nursing research lecture 4a.ppt
TRANSCRIPT
Nursing Research 63-377Dr. Wally J. Bartfay
“Anyone who has never made a mistake has never tried anything new”
(Albert Einstein, 1879-1955)
Review Quiz: True of False?
1. Research questions are qualitative in nature only? 2. Hypotheses can be both quantitative & qualitative
in nature? 3. Hypotheses are never “proved” through
hypothesis testing; rather they are accepted or supported?
4. A non-directional hypothesis specifies the expected direction or nature of a hypothesized relationship?
5. A research question guides the type of data to be collected by the investigator?
Theory in Research
Is a set of interrelated concepts (building blocks) that structure a systemic view of phenomena for the purpose of explaining or predicting outcomes
Like a “blueprint” which provides a guide for modeling a structure or building, what goes where & how does everything fit together (bricks, pipes, electrical, heating, etc)
Theory in Research
Is a set of interrelated concepts that provides a systematic view of phenomenon
Guides practice & research Practice allows testing of theory & generates ?’s for
research Research contributes to theory-building &
establishing practice guidelines Hence, what is learned through practice, theory &
research interweaves to create knowledge fabric of the discipline of nursing
Relationships Between Theory, Practice & Research
Theory
PracticeResearch
Nursing
“Traditional” Types of Theories
(1) “Grand or macro-theories” attempt to describe & explain large segments of phenomenon (e.g., chaos theory, theory of evolution, Roger’s, Orem’s, Newman’s)-
(2) “Middle-range” are more narrow/ restricted in scope (e.g., decision-making, self-care deficits, infant bonding)
(3) “Micro-range” link concrete concepts into a statement that can be examined in practice & research (hypotheses are examples here)
Conceptual Models/ Frameworks
Are symbolic representations of a set of concepts (building blocks of theories e.g., health, anxiety, QOL, CGB, adaptation) & their proposed relationships
Conceptual Models/ Frameworks: An example
Agent
Environment
Host
Chain of Infection
Proposed relationships depicting 3 necessary concepts for chain of infection
Conceptual Models/ Frameworks: “Rules of Thumb”
When researchers used quantitative inquiry & deductive reasoning, often appears at beginning of paper before discussion
When researchers use qualitative inquiry & inductive reasoning, often appears at the end of the paper in discussion section
Schematic Models
Are common in both qualitative & quantitative research
They represent phenomena “graphically” Concepts & how they are linked are
represented by arrows, symbols, boxes etc Useful in clarifying associations among
concepts
Statistical Models
Used in quantitative studies Use symbols to express quantitatively the
nature of relationships between defined variables
Each concept/ term in model is quantifiable Statistical models where probability is used
to describe/ explain & predict outcomes
Critiquing Criteria For Theories, Conceptual Models & Frameworks
(1) Is it clearly identified & transparent to the reader?
(2) Is it consistent with a nursing perspective? (3) Is it appropriate to guide the research question(s)
of interest? (4) Are concepts/ variables clearly defined? (5) Are the links consistent with concepts being
studied and the methods of measurements? (6) Are the results (data, findings) examined &
interpreted employing these theories, conceptual models or frameworks?
Design in quantitative research
Word implies “the organization of elements into a masterful work of art”
It describes the basic strategies that will be employed to address research ?(s)
Research Design
Hypotheses
TheoreticalFramework
Research DesignReview ofLiterature
Research ?s
Interrelationships of review of lit., research ?s, hypotheses, research Theoretical framework & research design
Element of Control
Defined as measures used to hold conditions of study uniform
Process of holding constant possible influences on the dependent variable or outcome
It is established by ruling-out extraneous or mediating variables that compete with the independent variable as possible explanation for achieved outcome
Ways to control for extraneous variables
Are variables that interfere with operation of the phenomena being studied (e.g., age & gender, other chronic disease conditions present)
Use homogeneous sample (e.g., menopausal women aged 55 to 60 years of age, avoid “messy” samples)
Manipulation of independent variable Randomization helps to eliminate bias & aids in
attainment of a representative sample
Threats to Internal Validity
Asks whether the independent variable really made difference or change to dependent variable
History: Another specific event that may effect outcomes (e.g., media reports on star with breast CA, so breast-self exams increase)
Maturation: refers to developmental, biological or psychological processes that operate within a subject as a function of time & are external to events of study (e.g., study to examine effects of vit. E on preventing cat. in eyes, where age of subject is a threat)
Threats to Internal Validity
Testing: (e.g., effect of taking a pre-test may sensitize subject & improve post-test results)
Instrumentation: (e.g., researcher wants to compare tympanic, digital & electronic thermometers to accuracy of mercury-type- need to check calibration specs pre and post)
Threats to Internal Validity
Mortality: loss of study subjects after baseline measures established
Selection bias: (e.g., subjects who want to enter into smoking cessation program, help to avoid by randomization)
Threats to External Validity
Deals with possible problems of generalizability of findings/ outcomes to additional populations (e.g., study involved IDDM, can you generalize to NIDDM?)
Selection effects (sample in study was too small to generate statistically significant conclusion- issue of “power”)
Threats to External Validity
Reactive effects: defined as subjects’ responses to being studied
Known as “Hawthorne Effect” (Western Electric Corporation study on working conditions)
Here, researchers examined various Rx. Effects (e.g., turning up or down lights, piping in loud/ soft music, changing working hours etc)
No matter what researcher did, workers’ productivity increased
Conclusion, workers productivity increased b/c they were being studied
Threats to External Validity
Measurement effects: administration of pre-test in study affects generalizability of findings to other populations (e.g., “attitudes” towards AIDS in general where researcher examines effects of AIDS education program that deals with “risk factors” associated with AIDS)
Quantitative Research Designs
(1) Exploratory or Formative: to gain new insights, discover new ideas & increase knowledge about a phenomenon (usually conducted when little is known about a topic)
(2) Descriptive: Structured observations or ?s or both are used to describe a phenomenon, situation, group or characteristic
Quantitative Research Designs
(3) Correlational: primary intent is to explain the nature of the proposed relationship(s)
(4) Experimental: Can be used to test cause & effect relationships & serves as basis of prediction: Must have following criteria:
(a) manipulation of treatment variable (b) control of one or more constants into the
experimental situation (e.g., temperature, Dx) (c) random selection & inclusion of subjects
Quantitative Research Designs
(5) Quasi-experimental: lacks one or more criteria for a true experiment
(6) Evaluative: tests how well a program, practice or policy is working
Mark down these dates for Dr. Nancy Edwards, Visiting Nursing Research Scholar: November 1st
10 to 11 am “Need for nursing research: Dissemination & uptake of research evidence” HEC room 104
3- 4 pm: Seminar/ workshop: “Developing research teams & programs of research” HEC room 203
4 to 5 pm: Major public talk: HEC room 203
Have a great week!!!