nuclear medicine 1. - u-szeged.hu · 2016. 12. 8. · history 3. • 1971 nuclear medicine -...
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Nuclear Medicine Physics
University of Szeged
Department of Nuclear Medicine
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History 1.• 1896 Henri Becquerel - mysterious rays (Uranium)• 1897 Marie and Pierre Curie - radioactivity• 1901-1914 Therapy with radium• 1924-1935 Georg de Hevesy - radiotracer studies in
animals (bone mineral, 32P)• 1938 Glenn Seaborg - 131I, 99mTc• 1946 Allen Reid, Albert Keston - 125I, RIA (insulin) (1959)
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History 2.
• 1957 Benedict Cassen, David Kuhl - rectilinear scanner (Picker 1959)
• 1958 Hal Anger - gamma camera (Nuclear Chicago 1962)
• 1962 David Kuhl - emission tomography (SPECT, PET)
• 1964 commercial 99mTc-generator
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History 3.
• 1971 nuclear medicine - medical speciality US• 1976 John Keyes, Ronald Jaszczak - SPECT• 1983 Henry Wagner- neuroreceptor PET• 1990 Computer network for nuclear medicine• 1995 Coincidence SPECT (SPECT/PET)• 1999 PET/CT
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Nuclear Medicine• Diagnostics
– in vivo– in vitro
• Therapy• multidisciplinary approach
– physician– physicist– chemist, pharmacologist– computer specialist– engineer
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Topics
• Basic physics
• Instrumentation, measurement systems
• Radiochemistry, radiopharmacology
• In vitro diagnostics
• In vivo diagnostics (organ systems)
• Therapy
• Radiation safety
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Radio-nuclides in NM
• Penetration of the radiation • No penetration• Half-life T 1/2
• Atomic number
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Atomic physics
• Nucleus and electron shell• Electron (e) shell (10-10 m) K, L, M etc.• Nucleus (10-15 m) proton (p)(Z), neutron (n)(N)• Mass number A=Z+N• Isotopes z X, isobars AX• Nuclide card (Karlsruher Nuklidkarte)
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Energy level diagram for 99mTc
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Decay of radionuclides
Mother nuclide Daughter nuclide+ particles+ energy (e.g.photon)
Type of decay
Half life
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Activity
• The activity of a radioactive sample is the number of atoms undergoing transformation per unit time
• 1 bequerel (Bq): one disintegration per second (dps)
• 1 curie (Ci): 3.7x1010 dps (1g 226Ra)
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Decay processes 1.
Alpha decaye.g. 224Ra
A
Z XA-4
Z-2 Y + alpha + E4
2
Beta decaye.g. 14C, 99Mo
X Y + e + Ev + EßAZ
AZ+1
0-1
Positron decaye.g. 11C, 18F X Y + e + Ev + Eß+
AZ
AZ-1 +1
0
Electron capturee.g. 111In, 125I
X + e- Y* Y + gammaA A AZ Z-1 Z-1
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Decay scheme of 14C
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Principal decay scheme of 99Mo
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Decay scheme of 18F
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Decay processes 2.
• Isomeric transition (e.g. 99mTc)• Internal conversion (therapy)• Nuclear fission (reactor)
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Interaction of radiation with matter
• Radiation detection, biologic effect• Ionization, excitation
• Ionization: ion pair (negative electron, positively charged nucleus)
• Excitation: light, heat, chemical reaction
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Interaction of charged particles(Alfa, beta etc.)
• Elastic collisions with atomic nuclei (Bremsstrahlung)
• Excitation of electrons (X-rays, Auger electrons)
• Ionisation (ion pairs)• Catastrophic collision
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Path of heavy charged particle in matter
excitation
ionization
close approach
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Interaction of Beta Particles
• Bremsstrahlung (breaking radiation)• Cerenkov radiation• Positron annihilation
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Positron annihilation
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Interactions of photons• Photoelectric absorption
• Compton scatter
• Pair production
• (Rayleigh scattering (coherent scattering) (CT))
• (Photonuclear reaction)
• Measure of photon absorption( linear attenuation coeff. [cm-1 ])
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Principal photon interactions in matter
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Radiation detector systems
University of Szeged
Department of Nuclear Medicine
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Classification of detectors
• Medium in which the interaction takes place(liquid, solid, gas)
• Nature of the physical phenomenon produced(excitation, ionisation, chemical change)
• Type of electronic pulse generated
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Gas-filled detectors
• Ionisation chambers (personal dosimeters, dose calibrators)
• Proportional counters (gas chromatography, alfa beta particles directly, survey dosimeters)
• Geiger-Müller tubes (survey instruments, low level radiation)
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Gas-filled detector
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Characteristic pulse-height curves
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Scintillation detectors
• Higher counting rates (fast resolving times)• Gamma radiation (proportionality)
• Sodium iodine crystals (Tl activated) (well counters, Gamma camera, SPECT)
• BGO, LSO (PET)• Semiconductors (dosimeter, camera?)
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Scintillation detector system
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Principles of a single-channel PHA
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Gamma camera• Scintillation crystal (NaI)• PM tubes• Electronics (high-voltage supply, amplifiers, pulse-
height analyser)• Collimators• Computer• Quality assurance (sensitivity, uniformity, linearity)
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Block diagram of the Anger scintillation camera
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Collimation
Parallel-hole collimator Converging collimator
Diverging collimator Pinhole collimator
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Position-determining circuitry
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Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)
• Dedicated SPECT• Gamma camera based SPECT (single head, multiple head)• Detector• Gantry• Computer• Quality assurance (uniformity, linearity, geom. resolution,
COR, 3D phantoms)
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Positron emission tomography (PET)
• Dedicated PET (Brain)• Whole body PET• Animal PET• Detectors BGO, LSO (coincidence detection)• Gantry, bed• Computer• Quality assurance (uniformity, linearity, geom. resolution,
COR, transmission source)