nutr390_final report biscuits

BUILDING(A(BETTER(BISCUIT:(THE(EFFECT(OF(VARIOUS(TYPES(OF(FIBER(ON((FUNCTIONAL(&(SENSORY(CHARACTERISTICS((Noelle(Cegielski,(Leah(Johnston((

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ABSTRACT

Background: Fiber intake rates in the United States are critically low, having long-term implications

related to the risk of cardiovascular disease, hypertension, gastrointestinal issues, obesity, type 2

diabetes, and a plethora of related health disorders. Consuming a breakfast that is high in fiber promotes

satiety throughout the rest of the day and subsequent positive outcomes, such as weight loss.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to determine the overall functional properties, sensory

characteristics, and nutrient content of biscuits in an attempt to produce a product that is classified as a

good source of fiber.

Methods: Using a variety of ingredients through several trials including whole-wheat (WW) flour,

white whole-wheat (WWW) flour, Hi-Maize natural fiber, bread flour, and garbanzo beans, fiber content

was increased significantly from the baseline product. Three untrained panelists participated in

evaluating the biscuits using a seven-point Hedonic scale using varying descriptors specific to the

characteristic being examined.

Results: Analysis of the overall variance between trials indicated that there was a significant effect on

the fiber content when altering the ingredients, primarily flours, used in the biscuit. The characteristic

ratings were on the positive end of the scale for all trials. The final product was selected by preference

and similar rating set to that of the baseline. Hi-Maize natural fiber (resistant starch) provided the most

significant boost in fiber while retaining favorable sensory characteristics as determined by a sensory

panel.

Conclusions: The study demonstrates that Hi-Maize natural fiber can replace a portion of the flour in

baked goods to increase fiber and retain acceptable sensory characteristics.


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INTRODUCTION

The absence of adequate amounts of fiber in the standard American diet has been well reported

and documented over recent years. The 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans labels fiber as a nutrient

of concern. More than 90% of adults and children are not meeting the daily recommendations for fiber

intake (1). Current adequate intake (AI) recommendations for adults are 38 grams for men and 25 grams

for women. The AI for children under eight years of age is 19 to 25 grams (2). The low levels of fiber

intake have greater long-term implications and are related to an increased risk of coronary heart disease,

hypertension, high LDL cholesterol, stroke, obesity, gastrointestinal disorders, and metabolic

dysfunctions such as type 2 diabetes. Over the last several years, efforts to increase fiber intake amongst

Americans, through the promotion of fruits, vegetables, and whole grain foods, have not produced the

anticipated positive results in raising daily fiber consumption (1). Due to the unsubstantial impact of

these endeavors, there remains a need for successful educational and motivational strategies to increase

fiber intake in the diets of Americans.

Breakfast and convenience or ready-to-eat meals have become a trend and increasingly popular

in America (3). The purpose of this experiment is to convert a well-established food item, the breakfast

biscuit as seen on the McDonalds breakfast Menu and other popular food establishments, and consumed

on a regular basis, into a good source of dietary fiber. A product within the range of 10% to 19% of the

recommended daily value for a particular nutrient is considered to be a good source; therefore, 3.8 grams

per biscuit is appropriate for both men and women based on their respective AI. This will be

accomplished by first by substituting the white and cake flours in the biscuit recipe with different types

of flours that contain higher fiber content, such as whole wheat, oat, quinoa, or buckwheat. Hi-amylose

maize (Hi-Maize natural fiber) is known as a resistant starch and a functional fiber because it is resistant


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to digestive enzymes in the small intestine. Some studies have reported that Hi-Maize can be used as a

complete or partial replacement for all-purpose flour in baked products without significantly altering the

sensory characteristics (4). The objective is to determine which type of flour will produce a product that

demonstrates similar sensory and objective evaluation results to that of the baseline product and meets

the requirements to be classified as a good source of dietary fiber. Other substitutions or additions to the

recipe may be necessary to meet the goal, such as ground flax seed, chia seed, or vegetables.


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MATERIALS & METHODS

Materials

Cake flour (white, Swans Down, New Orleans, LA); bread flour (enriched, unbleached, Gold

Medal, Minneapolis, MN); baking powder (double acting, Red Star, Milwaukee, WI); baking soda (Arm

and Hammer, Princeton, NJ); salt (Cargill, Cleveland, OH); sugar (white, granulated, GFS, Grand

Rapids, MI); buttermilk (low-fat, cultured, Kemp’s, St. Paul, MN); cream (heavy, whipping, Meijer,

Grand Rapids, MI); eggs (Eggland’s Best, Malvern, PA & Roundy’s, Milwaukee, WI); butter (unsalted,

Roundy’s, Milwaukee, WI); flour (whole wheat, King Arthur, Norwich, VT); flour (all- purpose, GFS

Grand Rapids, MI); flour (white, whole wheat, King Arthur, Norwich, VT); flaxseed meal (ground,

golden, Bob’s Red Mill, Milwaukie, OR); garbanzo beans (canned, whole, drained, Roundy’s,

Milwaukee, WI); milk (whole, Lucerne Pleasanton, CA); Hi-maize Natural Fiber (corn, resistant starch,

King Arthur, Norwich, VT); water (tap, room temperature, approximately 68°F).


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Biscuit Preparation

All formulas used for the biscuit preparation are reported in Table 1. Flours were replaced and/or

added at different percentages along with fat content in later labs. Dry ingredients were individually

weighed and then added to the same mixing bowl where they were stirred with a wooden spoon for 24

rotations until all incorporated. Liquid ingredients were individually weighed and then placed into a

separate mixing bowl. A metal whisk was used to beat the room temperature egg and whisked briskly


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for 20-25 seconds to combine with the other liquid ingredients. The garbanzo beans were drained, added

to a food processor (using the smaller attachment) with water, and pureed for 32 seconds. A rubber

spatula was used to scrape the sides of the food processor and then the beans were pureed for an

additional 14 seconds. The pureed garbanzo beans were gently folded into the whisked wet ingredients

using a wooden spoon. Cold butter chunks (approximately 48.2° F, 9° C) were incorporated into the

flour mixture by hand using the fingertips until the butter was broken down into the size of corn kernels,

about two minutes. The wet ingredients were added to the dry ingredients and quickly mixed by hand

forming a slightly sticky ball of dough. All-purpose flour was sprinkled onto the countertop surface, to

prevent the dough from sticking, where the dough was kneaded by hand 32 times. The dough was then

rolled out to 7 x 7 inches to 7.5 x 7.5 inches (177.8 mm x 177.8 mm to 190.5 mm x 190.5 mm) using a

wooden rolling pin that was dusted with all-purpose flour. A 2-¼ inch (57.15 mm) round metal cutter

was dipped in all-purpose flour and used to cut out 9 biscuits. Eight of the nine biscuits were placed in a

nine inch round cake pan lined with parchment paper. Biscuits were arranged around the pan in a circle

with the sides touching each other and the pan so the biscuits cooked evenly and resulted in a higher

biscuit. The remaining biscuit was placed in a separate nine inch round cake pan with parchment and

placed in the oven at the same time as the other biscuits. Biscuits baked in a 450° F oven (230° C) on the

center rack for 15 minutes. Biscuits were removed from the oven and left in the pan. After three

minutes, they were separated and placed on a cooling rack where they cooled for another four minutes.

Biscuits were served warmed immediately after cooling at an internal temperature of 140-144° F/60-

62.22° C).

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TABLE 2. Equipment Chart

Equipment Manufacturer Serial Number/Size Model Number Material

Scale AND Company, Ltd 5A2844888 EJ-200 50004 N/A

Oven General Electric LM286481 Q JGSP28BEK4BB N/A

Round baking pan N/A 1.750H x 9.000W x 9.000D N/A Aluminum

Rolling pin N/A Length: 10 inches N/A Wood

Round Biscuit Cutter Crate and Barrel 2.25 inches N/A Stainless steel

Parchment Paper Pan Liner 16' x 24" N/A Parchment

Food Processor Kitchen Aid WJH06003187 KFP600WH N/A Handheld Can Opener Oxo 7" x 2" x 3" 28081V3 Stainless steel

N/A - Not Available or Non-Applicable (

Objective Measurements

Objective measurement tests were completed to help establish the perfect biscuit that not only

reached nutritional goals but were also favored by sensory panelists for appearance of the product.

Biscuits were weighed on a scale prior to being baked (raw weight) and also after baked and cooled.

After baking the height and the diameter of the biscuit were measured using a caliper. Internal

temperature of the biscuit was taken with a digital thermometer after cooling along with external

temperature using a laser gun. This was done to determine the proper temperature to serve the biscuit.

The color of the biscuit was determined and recorded using a color guide of paint swatches. Both the

outside (crust) and inside (middle) of the biscuit were tested to find a color appealing to the eye for

appearance. Nutritional Analysis was recorded using the software program Food Works 17 (5).


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Sensory Evaluation

Three female college students from Dominican University partook as untrained panelists on the

sensory team and used a Hedonic scale to rate the aroma, appearance, color, flavor, mouthfeel, moisture,

ease of eating, and likeliness to purchase the biscuit (see Appendix B for Hedonic rating scales). Each

biscuit was evaluated separately. Biscuits were served after cooling to an internal temperature of

approximately 140-144° F (60-62.22° C). Biscuits were placed side by side on a white plate, with a

dashed light blue border. The biscuits were given a random number that corresponded to its sensory

evaluation form so panelists were unaware of what was different about each biscuit. They were also

served with a glass of room temperature tap water and a plain, white napkin. The sensory tests were

conducted in the nutrition lab, Quantity Kitchen at Dominican University. Illumination of the room was

appropriate with standard white light bulbs. Panelists were seated next to one another at a metal table

and separated by white, cardboard dividers. The sensory panelists were instructed not to discuss with

one another while tasting biscuits and recording their evaluations.

Statistical Analyses

Objective tests were repeated three times and the average was taken. Sensory ratings from the

three panelists were recorded and also averaged. From the data, means and standard deviations were

calculated using Microsoft Excel 2013 and recorded in the provided tables also compiled in Excel.


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TABLE 3. Fiber & Fat content of biscuits prepared with various percentages of ingredients

Ingredient Baseline

1Whole Wheat

Flour

2White Whole

Wheat (WWW) Flour +

Flaxseed Meal

2AWhole Wheat (WW) Flour +

Flaxseed Meal

3Garbanzo

beans + butter

3AGarbanzo

beans, no butter

4WWW Flour +

Hi-Maize + Bread Flour

4AWWW Flour + Hi-Maize, no bread flour

5Hi-Maize reduction, Bread flour

increase5A

Whole Milk% % % % % % % % % %

Cake Flour 23Bread Flour 21 20.53 20.12 19.95 20.03 20.23 13.41 14.45 14.27Whole Wheat Flour 22.94 22.3White Whole Wheat Flour 22.49 22.39 22.62 19.17 22.61 18.9 18.66Hi-Maize Natural Fiber 10.03 19.88 8.65 8.54All-Purpose Flour1 1.54 1.09 1.31 1.16 1.17 0.7 0.7 2.64 2.61Ground Golden Flaxseed Meal 2.38 2.36 2.38 2.39 2.4 2.4 2.36 2.33Double Acting Baking Powder 2 2.2 2.16 2.14 2.14 2.17 2.16 2.17 2.13 2.1Baking Soda 0.5 0.52 0.51 0.5 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.5 0.5Salt 0.6 0.59 0.59 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.57Granulated Sugar 2 2.25 2.2 2.19 2.19 2.21 2.21 2.23 2.18 2.15Buttermilk 19 19 18.63 18.39 18.57 18.72 18.72 18.76 18.46 18.22Heavy Whipping Cream 8 8.34 8.19 8.1 8.16 8.22 8.22 8.22 8.11Whole Milk 8.14Eggs 10 9.03 8.85 9.48 9.47 8.49 9.37 9.39 8.7 9.72Unsalted Butter 13 13.06 12.8 12.7 6.25 6.29 6.3 6.2 6.12Garbanzo Beans 6.182 12.682 6.232 6.24 3.82 3.77Water 2.33 2.3Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100Fiber & Fat Content (grams per serving)Fiber 0 0.8 1.74 2.2944 2.132 1.2954 5.181 9.5174 4.656 5.9934

Fat 11.3 7 8.6 10.34 5.216 4.2864 5.501 6.114 5.077 5.2144

1All-Purpose flour used for dusting the kneading and rolling surface and rolling pin. Was measured calculated in Baseline.2Percentage reflects the weight of pureed garbanzo beans with liquid.3Lab 1A not included - Variable was the size of the biscuit cutters. Separate nutrient analysis were not conducted.4Analyzed using raw dough total weight.

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Table 3 provides the percentages of each ingredient used by trial and the corresponding fiber and

fat content of the product. The baseline product contained no grams of fiber and 11.3 grams of fat. By

altering the main source of flour throughout the future trials, the fiber content continued to increase

through the experiment. The substitution of whole-wheat flour (WW) increased the fiber content to only

0.8 grams. The fat decreased by 38% due to a reduction in the size and weight of the biscuit. Sensory

panels preferred the aroma, color, and flavor of the whole-wheat biscuit to the control biscuit (Table 4).

The use of white whole-wheat flour (WWW) saw a 54% increase in fiber content and 65% increase

(based on the raw weight of the dough). The fat also increased in conjunction with an increase in weight

as we looked to solidify the preferred size and weight of the biscuit. A combination of white whole-

wheat flour and ground golden flaxseed meal accounted for an additional increase as well as an


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improvement in the biscuit color. The WWW and ground golden flaxseed meal biscuit was preferred

over the whole-wheat flour by the panelists. With the addition of the garbanzo beans, there was a slight

increase of 18.4% in fiber. The ingredient that made the greatest impact on the fiber content was Hi-

Maize natural fiber or resistant starch that was added to the recipe in different amounts. Hi-Maize was

substituted for 15% of the white whole-wheat flour and 33% of the bread flour resulting in a significant

surge in fiber content by 59%. Sensory panelists gave the product positive markings. When the bread

flour was completely eliminated, there was a high uptick in fiber, but less than satisfactory sensory

results due to the flavor, mouthfeel and moisture of the biscuit. From this finding, 7.05 grams of bread

flour was added and the amount of hi-maize natural fiber was lowered to 7.08 grams. The effect of the

adjustment was a 10% decrease in fiber; however, the sensory panel greatly preferred the combination of

Hi-Maize and bread flour in all categories with the exception of color. Despite the decline in fiber

content, the product still exceeded fiber goals by 18.4% (4.656 g).

The secondary goal to increasing fiber was to lower the fat content of the biscuit by cutting the

amount of butter used and replacing this fat with garbanzo beans (pureed). Butter was incorporated at

6.25% (as a standard percentage based on the gram weight of all ingredients) and 6.18% pureed

garbanzo beans, As expected, the fat content was reduced by 53.8% from the baseline product. As

shown in table 4, with the removal of a portion or all of the butter, there was a corresponding decrease in

the sensory ratings for flavor, mouthfeel, moisture and ease of eating in comparison with baseline.


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Table 4 displays the results of the sensory panel in detail noting standard deviations. The

baseline product receives the most favorable ratings across the board in comparison with other products.

While the ratings may have decreased from the baseline product, generally the opinions of the panelists

remained on the positive end of the rating scale for all characteristics evaluated. There was a substantial

decrease in the aroma rating with pureed garbanzo beans replaced the butter 100% and with the removal

of the bread flour. The panelists preferred the effect of the WWW flour and golden ground flaxseed

meal in contrast with the WW flour and golden ground flaxseed meal. The outside color of the biscuits

fluctuated depending on the ingredients as well as the oven used to bake the biscuits. Flavor ratings

remained steady, but saw an unfavorable drop with the removal of butter and bread flour. However, the

panelists rated the product with no butter slightly higher in regard to mouthfeel. The final product

received a higher mean rating for flavor than the baseline product at 6.67. A key challenge was

maintaining moisture while substituting flours and butter. The substitution of WW flour saw an increase

in the moisture rating from baseline. The ease of eating category was established as an evaluation of the

structure and flakiness of the biscuit. The ratings showed little fluctuation throughout the process with

the exception of the removal of bread flour. The ratings most received in the likeliness to purchase

category were Somewhat Likely, Likely, or Very likely for all trials. While the overall ratings through

the experiment were favorable, there were generally lower than then baseline product. The final selected

product containing a combination of Hi-Maize, WWW flour, and bread flour received ratings that were

the most reflective of the baseline in comparison with all other biscuit products.

A limitation in this study is the varying size and weights of the raw and baked biscuits. The

baseline recipe produced a heavier and bigger product, resulting in experimentation with various sized

biscuit cutters. Once the preferred weight and size of the biscuits was established, the biscuits became


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more consistent. Initially, this had an impact on the nutrient analysis comparisons between products. The

research supports the findings of other studies on the effect and use of resistant starch in the place of

flour in baked goods on consumer favorability and fiber content. Further research is necessary to

improve upon the moisture of the final product. Food gums have been suggested as a possible moisture

additive due to their water-binding properties. Xanthan Gum is considered a natural product derived

from bacterial fermentation using nutrient sources is often used as an emulsion stabilizer in salad

dressings and to bind water to improve moisture in baked products.


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CONCLUSIONS

The study was successful in meeting and exceeding the goals. The fiber content of the final

product was 4.656 grams, classifying the product as an excellent source of fiber (6). The Hi-Maize

natural fiber, a resistant starch, proved to be a good substitution for a portion of flour in recipes for

baked goods to increase fiber content. A combination of Hi-Maize, white whole wheat flour, bread flour,

ground golden flaxseed meal, and garbanzo beans were contributors to the elevation in fiber and

produced a product with similar sensory results as the baseline product. The total fat was also reduced

by 55% from the baseline product. The outcome of the study has implications for more research on

substituting resistant starches in some of America’s most beloved foods to fill the fiber gap in their diet.


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