nichols sedimentology and stratigraphy

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Sedimentology and Stratigraphy

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COMPANION CD-ROM

A companion CD-ROM with additional illustrative material, prepared by the author, is includedwith this book.

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Sedimentology and Stratigraphy

Second Edition

Gary Nichols

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

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This edition first published 2009,# 2009 by Gary NicholsFirst published 1999

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Nichols, Gary.

Sedimentology and stratigraphy / Gary Nichols. 2nd ed.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-4051-3592-4 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN 978-1-4051-9379-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Sedimentation and

deposition. 2. Geology, Stratigraphic. I. Title.

QE571.N53 2009

551.303dc222008042948

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Set in 9/11pt Photina by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India

Printed and bound in the United Kingdom

1 2009

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Contents

Preface, ix

Acknowledgements, xi

1 INTRODUCTION: SEDIMENTOLOGYAND STRATIGRAPHY, 11.1 Sedimentary processes, 11.2 Sedimentary environments and facies, 21.3 The spectrum of environments and facies, 31.4 Stratigraphy, 31.5 The structure of this book, 4Further reading, 4

2 TERRIGENOUSCLASTIC SEDIMENTS: GRAVEL,SAND AND MUD, 52.1 Classification of sediments and sedimentary

rocks, 52.2 Gravel and conglomerate, 72.3 Sand and sandstone, 102.4 Clay, silt and mudrock, 212.5 Textures and analysis of terrigenous clastic

sedimentary rocks, 232.6 Terrigenous clastic sediments: summary, 27Further reading, 27

3 BIOGENIC, CHEMICAL ANDVOLCANOGENIC SEDIMENTS, 283.1 Limestone, 283.2 Evaporite minerals, 363.3 Cherts, 383.4 Sedimentary phosphates, 383.5 Sedimentary ironstone, 383.6 Carbonaceous (organic) deposits, 403.7 Volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks, 41Further reading, 43

4 PROCESSES OF TRANSPORTAND SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES, 444.1 Transport media, 444.2 The behaviour of fluids and particles

in fluids, 454.3 Flows, sediment and bedforms, 504.4 Waves, 584.5 Mass flows, 604.6 Mudcracks, 644.7 Erosional sedimentary structures, 654.8 Terminology for sedimentary structures

and beds, 664.9 Sedimentary structures and sedimentary

environments, 68Further reading, 68

5 FIELD SEDIMENTOLOGY, FACIESAND ENVIRONMENTS, 695.1 Field sedimentology, 695.2 Graphic sedimentary logs, 705.3 Palaeocurrents, 755.4 Collection of rock samples, 785.5 Description of core, 795.6 Interpreting past depositional

environments, 805.7 Reconstructing palaeoenvironments in space

and time, 845.8 Summary: facies and environments, 85Further reading, 86

6 CONTINENTS: SOURCES OFSEDIMENT, 876.1 From source of sediment to formation

of strata, 876.2 Mountain-building processes, 886.3 Global climate, 88

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6.4 Weathering processes, 896.5 Erosion and transport, 936.6 Denudation and landscape evolution, 956.7 Tectonics and denudation, 996.8 Measuring rates of denudation, 1006.9 Denudation and sediment supply: summary, 101Further reading, 101

7 GLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS, 1027.1 Distribution of glacial environments, 1027.2 Glacial ice, 1047.3 Glaciers, 1057.4 Continental glacial deposition, 1077.5 Marine glacial environments, 1107.6 Distribution of glacial deposits, 1127.7 Ice, climate and tectonics, 1127.8 Summary of glacial environments, 113Further reading, 113

8 AEOLIAN ENVIRONMENTS, 1148.1 Aeolian transport, 1148.2 Deserts and ergs, 1168.3 Characteristics of wind-blown particles, 1168.4 Aeolian bedforms, 1188.5 Desert environments, 1208.6 Aeolian deposits outside deserts, 1268.7 Summary, 127Further reading, 127

9 RIVERS AND ALLUVIAL FANS, 1299.1 Fluvial and alluvial systems, 1299.2 River forms, 1319.3 Floodplain deposition, 1399.4 Patterns in fluvial deposits, 1399.5 Alluvial fans, 1419.6 Fossils in fluvial and alluvial

environments, 1469.7 Soils and palaeosols, 1469.8 Fluvial and alluvial fan deposition:

summary, 149Further reading, 149

10 LAKES, 15110.1 Lakes and lacustrine environments, 15110.2 Freshwater lakes, 15310.3 Saline lakes, 15710.4 Ephemeral lakes, 15810.5 Controls on lacustrine deposition, 16010.6 Life in lakes and fossils in lacustrine

deposits, 160

10.7 Recognition of lacustrine facies, 161Further reading, 161

11 THE MARINE REALM: MORPHOLOGYAND PROCESSES, 16311.1 Divisions of the marine realm, 16311.2 Tides, 16511.3 Wave and storm processes, 16911.4 Thermo-haline and geostrophic

currents, 17011.5 Chemical and biochemical sedimentation

in oceans, 17011.6 Marine fossils, 17211.7 Trace fossils, 17311.8 Marine environments: summary, 178Further reading, 178

12 DELTAS, 17912.1 River mouths, deltas and estuaries, 17912.2 Types of delta, 17912.3 Delta environments and successions, 18212.4 Variations in delta morphology

and facies, 18412.5 Deltaic cycles and stratigraphy, 19312.6 Syndepositional deformation

in deltas, 19512.7 Recognition of deltaic deposits, 196Further reading, 198

13 CLASTIC COASTS ANDESTUARIES, 19913.1 Coasts, 19913.2 Beaches, 20113.3 Barrier and lagoon systems, 20313.4 Tides and coastal systems, 20613.5 Coastal successions, 20713.6 Estuaries, 20713.7 Fossils in coastal and estuarine

environments, 212Further reading, 214

14 SHALLOW SANDY SEAS, 21514.1 Shallow marine environments of terrigenous

clastic deposition, 21514.2 Storm-dominated shallow clastic seas, 21714.3 Tide-dominated clastic shallow seas, 22014.4 Responses to change in sea level, 22214.5 Criteria for the recognition of sandy

shallow-marine sediments, 223Further reading, 224

vi Contents

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15 SHALLOW MARINECARBONATE AND EVAPORITEENVIRONMENTS, 22515.1 Carbonate and evaporite depositional

environments, 22515.2 Coastal carbonate and evaporite

environments, 22815.3 Shallow marine carbonate environments, 23315.4 Types of carbonate platform, 23715.5 Marine evaporites, 24215.6 Mixed carbonateclastic environments, 245Further reading, 245

16 DEEP MARINE ENVIRONMENTS, 24716.1 Ocean basins, 24716.2 Submarine fans, 25016.3 Slope aprons, 25616.4 Contourites, 25716.5 Oceanic sediments, 25816.6 Fossils in deep ocean sediments, 26116.7 Recognition of deep ocean deposits:

summary, 261Further reading, 262

17 VOLCANIC ROCKS ANDSEDIMENTS, 26317.1 Volcanic rocks and sediment, 26317.2 Transport and de