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POSSIBLE SOURCES OF OIL SPTIJIJS IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA

TERMINAL OPERATIONS

O n l y o n e r e f i n e r y e x i s t s i n W . A . , a t K w i n a n a , 2 0 k n s o u t ho f F reman t le , bu t t anke r l oad ing o f c rude o i f a t Ba r rowIs tand and B roone and un load ing o f re f i ned pe t ro leun p roduc tsa t F r e n a n t l e , P o r t H e d l a n d , P o r t w a l c o t t , D a m p i e r a n d t o al i n i t ed ex ten t a t o the r po r t s occu rs , wh i l e bunke r i . ngac t i v i t i es a re cons ide rab le a t t he Por t o f F renan t le . Theproposed woods ide Jo in t Ven tu re j us t sou th o f W i thne l l Bay a tthe Bur rup Pen insu la w111 invo l ve t rans fe r o f condensa te totanke rs .

o i l s p i l l a g e s d u r i n g t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d t o b eq u i c k l y c u r t a i l e d a n d o f a s n a 1 1 s i z e .

MARINE TRANSPORT

Accord ing to the es t ima te by the Na t iona l Academy o fs c i e n c e s , U s A ( 1 9 7 5 ) , m a r i n e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , i n c l u d i n gte rm ina l ope ra t i ons and bunke r ing , accoun ted fo r 35 t o f t heto ta l annua l i npu t o f pe t ro leum hyd roca rbons en te r i ng theoceans a round 1970 . Approx ina te l y ha l f o f t he 358 resu l tedf rom de l i be ra te d i scha rge o f o i l y l ^ ta te rs wh i l e on l y abou t aten th o f t h i s f i gu re resu l ted f rom tanke r acc lden ts .

F igu res ob ta ined f rom o i ] conpan ies fo r L977 showed tha ta p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 5 0 0 0 0 t o n n e s ( 3 . 9 n i l l i o n b a r r e l s ) o f o i lwe re ca r r i ed to and f rom W,A . po r t s pe r mon th i -n abou t 20sh ip loads . The quan t i t y pe r sh ip va r ied f rom 3000 to 85 000tonnes and 80 t o f t he o i1 was t ranspor ted to and f ron theref inery at Kwinana in approxirnatel-y 14 shiploads per nonth.The o i l va r i ed f rom c rude to re f i ned r . r i t h dens i t j - es rang ingf r o n 0 . 5 5 t o 1 . 0 3 . T h e h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i o n f o r a s i n g l e o i 1t ype , 438 o r 238 000 tonnes pe r rnon th , cons i s ted o f c rudeo i I , d e n s i t y 0 . 8 6 , t r a n s p o r t e d f r o m t h e M i d d l e E a s t t oKw inana . Second to th i s was 13 t o r 73 000 tonnes pe r mon tho f c r u d e o i l , d e n s i t y 0 . 8 4 . c a r r i e d f r o m B a r r o w I s l a n d t oKw inana .

More recen t f i gu res f ron the Commonwea l th Depar tmen t o fT ranspor t (1979) showed tha t 8 .55 n i l l i on tonnes o f o i l we rehand led annua l l y i n W.A . po r t s , o f wh ich 64 t was a t F reman t le( i nc ludes Kw i .nana ) .

Near t y 80* o f t he 452 acc iden ta l wo r ld o i1 sp i l l age i nc iden tsf rom tanke rs ove r 3 000 d .w . t . du r inq L969-73 occu r red w i th incoas ta l wa te rs t ca rd e t a l . , 1975 \ Th i s fac t , and thecons ide rab le o i1 t ranspor t t o and f rom Kw inana , sugges ts tha tthe sea j us t sou th o f Pe r th i s t he nos t 1 i ke1y a rea to r ano i l sp i l l age to occu r . The o i1 wou ld p robab ly have a dens i t yo f 0 .84 o r 0 .86 and comba t i ve measures shou l -d be o rgan ised tot r e a t s u c h a n o i 1 .

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F o r o f f s h o r e d r i l l i n g r i g s t h e s p i I l r a t e ( s i z e u n s p e c i f i e d )was ca l cu la ted a t 1 fo r eve ry 455 we l l s d r i l l ed (nod is t i nc t i on was nade be tween exp lo ra t i on and p roduc t i ond r i l l i nq ) . No o i l sp i1 l s f rom d r i l l i ng r i gs have beenrepor ted i n Aus t ra l i a t o da te .

In the on l y ope ra t i ng o f f sho re o i I f i e l -d i n Aus t ra l i a , t heBass S t ra i t , t he V ic to r i an M ines Depar tnen t has f i gu res fo rl osses wh ich have been as l ow as 1 ba r re l o f o i l f o r eve rv 54n i 1

' l i a n n r a r l r r a a r l

FATE OF SPILT OIL

The changes undergone by sp i l t o i l w i l l de te rm ine i t s l i ke1ye f fec t on mar ine resou rces and i n f l uence the cho ice o f c lean -up app roach . They a re dependen t upon (1 ) t he t ype o f o i1( c r u d e o r r e f i n e d , c o n t e n t a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f a l i p h a E i c ,a l i cyc l i c , a romat i c and o le f i n i c compounds . pe rcen tage o f 1owb o i l i n q p o i n t c o m p o n e n t s , s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y , v i s c o s i t y , p o u rpo in t , su lphu r and vanad i -un con ten ts ) , (2 ) wea the r cond j - t i ons(w ind s t reng th and d i rec t i on , t enpera tu re ) , ( 3 ) seacond i t i ons ( su r face cu r ren t s t reng th and d i rec t j - on , waves ,t i d e s , w a t e r d e p t h , p r e s e n c e o f r e e f s , p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r ,m ic rob ia ] f l o ra con ten t ) and (4 ) sho re cond i t i ons ( s ta t i c o rdynan ic su r face , open o r enc losed coas t l i ne , rocks , pebb l -es .s a n d , r n u d , v e g e t a t i o n ) .

The phys i ca l and chemica l t rans fo rma t ions wh ich the sp i l lw i l l unde rgo a t sea compr i se sp read inq f ron the po in t sou rce ,l a te ra l and ve r t i ca l d j - spe rs ion , s l i ck novemen t ,so lub i l i za t i on , evapora t i on , emu ls i f i ca t i on w i th wa te r , t a rba l l f o rma t ion , pho to -ox ida t i on , a t tachnen t t o pa r t i cu la terna te r l a l , up take and me taboL i - sm inc lud ing m ic rob ia ldeg rada t i on . These t rans fo rna t i ons a re i n te r - re la ted and a reva r i -ab1e acco rd ing to space and t ime . Fu r the r i n fo rna t i on onthem, bo th genera l l y and fo r spec i f i c o i1s , may be found i nmany pub l i ca t i ons e .g . Ne lson -Smi th (1973) , NAS Repor t( 7 9 7 5 1 , w a r d l e y - S m i t h ( 1 9 7 5 ) , B l a i k l e y ( ] - 9 7 7 ) , G E S A M P ( L 9 7 7 ) ,c e r l a c h ( 1 9 8 1 ) . R o y a l C o m m i s s i o n R e p o r t ( l - 9 8 1 ) , V a n d e r n e u l e n( L 9 8 2 1 , W h i t t l e e t a 1 . ( 1 9 8 2 ) , C O N C A W E ( 1 9 8 3 ) , C o r n a c k( 1 9 8 3 ) .

Add i t i on o f d i spe rsan ts w i l l nod i f y such t ran fo rma t ions andin f l uence the pe rs i s tence o f t he o i l a t sea , i n sed imen ts andon sho re l i nes and i t s e f fec t upon rna r ine resou rces .

A conprehens ive s tudy o f t he fa te o f sp i l t o i l on sho re l i neswas rnade by Owens and Les l i e (1977) and app l i ed to theCanad ian coas t l i ne . The i r s tudy concen t ra ted on the phys i ca ll i t t o ra l p rocesses and geomorpho logy o f t he coas t l i ne andreLa ted th i s aspec t t o o i1 sp i l 1 c lean -up ope ra t i ons . Theshore l i ne res idence t i nes o f o i1 f ro rn seve ra l acc iden ta lsp i1 l s i n d i f f e ren t pa r t s o f t he wor ld were a l so su rveyed byG u n d l a c h a n d H a y e s ( 1 9 7 8 ) .

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A b r i e f s u r v e y o f s o n e o f t h e s e e f f e c t s f o l l o w s w i t h a ne r n p h a s i s w h e r e p o s s i b l e o n W . A . r e s o u r c e s a n d a c t i v i t i e s .

SHOREL INE S

Al thouqh cons ide red app l i cab le to the coas t l i ne o f t heU . S . A . , t h e o i l s p i l l v u l n e r a b i l i t y i n d e x o f G u n d l a c h a n dHayes (1978) i s no t a lways read i l y t ransposab le to thewes te rn Aus t ra l i an s i t ua t i on and has been c r i t i c i sed fo r no ttak inq su f f i c i en t accoun t o f b io log r i ca l f ea tu res (Owens andR o b i l l i a r d ) , 1 9 8 1 ) . T h e s c a l e o n t h e i r i n d e x i s f r o m 1 t o 1 0and emphas ises o i1 res idence t ime . Fo r a sca le o f s i rn i l a rmagn i tude to be va l i d f o r t he Wes te rn Aus t ra l i an coas t ,p repa ra to ry f i e ld s tud ies o f t he phys i ca l , hyd ro log t i ca l andb io log i ca l cha rac te r i s t i cs o f t he rep resen ta t i ve sho re l i neswou ld be necessa ry .

On a more general scale of low to rnediun to hi-ghenv i ronmen ta l vu lne rab i l i t y t o o i1 sp i l Ls the sho re l i nes o fwes te rn Aus t ra l i a may be ten ta t i ve l y ca tego r i sed as fo I l ows ,us inq the geomorpho l -og i ca l rnapp ing un i t s o f Tab le 1 ' Pa r t 1 .

L o w v u l n e r a b i l i t y - M a p p i n g U n i t s - 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , ! O ' I 7 ' ! 8 , 2 0 -

M e d i u n v u l n e r a b i l i t y - M a p p i n q U n i t s - 7 , 2 , 3 ' 4 , 5 , 1 6

H i g h v u l n e r a b i l i t y - M a p p i n q U n i t s - L L , ! 2 , I 3 ' 1 4 , 1 5 ' 1 9 -

Shore l i nes expec ted to be l eas t vu l -ne rab le to an o i l sp i l la re exposed rocky head lands and sheer c l i f f s . These havel i t t l - e o r no ho r i zon ta l a reas and a re exposed to cons j -de rab lewave ac t i on , so the o i l does no t se t t l e and i s gu i ck l yd j " spe rsed . Such sho re l - i nes a re i nhosp i tab le toco lon i sa t i on by p lan ts and an i rna l s .

Mangrove a reas a re cons ide red to be under the g rea tes tth rea t . They a re f l a t and muddy , t he o i1 c l i ngs to the roo tsys tems and i s d i f f i cu l t t o renove , and recove ry t lmes a rerepo r ted to be l ong ' sa l t na rshes a re a l so p roduc t i ve a reas ,but cornpared with mangrove areas they are less common inW e s t e r n A u s t r a l i a .

Where mangroves and sal- t narshes occur in a mappingr uni t i ti s cons ide red to be o f h iq rh vu lne rab i . l i t y ' Fo r examp le ,mapp inq un i t s l and 17 (Pa r t 1 ) wou ld be ra i sed to h ighvu lne rab i l i t y s ta tus under such c i r cums tances .

The envi-ronrnental vulnerabi l i ty of sandy shorel ines dependscons ide rab l y upon the g ra in s i ze o f t he sand , s t reng th o fwave ac t i on and deg ree o f she l te r , p resence o f rocky ou tc ropsand the 1eve1 o f co lon i sa t i on by b io ta . o i I pene t ra tescou rse -g ra ined sand no re read i l y t han f i ne -g r ra ined sand f romwh ich i t can be more eas i l y renoved by phys i ca l neans .Recovery t imes of the organisns, nainly nol luscs ' arnphipodsand worns , nay thus be sho r te r on f i ne -g ra ined sandy beaches

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a re i nd i rec t e f fec ts wh ich resu l t f r om the comp lex i t y o f

e c o s y s t e m s . T h e s e m a y b e i n j u r i o u s , e . g . t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f

=a . g r " "aa= used as b reed ing a reas o r as hab i ta t s f o r

3uve i i t e f i sh , t he l oss o f an o rgan ism in the food cha in o f a

i i gh " r spec ies , o r t hey may favou r an o rgan isn by remov ing

i t s conpe t i t o rs o r p reda to rs and so change the ba lance o f an

ecosys t lm . Thus because pe r tu rba t i on to one componen t o f an

ecosys te rn may i n f l uence o the r conponen ts i t i s no t a lwayspo . " - i b I . t o con f i den t t y p red i c t t he even tua l e f fec t o f o i1po l l u t i on upon an o rganasm.

Tox ic i t y t es t i ng o f o i l has been ca r r i ed ou t on many spec ies

in the wor ld bu t on l y on a few in Aus t ra l i a , and up to the

end o f 1984 no such tes ts had been done in W 'A ' Fo r

o rgan isms such as sea g rasses , mac roa lgae and mangroves th i s

t y ie o f t es t i ng i s l ess eas i l y conduc ted i n a quan t i f i ab le

* "n r . r and i n the case o f b i rds , where coa t i ng i s impor tan t '

i n fo rma t ion has co rne f rom the a f te rma th o f ac tua l o i1 sp i1 l s

and a know ledge o f t he hab i t s o f pa r t i cu la r b i rd specaes '

Le tha l e f fec ts o f o i l a re cons ide red to be rna in l y due to the

so lub le a ro rna t i c hyd roca rbon componen ts (Anderson e t a l '

1 9 7 4 ; E v a n s a n d R i c e , 1 9 7 4 ; H y l a n d a n d S c h n e i d e r ' 1 9 7 6 ) '

Thus re f i ned o i1s , wh ich usua l l y con ta in a g rea te r

concen t ra t i on o f t hese componen ts ' a re genera l l y more toxac

than c rude o i l s . However , a l a rge p ropo r t i on o f t he l ow

mo lecu la r we iqh t vo la t i Le componen ts o f o i l s , i ncLud ing tso lub le . t o * . i i . hyd roca rbons , i s l os t t h rough evapora t i on

and, depend. ing upon the type of oi I and weather condit ions'

t h i s may accoun t f o r up to abou t 258 to 50 t o f t he o i1 w i th in

8 to 24 hou rs (Wh i t t l e e t a l . , 7982 ; Cormack , 1 -983 ) ' These

resu l t s were fo r sea cond i t i ons i n Nor the rn Europe ; a h ighe r

evapora t i on ra te wou ld genera l l y be expec ted fo r s im i l a r o i l s

i n t he Ind i -an ocean '

A survey cornpi l -ed f rom l i terature reviews ( Iv loore , !97 3;

Moore , bwyer and Ka tz , ! 9 ' 73 ) o f t he concen t ra t i ons o f va r i ouspe t ro ieun - p roduc ts wh ich a re Le tha l t o d i f f e ren t c lasses o f

Lrganisns has been sumnari-sed in tabular forn by Hyland and

sc ine ide r ( ] . 976 \ . Pa r t o f t h i s t ab le (Tab le 1 ) i s q i ven

be1ow. I t shou ld be no ted tha ! I a rvae a re more sens i t i vethan adu l t s and i t i s genera l l y cons ide red tha t t he ea r l y

s tages i n t he l i f e -cyc le o f a spec i ' es a re the nos tsus iep t i b le to o i1 . va l -ues es t ima ted fo r l e tha l

.orr . . i ' , t t . t i ons of soluble arornat ic hydrocarbons are as 1ow as

0 ,1 ppm fo r l a rvae and 1 ppn fo r adu l t o rgan isms '

These au tho rs have a l so upda ted a rev iew by the Na t iona l

A c a d e n y o f S c i e n c e s , U . S . A . ( 1 9 7 5 ) c o v e r i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l enumber o f sub -1e tha1 e f fec ts o f pe t ro leum p roduc ts on na r ine

o rgan isms . Fo r so lub le a romat i c hyd roca rbons Moore and

D w y e r ( 1 9 7 4 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t s u b - l e t h a l e f f e c t s m a y r e s u l t f r o mpe is i s ten t concen t ra t i ons as l ov r as 10 to 100 ppb '

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F u r t h e r i n f o r r n a t i o n o n I e t h a 1 a n d s u b - l e t h a 1 e f f e c t s o f o i Io n a q u a t i c o r g a n i s r n s m a y b e f o u n d i n o t h e r r e c e n t r e v i - e w - t y p ea r t j . c l " e s ( e . 9 . N e l s o n - S r n i t h , 1 9 7 3 ; A n d e r s o n e t a I . , ! 9 7 4 ,C o w e 1 l , ! 9 7 6 ; G E S A M P 1 9 7 7 ) w h i c h i n c l u d e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t sa n d o b s e r v a t i o n s a f t e r o i 1 s p i 1 1 i n c i " d e n t s .

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oul-, ta ,* lJns as a result of contact with oi l have beenat t r ibu ted to tox ic e f fec ts a f te r inges t ion and tos u f f o c a t i o n c a u s e d b y c l o g g i n g o f t h e g i l 1 s ( s e e f o r e x a r n p l eN e l s o n - S m i t h , 1 , 9 7 3 ) .

U n l e s s o i 1 p e n e t r a t e s t o t h e s e a b e d i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a td e r n e r s a l f i s h w o u l d b e d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d b y s p i l t o i l a n d i ti s g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t h a t , o w i n g t o t h e i r m o b i l i t y , l a r g es c a l e r n o r t a l i t y o f p e l a g i c f i s h w o u l d n o t b e e x p e c t e d f r o me v e n a l a r g e s p i I 1 . N e v e r t h e l e s s . s u b s t a n t i a l f i s h k i l l sh a v e o c c a s i o n a l l y b e e n r e p o r t e d a f t e r o i l s p i 1 1 s ( D i a z -P i f e r r e r , 1 9 6 2 ; B l - u n e r e t a l . , ] - 9 7 1 \

I t i s t o b e e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t t h r e a t t o f i s h 1 i f ewould be dur ing and just a f ter the spawning phase when theu s u a l L y r n o r e s e n s i - t i v e e g g s a n d l a r v a e m a y f l o a t o n t h es u r f a c e . T h i s w o u l d b e p a r t i c u l a r l y s o i f t h e f i s hc o n g r e g a t e t n a s m a l 1 a r e a t o b r e e d , s u c h a s a s h e l t e r e de m b a y m e n t o r t h e m o u t h o f a n e s t u a r y . C o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f o i 1as low as 100 ppb have been shown in the laboratory to reduceh a t c h i n g a n d 1 a r v a l s u r v i v a l i n t h e w i n t e r f l o u n d e r ( K u h n h o l de t a 1 . , f 9 7 8 ) a n d c a u s e a b n o r m a l i t i e s a n d n e c r o s i s d u r i n g tn a t u r a t i o n o f e g g s i n t h e s t a r r y f l o u n d e r ( W h i p p l e e t a l . ,1 9 7 8 ) , E v e n l o w e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , d o w n t o 1 0 p p U , w e r er e p o r t e d t o d e l a y o r i n h i b i t d e v e l o p m e n t o f e g g s f r o n B l a c kS e a f i s h ( M i r o n o v , f 9 7 2 ) .

S i n c e e a c h o f t h e r n a j o r t e n I o c a l s p e c j _ e s o f f i n f i s h c a u g h tc o n m e r c i a l l y ( s e e P a r t 1 , l i s t o f W . A . M a r i n e R e s o u r c e s , 1 .P r o f e s s i o n a l F i s h i n q ) o c c u p i e s a n d b r e e d s i n h a b i t a t s o v e r aI a r g e a r e a i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t a n o i l s p i l l w o u l d p r o d u c en o r e t h a n a l i n i t e d l o c a 1 e f f e c t . T h i s w o u l d b e g r e a t e s t i nf i s h n u r s e r y g r o u n d s w h e r e r e s t r i c t e d w a t e r s o c c u r a n d i nw h i c h t h e f o o d s u p p l y o f t h e j u v e n i l e s n a y b e h a r m e d .

2 . 2 C r u s t a c e a

A s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e L b o t h p e l a g i c a n d b e n t h i c c r u s t a c e aa r e u s u a l l y m o r e s e n s i t i v e t o o i l t h a n f i n f i s h o r r n o l l u s c s .T h o s e o f s i g n i f i c a n t c o m m e r c i a l i - n t e r e s t i n W . A . , t h e w e s t e r nr o c k l o b s t e r , f o u r p r a w n s p e c i e s , t h e b l u e r n a n n a c r a b a n d t h en u d c r a b a r e b e n t h i c i n t h e a d u l t f o r m . O f t h e s e , t h e c r a bs p e c i e s a r e t h e m o s t l - i k e l y t o b e a f f e c t e d b y o i l a s t h e ys p e n d a l l o r m u c h o f t h e i r a d u l t l i f e i n n e a r - s h o r e o r i n t e r -t j -daI shal -1ow envi ronments $rhere the o i1 nay reach the seaf l o o r . T h e e g g s a n d l a r v a e o f a l l t h e s p e c i e s , h o w e v e r , a r e

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T h e n u m b e r o f b i r d s f o u n d d e a d a f t e r o j _ l - s p i l l s h a s s o m e t i m e sb e e n v e r y l a r g e . F o r e x a m p l e , 1 0 O O 0 d e a d o i l e d b i r d s w e r er e c o v e r e d a f t e r t h e T o r r e y C a n y o n d i s a s t e r l n ! g G 7 ( S m i t h ,1 9 6 8 ) , w h i l e M e a d ( 1 - 9 7 7 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t a t l e a s t 3 0 0 0 0 b i r d sd i e d a s a r e s u l t o f t h e r e l e a s e o f 9 0 0 0 t o n n e s o f o i 1 f r o mt h e t a n k e r F e r d M a e r s k i n 1 9 5 5 i n t h e n o u t h o f t h e E l - b e o f fG e r n a n y , a n d R o l a n d e t a l . ( 1 9 7 7 ) e s t i n a t e d 2 0 0 0 0 t o 5 0 O O Ow a t e r f o w l d e a t h s a f t e r a n 8 5 0 t o n n e s s p i 1 l i n C h e s a p e a k eB a y , V i r g i . n i a i n 1 9 7 5 . C r o x a l l ( 1 9 7 5 ) q u o t e d a n e s t i m a t e o f1 " 5 0 0 0 0 t o 4 5 0 0 0 0 f o r t h e n u m b e r o f b i r d s k i 1 1 e d a n n u a l l y b yo i l i n E u r o p e .

C o m p r e h e n s i v e r e v i e w s o f o i 1 p o l - l u t i o n a n d . s e a - b i r d s h a v eb e e n p r o d u c e d b y B o u r n e ( 1 9 7 5 ) , S z a r o ( L 9 7 7 \ , E a s t i n a n dH o f f r n a n ( L 9 7 8 ) a n d D u n n e t ( l - 9 8 2 ) .

l { h e r e p o p u l a t i o n s o f b i r d s p e c i e s a r e s m a l , L i n n u m b e r ,c o n c e n t r a t e d , u n d e r s t r e s s , h a v e a 1 o w r e p r o d u c t i v e r a t e a n df e w b r e e d i n g c o l o n i e s t h e i r s u r v i v a l n a y b e t h r e a t e n e d b v a n^ i l e h i l I p r a A i ^ r - i ^ F a r - | . - t s ^ i r ^ - j 1 1 -. ! l E q r u L r o n s t h a t o i l s p i l l " s m a y b e t h e c r u c i a lf a c t o r t h a t c o u l d c a u s e t h e e x t i n c t i o n o f t h e s o u t h e r n r a c eo f t h e C o m m o n c u i l l e m o t h a v e b e e n m a d e ( i n N e l s o n - S m i t h1 9 7 3 ) , w h i l e B o u r n e ( 1 9 7 8 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e A n o c o C a d i zs p i 1 l n j - g h t e x t e r m i n a t e t h e a u k p o p u l a t i o n s i n F r a n c e . T w oo i l s p i l l s h a v e b e e n c l a i r n e d t o h a v e s e p a r a t e l y c a u s e d t h ed e a t h o f a t l e a s t 1 t o 2 t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f J a c k a s sP e n g u i n s , w h i c h i s f o u n d o n l y i n S o u t h A f r i c a ( i - n N e l s o n -S m i t h 1 9 7 3 ) . H o w e v e r , i t a p p e a r s t h a t , a t l e a s t a r o u n d t h eB r i t i s h I s l e s , t h e n u m b e r s o f b i r d s k i l l e d b y o i l a r er e l a t i v e l y s m a 1 1 c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e t o t a l e x p e c t e d a n n u a l -m o r t a l i t y o f s e a b i r d p o p u l a t i o n s ( D u n n e t , l - 9 g 2 \ .

A l t h o u g h a l l b i r d s s h o u l d b e p r o t e c t e d a s f a r a s p o s s i b l ef r o m c o n t a c t w i t h o i 1 , s p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d b e g i v e nt o t h o s e w h e r e s u r v i - v a ] o f e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n s m a y b e a t r i s k .O f t h e s e a - b i r d s b r e e d i n g i n W . A . t w o , t h e l J e s s e r N o d d v a n dt h e R e d - t a i l e d T r o p i c b i r d , a r e r e g a r d e d a s e n d a n g e r e ds p e c i e s . A p a r t f r o n t h e S e y c h e l l e s , w h e r e t h e e g g s m a y b ee a t e n b y t h e l o c a l s , t h e l J e s s e r N o d d y b r e e d s o n l y o n p e l _ s a r t ,M o r l e y a n d W o o d e d i s l a n d s i n t h e A b r o l h o s , w h i l e t h ep r i n c i p a l b r e e d i n g s i t e i n W . A . o f t h e R e d - t a i l e d T r o p i c b i r di s a t S u g a r l o a f R o c k n e a r C a p e N a t u r a l i s t e ( F u l l e r a n dB u r b i d g e , 1 9 8 1 ) .

P a r t i c u l a r h a b i t s o f s e a , s h o r e a n d w a d i n q b i r d s w h i c h c o u l dc a u s e t h e m t o b e a f f e c t e d b y o i l a r e l i s t e d b e l o w :

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T h e e f f e c t s o f o i l o n o t h e r r n a r i n e m a m m a l s h a v e b e e n r e c e n t l , yr e v i e w e d b y c e r a c i a n d S t A u b i n ( 1 9 8 0 ) , A l e t h a l e f f e c t o ns e a l s h a s n o t b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d b u t t h e r e h a v e b e e n s e v e r a l -r e p o r t s o f e y e i r r i t a t i o n , a n d K o o y m a n e t a l . ( 1 9 7 7 ) s h o w e dt h a t t h e r m a l c o n d u c t a n c e o f f u r s e a l p e l t s i n c r e a s e d a f t e r

i - ' ^ d w h e t h e r s e a l s a v o i d( J _ L r _ L r r g . r L r r d r >

n i t h r r l - f h F v r - n r r ' l d c o n e i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h i t a r o u n df o r e s h o r e s d u r i n g t h e b r e e d i n g s e a s o n ( P a r t 1 ) .

2 . 7 l 4 a n g r o v e s

T h e r e h a v e b e e n s e v e r a l r e p o r t s o f o i l d a r n a g e t o n a n g r o v e s( u s u a l l y A v i c e n n i a a n d R h i z o p h o r a ) , i n c l u d i n g l e a f l o s s a n dd e a t h o f s e e d l i n g s , p r o d u c e d a c c i d e n t a l l y o r e x p e r i m e n t a l l yl o a F r r t ? l . r a n d q i a r r F r 1 q 7 O ' N A d F A r r a n d R a r . t . t | i < f 1 9 7 7 .

C h a n , 1 9 7 7 ) . M o s t o f t h e e a r l i e r r e f e r e n c e s h a v e b e e nb r i e f l y r e v i e w e d b y N e l s o n - S m i t h ( 1 9 7 3 ) a n d o d u m a n d J o h a n n e s( l - 9 7 5 ) . I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e m a j o r c a u s e o f t h e d a r n a g e i ss m o t h e r i n g o f l e n t i c e l s a n d a i r h o l e s o f p r o p r o o t s a n dp n e u m a t o p h o r e s , b u t o i 1 s p r a y b l o w n o n t o t h e l e a v e s h a s a l s ob e e n c i t e d .

A s t h e m a n g r o v e f a u n a a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r t u r n o v e r o f s e d i m e n ta n d n u t r i e n t f l o w a r o u n d m a n g r o v e s , t h e i r d e s t r u c t i o n b y o i 1m a y r e s u l " t i n a d v e r s e e f f e c t s u p o n t h e m a n g r o v e s ( S e r n e n i u k ,p e r s . c o m r n . ) .

2 . B le_egr-CEges

There i s l i t t l - e i n fo rma t ion on the e f fec t o f o i l on seagrasses , bu t mor ta l i t y o f Tha l -ass ia and Phy l l ospad ix spec iesh a s b e e n r e p o r t e d a f t e r o i L s p i l l s ( D i a z - P i f e r r e r , 1 9 6 2 ;F o s t e r e t a l . , 1 " 9 7 L ; N a d e a u a n d B e r q q u i s t , 1 9 7 7 ) .P resumab ly , genera i n W.A . rna r ine wa te rs wou ld show s im i l a rsuscep t i b i l i t y . P lan ts exposed by l ow t i de wouLd p robab ly bemos t a f fec ted as the o i l cou ld se t t l e on the l eaves o r becomea n f r : n ! . r p d i n f h e c e a f l o o r a r o u n d t h e s t e m s .

2 . 9 S e a w e e d s

A s w i t h s e a g r a s s e s , t h o s e s e a w e e d s e x p o s e d a t l o w t i d e w o u l db e m o s t a f f e c t e d b y o i l b u t , s i n c e r , l a n y o f t h e m h a v e a m o t i l er e p r o d u c t i v e s t a g e , r e c o L o n i s a t i o n w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d .

s o m e r e p o r t e d e f f e c t s o f c r u d e o i l o r p e t r o l e u r n p r o d u c t s o ns e a w e e d s i n e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n s a r e i n h i b i t i o n o fp h o t o s y n t h e s i s i n t h e k e l p g e n e r a M a c r o c y s t j - s , L , a m i n a r i a a n dP h y l l o p h o r a ( c l e n d e n n i n q a n d N o r t h . l - 9 6 0 i N o r t h e t a l . , 1 9 6 4 iW i l b e r , 1 9 6 9 ; P e r c y , 7 9 7 7 ) . d e a t h o f s p o r e l i n g s o fPolys iphonia and Di lophus spp. ( in GEsAl4P ' ] -977 ) and death ofz y g o t e s a n d s p e r n o f F u c u s s p p . ( S t e e l e 7 9 7 ' 7 ) .

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t y p i c a l o f t r o p i c a l a n d t e n p e r a t e r e g i o n s ( W i l s o n & M a r s h ,

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A n e x a m p l e o f d i f f e r e n t r e c o v e r y t i m e s f r o n o i l s p i l l s i sg i v e n b y a c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e C h e s a p e a k e B a y ,V i r g r i n i a N o . 6 f u e l o i l s p i l l f r o n t h e b a r q e S T C - 1 0 1 i n l - 9 7 5( H e r s h n e r & M o o r e , L 9 7 7 ) a n d t h e W e s t F a l m o u t h . M a s s a c h u s e t t sN o . 2 f u e l - o i I s p i 1 l f r o n t h e b a r g e F l o r i . d a i n 1 9 5 9 ( B l u n e re t a 1 . , I 9 7 ! ) w h i c h w e r e b o t h o f a s i m i l a r s i z e . 6 5 0 - 8 5 0t o n n e s . A t C h e s a p e a k e B a y , w h e r e r n e c h a n i c a l r e m o v a l o f o i lo n f o r e s h o r e s w a s a t t e m p t e d , a p a r t f r o m c o n s i d e r a b l ew a t e r f o w l d e a t h s l i t t I e d a m a g e t o m u s s e l s , o y s t e r s , s n a i l s o rm a r s h g r a s s w a s e v i d e n t u p t o e i g h t m o n t . h s a f t e r t h e s p i l ] .T h i s w a s a t t r i b u t e d t o r e l a t i v e n o n - t o x i c i t y o f t h e o i I ,i m p a c t a t a t i m e o f y e a r w h e n m o s t o f t h e b i o t a w e r er e l a t i v e l y i n a c t i v e a n d a h i g h e n e r g y e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c hr e d u c e d t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e o f t h e o i 1 i n t h e r n a r s h . O n t h eo t h e r h a n d , a t W e s t F a l n o u t h , w h i c h l 1 r a s e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e dd u e t o i t s p r o x i n i t y t o t h e W o o d s H o l e O c e a n o g r a p h i cI n s t i t u t i o n , c o n s i d e r a b l e d a r n a g e w a s r e c o r d e d . o v e r 9 5 8 o fb e n t h i c a n i m a f s i n t h e s u b s t a n t i a l l y a f f e c t e d a r e a s a n d t h en o s t h e a v i l y p o l l u t e d t i d a l T n a r s h e s w e r e i m m e d i a t e l y k i l l e d ,a n d s i x t e e n m o n t h s a f t e r t h e s p i 1 1 o n l y p o 1 ] u t i o n - r e s i s t a n to r g a n i s m s w e r e r e - e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e w o r s t - h j . t a r e a s . T h eo r i g i n a l a n i m a l p o p u l a t i o n s w e r e s t i - 1 1 a b s e n t a n d o i Ip e r s i s t e d i n t h e s e d i m e n t s .

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s w h e r e m a j o r s h i f t s i n e c o l o g i c a ld o r n i n a n c e i n c o m m u n i t i e s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d a f t e r o i 1 s p i 1 1 s .A f r e q u e n t r e s u l t i s e x t e n s i v e o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e s e d i m e n t s i nt h e a r e a b y o i l - r e s i s t a n t p o L y c h a e t e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y C a p i t e l - I ac a p i t a t a ( R e i s h , l - 9 6 5 ; S a n d e r s e t a l . , I 9 7 2 ; J a c o b s , L 9 7 9 l .

A s p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d t h e r e c o v e r y o f g r o w t h i n t h e k e l pM a c r o c y s t i s p y r i f e r a , l e a d i n g t o m a s s i v e c o l o n i s a t i o n o f t h ea f f e c t e d a r e a , w h i c h o c c u r r e d a f t e r t h e T a m p i c o M a r u o i l ,s p i 1 l o f f B a j a C a l i f o r n i a , M e x i c o w a s a t t r i b u t e d t o d e a t h o ft h e g r a z i n q f a u n a ( N o r t h e t a 1 . , L 9 6 4 ) . S i m i l a r l y , i n c r e a s e dr o c k c o v e r b y t h e n a c r o a l g a F u c u s v e s j - c u l o s u s a f t e r ar e f i n e r y o v e r f l - o w i n M i l f o r d H a v e n w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o r e s u l tf r o m a d e c l i n e i n t h e g r a z i n g l i n p e t p o p u l a t i o n ( C r a p p ,f 9 ' 7 7 ] , . A f t e r t h e T o r r e y C a n y o n s p i 1 l s u c h a n e f f e c t w a se n h a n c e d b y t h e u s e o f a d i s p e r s a n t t o x i c t o l i n p e t s ( N e l s o n -S m i t h , I 9 7 3 ) . B e c a u s e o f s u b s e q u e n t l a c k o f s e t t l i n g a r e a sd u e t o t h e a l g a l c o v e r t h e l i m p e t s w e r e s l o w i n r e t u r n i n g .

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F i s h n a y b e u n a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e c o n s u m e r t h r o u g h t a i n t i n g ,

a p p e a r a n c e o r b e c a u s e t h e y a r e k n o w n t o h a v e b e e n c a u g h t i n a

l o c a t i o n w h e r e o i I p o l t u t i o n h a s r e c e n t l y o c c u r r e d '

V e r y s n a 1 1 c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f o i l w i l l c a u s e t a i n t i n g , a n d

l e v e 1 s i n s e a w a t e r a s l o w a s 0 . 0 1 - p p m h a v e i m p a r t e d o d o u r s

t o f i s h ( N i t t a , I 9 7 2 ) . T a i n t i n g i n s e a m u l - l e t a t B r i s b a n e .A u s t r a l i a ( G r a n t , L 9 6 9 ; S i d h u e t a l . , I 9 1 2 , C o n n e l l , L 9 7 4 \

a n d i n s e v e r a L f i s h s p e c i e s a t Y o k k a i c h l H a r b o u r , J a p a n( N i t t a , L 9 7 2 ) w a s a t t r i b u t e d t o c h r o n i c o i l p o l l u t i o n a n d

t h e r e h a v e b e e n s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s o f t a i n t i n g i n s h e l l f i s hf i s h e r i e s d u e t o o i l s p i l l s o r t h e d i s p e r s a n t s u s e d i n c l e a n -, r n a n p r a r - i n n c f h e y n o s t r e c e n t b e i n g c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f o y s t e r s

i n B r i t t a n y a f t e r t h e A n o c o C a d i z s p i I l ( R u s s e l l . 1 9 7 9 ) .S u c h i n c i d e n t s h a v e l - e d t o c l o s u r e o f f i s h e r i e s f o r p e r i o d s

o f u p t o 4 y e a r s ( G E S A M P r e p o r t , 1 9 7 7 ) a n d t o c o n t i n u e dn a r k e t i n g p r o b l e r n s w i t h c a t c h e s f r o m t h e c o n t a m i n a t e d r e g i o n ,

e v e n w h e n c o n t a m i n a t i o n i s n o l o n g e r e v i d e n t ( S h e l t o n , 1 9 7 1 ;M c l n t y r e , L 9 8 2 ) .

B l u m e r e t a 1 - . , l f 9 7 I ) r e p o r t e d t h a t f u e L o i l f r o n t h eF l o r i d a s p i l l r e r n a i n e d i n o y s t e r s f o r a t l e a s t 6 m o n t h sd u r i n g d e p u r a t i o n i n c l e a n r u n n i n g s e a w a t e r . H o w e v e r , N e f f

e t a l . , ( L 9 7 6 \ s h o w e d t h a t f u e l o i l - c o n t a m i n a t e d o y s t e r s ,c l - a m s . s h r i r n p s a n d f i s h l - o s t t h e i r h y d r o c a r b o n c o n t e n t w i t h i n

2 t o 6 0 d a y s , t h e h i g h m o l e c u l a r w e i q h t a r o r n a t i c c o r n p o u n d sb e i n g r e l e a s e d m o r e s l o w l y t h a n t h e l o w r n o l e c u l a r w e i g h tc o m p o u n d s o r a l k a n e s .

C o n t a r n i n a t i o n o f f i s h t r a p s a f t e r a n o i 1 s p i 1 1 i n T a r u t B a y ,

S a u d i A r a b i a w a s r e p o r t e d b y S p o o n e r ( 1 9 ? 0 ) , a n d S h e l t o n( 1 9 7 7 ) h a s d i s c u s s e d a s i m i l a r e f f e c t o n n e t s c a u s e d b y

s u n k e n o i 1 .

I n w . A . n a r i n e w a t e r s t h e f i s h e r i e s m o s t s u s c e p t i b l e t o a n

o i l s p i 1 l w o u l d b e t h e p r a w n a n d c r a b f i s h e r i e s ( s e e S e c t i o n

2 . 2 ) . T h e p r a w n f i s h e r y r n a i n l y o c c u r s i n s h a r k B a y a n dE x m o u t h c u l f a n d i s t h u s n o t w i d e s p r e a d , u n l i k e f o r e x a m p l et h e w e s t e r n r o c k l o b s t e r f i s h e r y . I t i s d e p e n d e n t o n a n n u a lr e c r u i t m e n t a n d w o u l d b e s e v e r e l y a f f e c t e d w e r e o i l t o r e a c h

t h e s h a l l o w a r e a s w h e r e t h e j u v e n i l e s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d '

L o c a l i s e d s h o r t - t e r m d a m a g e f r o n a c o a s t a l s p i 1 1 , w h i c h w o u l d

n o t b e c a t a s t r o p h i c f o r t h e w h o l e f i s h e r y , c o u l d b e e x p e c t e dw i t h R o e ' s a b a l o n e , w h i c h a r e n e a r t h e s u r f a c e , w i t h w e s t e r n

r o c k l o b s t e r s , e s p e c i a l l y i n i m p c r t a n t a r e a s o f r e c r u i t n e n ts u c h a s s e v e n M i I e B e a c h a n d t h e A b r o l h o s I s l a n d s o r w i t h t h e

m o r e n o r t h e r l - y s e t t l e n e n t s w h i c h a r e i n v e r y s h a l J ' o w w a t e r s ,

a n d p e r h a p s w i t h A u s t r a l i a n s a L r n o n , p i l c h a r d a n d A u s t r a l i a n

h e r r i n g s c h o o l s i f t h e y r n a d e n o a t t e n p t t o a v o i d t h e o i l .

F u r t h e r i n f o r r n a t i o n o n o i 1 s p i 1 1 s a n d c o m m e r c i a l f i s h e r i e sr n a y b e f o u n d , i . n r e v i e w s b y s h e l t o n ( 1 9 7 5 ) , J o h n s t o n ( 1 9 7 5 )

a n d M c l n t y r e ( 1 9 8 2 ) .

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