pronounced under warm, dry conditions as stressed plants are less able to tolerate/recover from chinch bug damage. There are no insecticides.

GRAIN SLUG

The symptoms include white, longitudinal stripe development on damaged leaves. Currently, no insecticides are registered for oats.

BLACK SAND MITE OR RED-LEGGED EARTH MITE

Symptoms: silvery white scars adjacent to the main vein of especially older leaves, dying off of small plants. A single systematic insecticide is regis-tered although no threshold value is available.

Pests in the summer rainfall regions

Pests include the Russian wheat aphid and other aphids that were dis-cussed earlier, brown wheat mite, false wireworm, black maize beetle, leafhoppers and maize streak virus.

Pest Symptoms Control measure/s

Russian wheat aphid Young plants: stunted and the leaves rolled tightly closed

Mature plants: longitudinal, white or pale yellow stripe, later purple, tightly rolled leaves and trapped heads

Plant cultivar with RWASA1

Brown wheat mite Mottled leaves owing to sap-feeding and later yellow or bronze, resulting in yel-low or brown patches

Chemical control

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Pest Symptoms Control measure/s

False wireworm Feeding on seed, roots and seedling stems by larvae, and adults damage emerg-ing seedlings

• Cultural practices to re-duce population as adult cannot fly

• Seed treatment

Black maize beetle Adults chew on seedling stem, resulting in reduced stand

Seed treatments

Leafhoppers and maize streak

Young plants are stunted with curled leaves with white longitudinal stripes

• No chemical control of leafhoppers on wheat

• Can be prevented by later planting dates in areas away from maize field

Disease control

Oats are susceptible to crown and stem rust and to “barley yellow dwarf virus,” which is spread by aphid infestations. It is economically viable to control diseases at yield potential levels above 4 t/ha. Diseases generally lower the kernel weight and hectolitre mass, leading to grain discolouration and downgrading of the product, as well as a lower price per ton of grain.

Diseases of small grains in the winter rainfall regions

Disease group

Disease Symptoms Control

Rusts Stem rust Big parts of the stem ap-pear red-brown

Foliar fungicides at the seven-leaf and again at flag-leaf stagesLeaf rust Orange-brown elliptical

pustules on the leaves and on the ears under high disease pressure

Stripe rust Yellow-orange pustules in narrow stripes of the leaf sheaths and inner surfaces of glumes and lemmas of the heads

Crown rust Bright orange to yellow coloured elongated oval pustules on leaves, sheaths and floral structures

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Disease group

Disease Symptoms Control

Mildew Fluffy white pustules be-come grey with age and later white fungal growth covers the entire plant

Foliar application of fungicides

Spots and blotches

Scald or leaf blotch

Pale, grey patches on the leaf surfaces and later the entire leaf; and the leaf may die off.

Planting disease- free seed, removal of vol-unteer plants and foliar fungicides

Net blotch Dark brown streaks across leaf length with a net-like appearance or brown to black elliptical lesions

Planting high-quality disease-free seed, the use of resistant cultivars, though not available in SA yet

Tan spot Small tan-coloured flecks occur on leaves and sheath

Registered fungicides

Septoria Leaf blotch Small brown spots which later form elongated ovals, then fruiting bod-ies. Severe necrosis

Disposal of contaminated crop debris by burning or ploughing it into the soil.

Foliar fungicides

Glume blotch Oval lesions that coa-lesce to form larger areas of necrotic tissue form on the leaf

Disposal of contaminated crop debris by burning or ploughing it into the soil.

Foliar fungicides

Ear and grain Loose smut Early emergence on ears with dark colour and slightly longer than the healthy ones. Spikelets transformed into powdery masses of dark brown teliospores

The use of high-quality, disease free seed

Karnal bunt Kernels become black-ened, eroded and emit a foul, ‘fishy’ odour

Preventing the entry of the pathogen into a cer-tain area

Stem base and root

Take-all Infected plants ripen pre-maturely and are stunted, die prematurely

Crop rotation.

Volunteer plants, grassy weeds and crop residue should be destroyed

Eye spot Strawbreaker

Eye or lens-shaped eye spot lesion on mature wheat below the first node, premature ripening of the ears

The ploughing or burning of small grain cereal crop residue.

Application of fungicides

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Diseases in the summer rainfall region

VIRUS DISEASE

Maize streak: The symptoms of this disease include fine, linear, chlorotic leaf streaks, shortened tillers, leaves and spikes and excessive tillering and sometimes leaves have bent and curled tips. The disease can be avoided by planting in areas where maize and grasses are infected, plant-ing resistant cultivars and controlling leafhopper populations.

Active ingredients of fungicides registered for the control of seed-borne diseases of small grains

Active ingredientSeed-borne disease

Loose smut oats Covered smut oats

Carbonxin/Thiram

Mancozeb

Tebuconazole

Thiram X X

Triadimefon

Triadimenol X X

Triticonazole

Harvesting methods and maturityOats can be harvested at grain moisture content below 20 %. Shattering in the field can be a problem and rain during harvesting can result in ker-nel discolouration and consequent downgrading of the crop. Normally a commercial harvester is used to harvest the crop, especially when a large number of hectares have been planted. The table of the harvester can vary from 3 m to 10 m, depending on the area planted. To obtain a higher qual-ity, dehulled kernels must be avoided. This may involve slower cylinder speed and wider concave clearances.

Hulless oats are vulnerable to damage. Thresher cylinder speed should be reduced to approximately 900 rpm and the concaves should be carefully adjusted to avoid damage. Plot harvesters/combines are used for trials with small plots. Very small areas are harvested in the traditional way, that is, with the use of sickles.

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POST-HARVEST HANDLINGPOST-HARVEST HANDLING

Cleaning and sieving

There are various options (including cleaning and sieving) to improve grain quality parameters, especially hectolitre mass, to obtain better prices per ton of grain.

Grading

The grading of oats was deregulated in South Africa at the end of the nineties and it is now based on the specifications determined by the buyer. The main “grading factor” is hectolitre mass. Large and well-filled groats/kernels are in high demand by the processors and hectolitre mass is an indication of this aspect of quality.

Just as in the case of wheat and barley, hectolitre mass of oats is deter-mined during the grain-filling stage. Abnormal leaf senescence prior to or during flowering and grain filling because of malnutrition, diseases or stress will cause low hectolitre mass. The deficiencies must be corrected before the flag-leaf stage to ensure a positive effect on hectolitre mass.

Grading requirements for oats

Grade Minimum hectolitre mass

Grade 1

Grade 2

Feed grade

53

48

38

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Storage

Oats can only be stored safely at a grain moisture below 12,5 %, or al-ternatively it can/should be delivered to the buyer as soon as possible to secure the investment. This is the safest and easiest, as the storage of grain can be problematic, especially if the necessary infrastructure is not available.

Damage that can occur during storage under too wet or hot conditions includes the following:

• Grain may turn mouldy. Developing fungi produce mycotoxins that could prove to be toxic and make the grain unfit for human or animal consumption.

• Grain may start germinating or become heat-damaged.

• Grain may become infested with damaging insects. Wet grain is far more susceptible to insect infestation than dry grain because insects need warm, moist conditions to survive and reproduce. Insect-infested grain may acquire a bad taste and odour.

Grain can be stored in concrete or galvanised iron silos. The capacity of these silos can vary from under 1 000 tons to 5 000 tons. Grain can also be stored in silo bags with a capacity of about 180 tons, depending on the type of grain stored. The precautions and recommendations always have

1818

to be followed very strictly. Grain can also be stored in bags, for instance 25 kg, 50 kg or 80 kg each. The bags should be packed on poles to avoid dampening by the floor.

Rodents damage the bags and eat the grain, causing huge losses and pollution of the grain. Grain insects must be controlled by fumigation with phosphate gas and rodents with poison in pellet or liquid form. Only chemi-cals/insecticides registered for that specific grain may be sprayed on the grain to control insects.

Marketing

There are various options, e.g. cleaning and sieving, to improve grain qual-ity parameters, especially hectolitre mass, to attain better prices per ton of grain. Oats are marketed along free-market principles. Oats can therefore be sold to whoever pays the price required, provided the oats comply with all the specifications of the buyer. Matters such as transport, quantity, where, when and in what form the grain will be (mass or packed in bags) must all be stipulated in an agreement/contract. The needs of the buyer as well as the seller must be negotiated and met.

Processing

During processing the grain is sieved into different class sizes. This proc-ess is done very accurately, as an important quality aspect of the end product is the effectiveness of the sieving process. The largest seeds are more desirable, while the smallest grains are generally worthless. Uniform seed size is therefore ideal. As the largest seeds ripen first and tend to fall out first, it is important not to delay harvesting.

Twin oat grains often occur. This characteristic is cultivar-specific but can also be the result of environmental conditions and the harvesting process. Twin oats are undesirable as they go through the sieving process as large seeds and are later separated as two small oat grains that cannot be de-hulled. The harvester must therefore be set in such a way that a minimum of twin oat grains are harvested. Naked oat grains are grains of which the hulls have been removed in the harvesting process and are totally undesirable as they are separated into the small and medium-seed sizes in the sieving process and are then ground, not dehulled in the dehulling process. The adjustment of the harvester is therefore critical and requires special and specific attention by the producer.

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PRODUCTION SCHEDULESPRODUCTION SCHEDULES

ActivitiesJa

nuar

y

Feb

ruar

y

Mar

ch

Apr

il

May

June

July

Aug

ust

Sep

tem

ber

Oct

ober

Nov

embe

r

Dec

embe

r

Soil sampling

Soil preparation

Planting

Fertilisation

Irrigation

Pest control

Disease control

Weed control

Harvesting

Marketing

UTILISATIONUTILISATION

Oats are grown for grain, forage, fodder, straw, bedding, hay, silage and chaff. Food uses include oatmeal, oat flour, oat bran and oat flakes.

Oats are among the most nutritious cereals, high in protein and fibre. The protein of rolled oats is generally greater than that of other cereals. Many of the vitamins and minerals in oats are in the bran and germ, and most oat food products use the entire groat.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The ARC-Small Grain Institute, www.pannar.co.za and www.agricol.co.za are acknowledged for the contribution made during the development of this production guideline..

2020

Further information can be obtained from:

Directorate Plant ProductionPrivate Bag X250PRETORIA 0001

Tel: +27 12 319 6072Fax: +27 12 319 6353E-mail: DPP@daff.gov.za