nepalese horticulture (1) (1).pdfnepalese horticulture is the outcome of researchers, reviews,...

NEPALESE

HORTICULTURE

An Official Journal of Nepal Horticulture Society

Volume 11 Issue 1 2016

1. EVALUATION OF ASPARAGUS BEAN (Vigna unguiculata sub sp. sesquipedalis L. VARIETIES UNDER

MID-HILL CONDITION OF DAILEKH, NEPAL

B. Chalise and T.B. Pun 1

2. EEFECT OF DIFFERENT ORGANIC FERTILIZERS ON ECONOMIC YIELD OF CAULIFLOWER

(Brassica oleraceae var. botrytis L.) at ILAM, NEPAL

M. Basnet and S.M. Shakya 7

3. RESPONSE OF POTATO (Solanum tuberosum L.) GENOTYPES TO DIFFERENT MOISTURE

CONDITIONS IN MID-WESTERN TERAI OF NEPAL

S. Ahamad, A. Srivastava, M.D. Sharma, S.C. Shah 16

4. TOMATO HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION: INITIATION OF PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP

APPROACH IN AGRICULTURE

S. Gairhe, K. P. Timsina, Y. N. Ghimire, D.B. Thapa Magar and S. L. Shrestha 21

5. EVALUATION OF PROMISING GENOTYPES OF GLADIOLUS FOR IMPORTANT VEGETATIVE

AND FLORAL CHARACTERS UNDER MID-HILL ENVIRONMENT OF DAILEKH

T. B. Poon , B. Chalise and OB Oli 29

6. EFFECTS OF PRE-HARVEST SPRAY OF PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS ON CORM AND

CORMELS CHARACTERISTICS AND POST-HARVEST PERFORMANCE OF GLADIOLUS CUT

FLOWERS CV. AMERICAN BEAUTY

A. Khanal , K. Mishra , U. K. Pun and M. Dhital 39

7. PERFORMANCE OF PROMISING GENOTYPES IN GLADIOLUS FOR CORM AND CORMEL

PRODUCTION UNDER AGRO-CLIMATIC CONDITION OF DAILEKH

T. B. Poon, B. Chalise and OB. Oli 46

8. EVALUATION OF CUSHIONING MATERIALS FOR TRANSPORTATION OF APPLE CULTIVARS

FROM ORCHARD TO COLLECTION CENTRE

G. D. Subedi, D. M. Gautam, D. R. Baral, G. B. K. C., K. P. Paudyal, R. K. Giri 57

9. ANALYSIS OF NEPALESE COFFEE INDUSTRY: PRODUCTION AND POST-HARVEST ISSUES

U.K Acharya and Umed Pun 66

10. AGRICULTURAL INSURANCE ISSUES AND FACTORS AFFECTING ITS ADOPTION: A CASE OF

BANANA INSURANCE IN NEPAL

Yuga N. Ghimire, Krishna P. Timsina, Ghanshyam Kandel, Deepa Devkota, Dinesh B. Thapamagar, Sudeep Gautam and Bimala

Sharma 74

Editor’s Note

Nepal Horticulture Society (NHS) was established in 1990. Since then this society is publishing its journals and

workshop proceedings regularly and manuals and other publications as per the necessity. Among several

publications, Nepalese Horticulture is an official publication of the society as the journal. Being a professional

society, Nepal Horticulture Society holds together all the horticulturists working in diverse fields including private

businesses. Nepalese Horticulture is the outcome of researchers, reviews, studies and investigations which are very

important to achieve developments such as livelihood, food security, poverty reduction, public health and

environmental sustenance foreseen by the state policies and plans as well as millennium goals.

The NHS editorial board with gratitude acknowledges the valuable support provided by authors and encourages

researchers, development workers and private entrepreneurs for their continued support with their authorship.

The institutions supporting the journal publication with provision of advertisements are also acknowledged. We

are also thankful to all subscribers, readers and well-wishers of Nepalese Horticulture. We look forward to your

continued supports.

Thanks to all of you again!

Editorial Committee

Guide to Author(s)

Nepalese Horticulture has special interest on publishing research and development articles related to horticultural issues in the country and likely environment outside. It also provides space for such reviews, experiences, success stories, news and other communications. Followings are the guidelines to authors willing to submit their manuscript for publication in Nepalese Horticulture. 1. The manuscript must be an original work written in English and not published elsewhere.

2. The title should be short and specific reflecting major contents in the manuscript. It should be formatted as Heading 1.

3. Author(s)' name should follow the title in new paragraph formatted as Heading 2. Supplementary information such as educational

attainment, organization, title/designation and contact address including telephone, fax and e-mail regarding the author(s) should

come as footnotes on the first page.

4. The abstract not exceeding 200 words should concisely state major objective, methodology, findings and conclusions. It should not

include diagram footnote, equation or any parenthetical reference.

5. Key-words in alphabetical order should not exceed ten standard words.

6. Main text of the technical manuscripts should include introduction, objective, theoretical framework, methodology, results and

discussion and conclusion. Review-based manuscript can be confined to introduction, objective, discussion and conclusion.

7. The manuscript should not exceed 5000 words in total and it should be in MS-Word with page set up on A4 size and text format on

Times New Roman font of 12-point size. The top and left margins should be set at 3 cm and the right and bottom margins at 2.5

cm.

8. The title of the manuscript set as HEADING 1 (paragraph style) should be in title case for major words only and bold 14-point font

size. The first level headings should be all capitalized in bold 12-point font size. The second level headings should be in bold 12-

point font size sentence case. The third level headings should be italicized in sentence case and normal 12-point font size.

9. Number of footnotes should be minimized and it should not come for citation.

10. Many and large figures and tables in the text should be avoided. Supplementary figures and tables may be placed in annexure.

11. References should be given in alphabetical order by author's name, and the styles should differentiate the references such as books,

journals, newspapers and other unpublished materials. The material not cited in the main text must not come under reference.

Private communication, radio listening and TV watch should not appear in the citation as well as in the reference. Some examples of

bibliographic entries follow.

12. For a Book: Burkit, M. C., 1977. The Old Stone Age. New Delhi: Rupa Publication Co.

13. For Journal Article: Adhikari, G. P., 1994. Urbanization and its determinants in Nepal. Public Administration Journal, XV(1):31-37.

14. For a Magazine Article: Pandey, R. R. and P. M. Pradhanang, 1995. Potato wilt and its control measures (Nepali). In: Prabidhi

Sangalo, vol. 9(3), pp.99-102. Nepal: Lumle Agricultural Research Center, Pokhara.

15. For a Year Book/Report/Periodical: National Pay Commission, 1992. A report on the pay structure for civil servants. Nepal:

Aradhana Press, Kathmandu.

16. UNESCO, 1986. Statistical yearbook. Paris: UNESCO Press.

17. For a Newspaper: Sunuwar, D. K., 2008. Ecosan toilets bring multiple. The Kathmandu Post, Vol. XVI(167), Aug 3, 2008:p.3(col3).

18. For Edited Works: Danziger, S. and P. Robert, 1982. The war on income poverty: achievements and failures. In: P. M. Sommers

(ed.), Welfare Reform in America, Boston: Martinus Nijhoff, pp.31-52.

19. For Unpublished Materials: Pokhrel, D. M., 2005. Citrus marketing system in the mountains of Nepal: a study based on market

structure, conduct and performance analysis. PhD dissertation submitted to School of Environment, Resources and Development,

Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand.

20. Following editorial scrutiny, the manuscripts are subject to rigorous peer review. The Editor-in-Chief and the Editorial Board are not

responsible for any damage or loss of submitted manuscript, and is not compelled to return unaccepted manuscripts to the authors

whatsoever.

21. The manuscript must be submitted electronically at [email protected]. The Editor-in-Chief deserves final right to accept or reject a

submission.

mailto:[email protected]

1

Nepalese Horticulture Vol. 11, 2016

EVALUATION OF ASPARAGUS BEAN (Vigna unguiculata sub sp. sesquipedalis L. VARIETIES UNDER MID-HILL CONDITION OF DAILEKH, NEPAL

B. Chalise1 and T.B. Pun2 Horticultural Research Station

Kimugaun, Dailekh

E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

An experiment was conducted with seven asparagus bean varieties including 'Khumal Tane' (standard check) for the selection of

superior genotype during two consecutive years 2012 and 2013 at Horticultural Research Station (HRS), Dailekh in autumn-winter

season. The results showed that average plant height differed from 2.16 m to 2.64 m, number of pod varied from 12.11 to 17.50 per

plant, individual pod weight ranged from 13.41 g to 21.49 g, pod length ranged from 35.07 to 64.47 cm, pod diameter differed from

7.86 mm to 8.38 mm, days to first flowering and harvesting varied from 35.17 to 42.17 and 52.5 to 61.00 days respectively and pod

yield ranged from 14.21 mt to 28.99 mt/ha. The results revealed that major yield parameters of the variety 'HRDASB-001' was

superior and desirable with 28.99 mt/ha green pod yield and, hence, could be recommended for extension of cultivation in the mid-hill

regions of Nepal having the similar climatic tract of Dailekh district.

Key words: Vigna unguiculata subsp. Sesquipedalis L., vegetable type, Khumal Tane, pod length and pod weight

INTRODUCTION

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) is one of the most important food legumes which serve as vital source of protein in

the diet of the people of developing countries. It is widely grown in the third world for its cheap source of dietary

protein (Ibrahim et al., 2010). Cowpea has considerable adaptation to high temperatures and drought compared to

other crop species but is intolerant of frost. Cowpea is usually better adapted to drought, high temperatures and

other biotic stresses than other crop plant species (Hall, 2004). It is primarily grown in drier regions of the world

where it is one of the most drought-resistant food legumes (Dadson et al., 2005). Some differences exist between

vegetable cowpea and grain types for their vegetative characteristics, physiological characteristics and green pod

yield (Gani et al., 2003). Generally, grain type cowpea varieties produce short pods with more number of seeds and

mature earlier, while vegetable type varieties are grown for their immature long succulent pods with less number of

seeds, maturing late and the pods remaining tender and soft for longer period (Pandey et al., 2006).

Asparagus beans (Vigna unguiculata subsp. Sesquipedalis L.) are important leguminous vegetable crops of tropical

and sub-tropical regions and are believed to have been selected in South-East Asia from India. Asparagus beans

are selected and developed from vegetable type cowpea (V. ungiculata L.) for their longer and tender pods (Steele

and Mehra, 1980). Asparagus beans are popularly known by different names: string bean, long podded cowpea,

snake bean, Chinese long bean, pea bean, etc. In Philippines, it is popular by its name ‘poor man's meat’.

Commercial cultivation is primarily found in Indonesia, Thailand, Taiwan and China (Rachie, 1985). However, it is

cultivated as minor vegetable crop in many Asian and other countries of the world.

In Nepal, asparagus beans are gaining popularity in the recent years. Its area is increasing annually because of its

commercial value and higher yield. It is cultivated in 2,993 ha with total production and productivity 32,507 mt

and 10.90 mt/ha, respectively (MOAD, 2013). Productivity of asparagus bean is much lower in Nepal due to the

Nepalese Horticulture

2

Vol. 11, 2016

unavailability of quality seed and poor management of crop. Therefore, this study was conducted to select the

superior varieties with complete package of practices.

METHODOLOGY

Seven varieties of asparagus bean, namely, 'HRDASB-001', 'HRDASB-002', 'HRDASB-003', 'HRDASB-004',

'HRDASB-005', 'HRDASB-006' and 'Khumal Tane' as standard check, were evaluated at HRS, Dailekh, during

two consecutive years 2012 and 2013 for green pod production. Seeds were planted in second week of August in

4.50 m2 experimental area at 50×30 cm spacing containing 30 hills (2 seed per hill) per plot. Treatments were

replicated three times. Fertilizers and manure were applied @ 80:120:40 kg NPK/ha and 12 mt/ha respectively.

Crop protection measures were done as per the recommendations. Observed data were analyzed using the

MSTAT-C package, where means were separated by DMRT.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Plant height

Though all the seven varieties were tall and pole type, degree of tallness varied to some extent. In the first year of

study, the height was significantly higher in 'HRDASB-006' (2.59 m) followed by 'HRDASB-001' (2.55 m),

'HRDASB-002' (2.53 m) and the shortest height was found in 'Khumal Tane'. In the second year, 'HRDASB-001'

exhibited the maximum height (2.72 m) followed by 'HRDASB-005' (2.70 m) and 'Khumal Tane' placed at the

same position. The average performance of different varieties on height was different. 'HRDASB-001', 'HRDASB-

002', 'HRDASB-003', 'HRDASB-005', 'HRDASB-006' were statistically at par. 'HRDASB-004' was placed second

position before 'Khumal Tane' which was the shortest in height (2.26 m) (Table 1).

Number of pod per plant

Number of pod per plant affects the total yield. Among the tested varieties this parameter was statistically non-

significant and varied from 12.53 in 'HRDASB-006' to 16.11 in 'HRDASB-001' and 'Khumal Tane' in 2012. In

2013 also, the difference in number of pods per plant was non-significant and varied from 11.68 in 'HRDASB-005'

Variety Plant height (m)

2012 2013 Average

HRDASB-001 2.55a 2.72a

2.64a

HRDASB-002 2.53a 2.57ab

2.55a

HRDASB-003 2.47ab 2.60a

2.54a

HRDASB-004 2.34b 2.41b

2.38b

HRDASB-005 2.52a 2.70a

2.61a

HRDASB-006 2.59a 2.60a

2.65a

Khumal Tane 2.10c 2.22c

2.16c

GM 2.44 2.56 2.50

F value 14.27* 13.40** 17.85**

CV (%) 3.18 3.41 2.88

CD (P≤0.05) 0.14 0.16 0.13

Table 1. Performance of different asparagus bean varieties to plant height during 2012 and 2013 at HRS,

Dailekh

3


to 18.89 in 'HRDASB-001'. Likewise, the difference among the average number of pods per plant of the two years

was non-significant and differed from 12.11 in 'HRDASB-005' to 17.50 in 'HRDASB-001' with a grand mean value

of 15.21 (Table 2).

Individual pod weight

Weight of individual pod varied significantly both in first and second year of the study. In pooled data also, the

difference was highly significant. In the 1st year, the maximum weight of individual pod was found in 'HRDASB-

001' (20.94 g) followed by 'HRDASB-005' (18.94 g) and 'HRDASB-003' (18.70 g) and the minimum pod weight

was found in 'Khumal Tane' (10.92 g). In the second year, 'HRDASB-001' gave 22.03 g weight and was statistically

at par with 'HRDASB-005' (20.89 g) and 'HRDASB-004' (19.28 g). In pooled data, 'HRDASB-001' gave the

maximum pod weight (21.49 g) with which 'HRDASB-005' was statistically at par. 'HRDASB-006' and 'Khumal

Tane' produced lighter fruit weight (Table 2).

Above result was higher and different from Kamala et. al., 2014, who reported that among the 39 collected

asparagus bean gremplasms studied the individual pod weight varied from 6.00 g to 14.00 g.

Pod length

Pod length of seven varieties varied significantly. In 2012, the highest length of pod was observed in 'HRDASB-

001' (66.97 cm) followed by 'HRDASB-003' (59.21 cm) and the shortest pod length was recorded in 'HRDASB-

006'. Similarly, in 2013, the highest length was again produced by 'HRDASB-001' (61.97 cm) followed by

'HRDASB-003' (54.79 cm) both being at par. The length of pod was observed minimum in 'HRDASB-006'. The

pooled data showed that significantly the longest pod was produced by 'HRDASB-001' (64.47 cm) followed by

'HRDASB-003' (57.00 cm) and the shortest by 'HRDASB-006' (35.07 cm) (Table 3).

Pod diameter

Pod diameter did not differ significantly in both the years. In 2012, the diameter varied from 7.97 mm in

'HRDASB-003' to 8.37 mm in 'HRDASB-005' and 'HRDASB-006' with mean value 8.22 mm. Similarly, in 2013,

Variety Number of pod per plant Individual pod weight (g)

2012 2013 Average 2012 2013 Average

HRDASB-001 16.11 18.89 17.50 20.94a 22.03a

21.49a

HRDASB-002 15.45 16.10 15.78 17.57ab 17.29bc

17.43c

HRDASB-003 14.95 15.05 15.81 18.70ab 17.89bc

18.30bc

HRDASB-004 14.85 15.10 14.68 18.57ab 19.28a-c

18.93bc

HRDASB-005 14.26 11.68 12.11 18.94ab 20.89ab

19.91ab

HRDASB-006 12.53 15.57 15.26 14.22ab 13.66d

13.94d

Khumal Tane 16.11 15.86 15.36 10.92b 15.91cd

13.41d

GM 14.96 15.46 15.21 17.12 18.14 17.63

F value 0.36 NS 2.55 NS 1.29 NS 13.3252* 6.96** 30.15**

CV (%) 25.47 14.84 16.31 9.43 10.43 5.35

CD (P≤0.05) 6.779 4.082 4.414 7.36 3.364 1.678

Table 2. Performance of asparagus bean varieties in terms of number and individual weight of pod during

2012 and 2013 at HRS, Dailekh


4

Vol. 11, 2016

diameter ranged from 7.75 mm in 'HRDASB-003' to 8.47 mm in 'HRDASB-002' with mean diameter of 8.13 mm.

The average of two years' data indicated that diameter was non-significantly varied from 7.86 mm in 'HRDASB-

003' to 8.38 mm in 'HRDASB-002' (Table 3).

Above result of pod length was also supported by Kamala et. al., 2014, who found the length of collected

germplasms varying from 24 cm to 75 cm. However, the diameter was not described by him. Similarly, Lorz and

Halsy, 1964 also reported that the length of asparagus bean varied from 45-75 cm long.

Days to first flowering

Days taken to first flowering varied significantly among varieties in both the years. The days to first flowering was

significantly short in 'HRDASB-005' followed by 'HRDASB-006' with which 'HRDASB-002', 'HRDASB-003',

'HRDASB-004' were statistically at par. The days to first flowering of 'HRDASB-001' and 'Khumal Tane' were

statistically at par in both the years and pooled data. Analyzed result showed that flowering on them was about a

week later than other varieties (Table 4).

Days to first harvest

Days taken to first commercial harvest among the tested varieties differed significantly. 'HRDASB-002', 'HRDASB

-003', 'HRDASB-004', 'HRDASB-005' and 'HRDASB-006' were ready for harvest within 52-54 days whereas

'Khumal Tane' and 'HRDASB-001' were ready within 60-61 days after sowing of seed (Table 4).

Variety Pod length (cm) Pod diameter (mm)


HRDASB-001 66.97a 61.97a

64.47a 8.34 7.97 8.15

HRDASB-002 51.00d 49.63b

50.32cd 8.29 8.47 8.38

HRDASB-003 59.21b 54.79ab

57.00b 7.97 7.75 7.86

HRDASB-004 54.15c 50.99b

52.57c 7.99 7.93 7.96

HRDASB-005 56.31c 50.83b

53.57bc 8.37 8.34 8.35

HRDASB-006 34.57f 35.57c

35.07e 8.37 8.38 8.37

Khumal Tane 45.01e 48.93b

46.97d 8.22 8.04 8.13

GM 52.46 50.38 51.42 8.22 8.13 8.18

F value 124.038** 10.07** 58.99** 1.28 NS 2.09 NS 3.05NS

CV (%) 3.18 8.58 3.99 3.18 3.96 2.23

CD (P≤0.05) 2.883 7.691 3.646 0.46 0.57 0.47

Table 3. Performance of asparagus bean varieties in terms of pod length and diameter during 2012 and

2013 at HRS, Dailekh

5


Above results was also supported by Kamala et. al., 2014 who reported that first flowering started from 40-45 days

and became ready to harvest within 55-60 days after seed sowing based on the climatic condition.

Fresh pod yield

The pod yield is the most important parameter for selection of the asparagus bean varieties. The yield of green pod

differed highly significantly among the varieties (Table 5). The highest yield was produced by 'HRDASB-

001' (30.40 mt/ha in 2012 and 27.57 mt/ha in 2013) which was about two times higher than 'Khumel Tane', a

released variety of Nepal. Other varieties were statistically at par for their yield performances in both the years.

The average yield of 'HRDASB-001'(28.99 mt/ha) was significantly the highest and was followed by 'HRDASB-

003' (19.25 mt/ha), 'HRDASB-004' (18.68 mt/ha) and 'HRDASB-002' (18.36 mt/ha). The lowest yield was given

by 'Khumal Tane' (14.21 mt/ha).

Variety Days to first flowering Days to first harvest


HRDASB-001 41.67a 42.00a

41.83a 61.33a

60.00a 60.67a

HRDASB-002 34.67b 36.00b

35.33b 52.00b

54.33b 53.17b

HRDASB-003 36.3 b 37.00b

36.67b 53.33b

52.33b 52.83b

HRDASB-004 36.67b 36.67b

36.67b 53.00b

52.00b 52.50b

HRDASB-005 34.33b 36.00b

35.17b 52.33b

52.67b 52.50b

HRDASB-006 34.67b 36.33b

35.50b 52.67b

52.67b 52.67b

Khumal Tane 42.33a 42.00a

42.17a 60.00a

62.00a 61.00a

GM 37.24 38.00 37.62 54.95 55.14 55.05

F value 16.51** 11.17** 20.04** 15.57**15.57**

21.63** 29.71**

CV (%) 3.86 3.76 3.14 3.15 2.77 2.29

CD (P≤0.05) 2.53 2.54 2.09 3.08 2.71 2.24

Table 4. Performance of asparagus bean varieties in terms of flowering and harvesting during 2012 and

2013 at HRS, Dailekh

Variety Yield (mt/ha)

2012 2013 Average

HRDASB-001 30.40a 27.57a

28.99a

HRDASB-002 18.37b 18.35bc

18.36b

HRDASB-003 20.66b 17.84bc

19.25b

HRDASB-004 18.09b 19.28b

18.68b

HRDASB-005 15.88b 16.18bc

16.02b

HRDASB-006 14.27b 14.21c

14.24b

Khumal Tane 11.49b 16.92bc

14.21b

GM 18.45 18.62 18.54

F value 5.05** 9.44** 10.79**

CV (%) 25.33 12.94 14.38

CD (P≤0.05) 8.314 4.286 4.742

Table 5. Performance of asparagus bean varieties in terms of pod yield during 2012 and 2013 at HRS,

Dailekh


6

Vol. 11, 2016

Above result was higher in 'HRDASB-001', but the other varieties produced lower than the yield reported by

Kamala et. al., 2014, who reported that yield of green pod was estimated at 25.7 mt/ha.

Acknowledgement

Authors are highly acknowledged to all the technical staffs of HRS, Dailekh for their continuous effort in

completing the trial for two years.

REFERENCES

Dadson, R.B, F.M. Hashem, I. Javaid, A.L. Allen and T.E. Devine. 2005. Effect of water stress on yield of

cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) genotypes in the Delmarva region of the United States. Journal of Agronomy

and Crop Science, 191:210-217.

Gani, A.M., S.U. Yahaya and B.M. Auwalu. 2003. The performance of vegetable cowpea (Vigna unguiculata

(L.) Walp) varieties in Bauchi, Nigeria. Agricultural Business Technology of Journal, 1(1): 62-73.

Hall, A.E., 2004. Breeding for adaptation to drought and heat in cowpea. European Journal of Agronomy,

21: 447-454.

Ibrahim, U., B.M. Auwalu and G.N. Udom. 2010. Effect of stage and intensity of defoliation on the

performance of vegetable cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp). World Journal of Agricultural, 6(4): 460-465.

Kamala, V., T.S. Aghora, N. Sivaraj, T.Rao, S.R. Pandravada, N. Sunil, N. Mohan, K.S. Varaprasad and S.K.

Chakrabarty. 2014. Indian Journal of Plant Genetic Resource 27(2): 171-177.

Lorz, A.P. and L.H. Halsey. 1964. Snap pea, A new cream type southern pea variety for snap pod use. Univ.

Florida Agr. Expt. Sta. Cir. S-160.

MOAD. 2013. Statistical Information on Nepalese Agriculture 2012/2013. Ministry of Agricultural

Development, Agri-Business Promotion and Statistics Division, Singha Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Pandey, Y.R., A.B. Pun and R.C. Mishra. 2006. Evaluation of vegetable type cowpea varieties for commercial

production in the river basin and low hill areas. Nepal Agriculture Research Journal, 7: 16-20.

Rachie, K.O. 1985. Introduction. P. xxi-xxviii. In: S. R. Singh and K.O. Rachie (eds). Cowpea research,

production and utilization. Wiley, Chichester, England.

Steele, W.M. and K.L. Mehra. 1980. Structure, evolution and adaptation to farming systems and

environments in Vigna. In: Advances in leguminous sciences. Edited by R.J., Summerfield and A.H. Bunting.

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK. pp. 393-404.

7


ABSTRACT

A study was conducted at Department of Horticulture and Floriculture Management, Fulgaachi, Ilam during Oct, 2013 to April,

2014 with the aim to determine appropriate organic manure for the optimal cauliflower yield. The effect of five organic manures, viz.,

bansoon (14.4 mt ha-1), poultry manure (14.4mt ha-1), mustard oil cake (8.0 mt ha-1), farmyard manure (18 t ha-1), and vermi-

compost (11.4 mt ha-1) were evaluated on the performance of Kathmandu Local cultivar- laid out in Randomized Complete Block

Design (RCBD) with four replications. The performance of vermi-compost was found promising as compared to other tested manures.

Measured parameters i.e. plant height, stem diameter and leaf number, length were significantly highest at the vermi-compost as

compared to other manures. The maximum biological yield of 54.06 mt ha–1 was recorded with vermi-compost and found to be

minimum with farmyard manure, 28.73 mt ha–1. Both root length (37.46 cm) and root weight (169.13 g plant-1) found to be

highest with vermi-compost and lowest root length (23.47 cm) and root weight (130.30 g plant-1) were recorded with farmyard manure.

Similarly, the curd diameter was significantly highest (20.99 cm) with vermi-compost and lowest at bansoon (15.43 cm). The

significant variation on curd yield was found to be highest with vermi-compost with highest curd yield (12.94 t ha-1) and the lowest

curd yield (5.64 t ha-1) recorded on farm yard manure application. Curd initiation and curd maturity observed earlier i.e. 64 and 89

days after transplanting respectively with vermi-compost application, whereas the longest days to curd initiation (78 days) and curd

maturity (103 days) was recorded with farmyard manure. In addition, BC ratio was found highest (4.31) with vermi-compost

treatment whereas the lowest (1.8) found with farm yard manure treatment. A on-farm verification study is needed to recommend vermi-

compost as an alternatives for organic cauliflower production for eastern mid hill of Nepal.

Key words: curd, leaf, maturity, root, stem, weight, yield.

INTRODUCTION

Cauliflower (Brassica oleracae var. botrytis L.), a crop from Brassicaceae family known to be originated in

Mediterranean region (Bose and Som, 1993), is an important commercial vegetable crop in the world. It is usually a

temperate biennial crop and requires low temperature for flower induction. The edible part of the cauliflower is a

cluster of flower buds called curds.It contains diverse nutrients, vitamins and minerals comprised of vitamin A,

vitamin B1, vitamin C, protein, fat, carbohydrates, potassium, phosphorus, sulphur, iron, copper, carotenoids and

β-carotene. Moreover, it has also medicinal values and therapeutic effects as it contains high concentration of

glucothiocyanate, which is effective in the inhibition of carcinogenesis.

In Nepal, cauliflower ranks the second most important vegetable crop with the total production of352,535 mt

whereas the cabbage and radish rank first and third with the total production of 370,660mt and 222,152mt

respectively (MoAD, 2014).

Cauliflower requires 200:120:80 kg NPK per hectare (Singh and Bhandari, 2015). Thus, the nutrient requirement

of the cauliflower has been met with heavy use of chemical fertilizer in many commercial farms. This excessive and

unbalanced use of chemical fertilizers has lead to health and ecological hazards, depletion of physio-chemical

properties of the soil and ultimately gives poor yield. Furthermore, the occurrence of nutrient deficiency and

overall decline in the soil fertility due to continuous use of chemical fertilizers has been widely reported in Nepal

(Tripathi, 2002). Eventually, productivity of vegetables including cauliflower has come down to 12 tha-1 as

compared to world productivity of 17.07 t ha-1 (Budathoki, 2006).

EEFECT OF DIFFERENT ORGANIC FERTILIZERS ON ECONOMIC YIELD OF CAULIFLOWER (Brassica oleraceae var. botrytis L.) at ILAM, NEPAL

M. Basnet1 S.M. Shakya2

1National Ginger Research Program, Nepal Agriculture Research Council, Salyan, Nepal 2 Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Chitwan, Nepal


8

Vol. 11, 2016

Environmental pollution and food safety issues due to chemical contamination become a great concern worldwide.

Increasing use of agro-chemicals, higher production cost and deteriorating ecosystem health have advocated the

need to change the external and chemical use in agriculture towards safe and sustainable organic production (Aryal,

2006). Under such situation, initiative toward organic vegetable production is obligatory to boost the vegetable

sector. In the same manner, Nepal has been spending billions of rupees every year to import chemical fertilizers

(Bhattarai et al., 2006) and the cost of chemical fertilizers will imply higher to small and marginal farmers(Joshi and

Singh, 2004). .

Organic production is global concern since consumption of organic vegetables has high growth in the developed

countries (Lampkin, 1990). However, growing awareness of organic production in terms of soil health, sustainable

production and environmental hazards, and healthy food consumption is also quite appreciable in Nepal (Sharma,

2005). Apart from this, Nepal has tremendous opportunity of organic vegetable production for the increased farm

income because of growing demand of organic vegetables to health-conscious elite consumers in the country and

export to its neighbor international markets (Bhatta et al., 2008 and Bhandari, 2006).

In Nepal, the area under organic production system is far low as compared to other countries as the growth of

organic sector is quite slow and facing tremendous challenges (Bhatta et al., 2008).On the other hand, Nepalese

agriculture characterizes equally of low input for the soil nutrients, and poor investment for costly external inputs

(K.C., 2006). Similarly, farmyard manure is commonly being used for organic vegetable production in Nepal.

However, now days, different organic manures such as poultry manure, mustard oil cake, vermi-compost, bansoon

and many others have been come into the practice. Poultry manure contains 1.9% N, 0.5% P and 1.1% K and

farm yard manure contains 2.4% N, 1% P and 2% K (Tennakoon and Bandara, 2003). According to Reddy (2005),

mustard oil cake contains 3.2% N, 1.8% P and 1.2% K. while vermi-compost contains 2% N, 1.25% P and 1.2%

K (Sinha, 2003). In addition, bonsoon contains 2% N, 2% P and 1.5% K (Personal communication with the

traders). Present practice of organic farming with existing organic resources is not enough to meet the effective

organic production in term of yield and profit (Bajracharya, 2001).Therefore, Nepalese farmers are looking

appropriate alternative to chemical fertilizers.

The scientific information regarding appropriate organic manures for cauliflower production in the specific soil

condition and climate of Nepal is limited (Subedi and Regmi, 2006) even though the recent agriculture policy

(2062) also realizes the importance of organic agriculture and put emphasis on it. Thus, this study was carried out

to identify the response of organic manures on cauliflower production.

METHODOLOGY

The experiment was conducted at Department of Horticulture and Floriculture Management, Fulgaachi, Ilam

during Oct, 2013 to April, 2014 with the financial support from Univeristy Grant Commission (UGC)/Tribhuvan

University. Five common organic manures i.e. bansoon (14.4 mt ha-1), poultry manure (14.4mt ha-1), mustard oil

cake (8.0mt ha-1), farmyard manure (18 t ha-1), and vermi-compost (11.4 mt ha-1) were selected based on the

farmer’s practices at Ilam district and were laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with four

replications. The crop was planted with the spacing of 60 cm x 60 cm on each plot having five rows with four

plants per row on the area of 7.2 m2. Five organic manures were applied as basal dose on the randomly assigned

plots. 30 days healthy seedlings were transplanted on the trial plots. Among the 20 total plants of each plot, 14

were taken as boarder plants whereas six inner plants were used for data recording. From the six inner plants stem

diameter, stem length, leaf length and leaf width were recorded at 30 and 60 days after transplanting (DAT). Stem

diameter is measured by the vernier calliper whereas the stem length, length and width of leaf, root length were

measured using measuring tape. Similarly, digital weighing balance was used to measure root weight, biological

9


yield and curd yield. Root to shoot ratio was calculated by dividing the root weight by shoot weight of the

cauliflower crop. Similarly, biological yield of crop was calculated by weighing the total biomass produced during

curd harvesting stage.

Root to shoot ratio: Total root weight (gm)/Total shoot weight (gm)

BC ratio: Gross income/Total variable cost

The data obtained were entered into the MS Excel (2007), analyzed through MSTAT C program (Freed and Scott,

1986). Means were compared by using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 0.05 level of significance

(Gomez and Gomez, 1984).

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Plant height

The response of organic manures on the stem heights at each growth period was found significantly different with

the highest plant height 30 DAT(4.60cm) and 60 DAT(12.29 cm)with vermi-compost and lowest with farm yard

manure i.e., 3 cm, and9.44 cm respectively at 30 and 60 DAT (table 1).

Vermi-compost might have improved the soil physical properties i.e. soil porosity, water holding capacity and

supplied other plant growth promoting substances thus application of vermi-compost significantly increased plant

height. Similar result was reported by Gorlitz (1987) and Jahan et al., (2014).The increase in plant height might be

due to increased supply of nutrients, which may accelerate synthesis of chlorophyll, amino acids, enzymes and

carbohydrate use. Dufault (1988), Wange and Kale (2004), Mohandas (1987), and Singh and Singh (1994) reported

similar results of increment on plant height with the application of easily available organic manure on broccoli,

brinjal, tomato and cauliflower respectively.

Stem diameter

The results revealed that the vermi-compost treatment gave the highest stem diameter at 30 DAT (2.06 cm) and 60

DAT (3.41cm) while farmyard manure gave the lowest at 30 DAT (1.4 cm) and 60 DAT (2.66 cm) (table 1).

Increment in stem diameter might be due to metabolic changes in physiological process of plants as influenced by

nutrients. The highest stem diameter with the vermi-compost is associated with the readily available nutrients that

are absorbed instantly by the plants for its growth. The lowest stem diameter with other organic manures might be

due to the less mineralization and availability of nutrients for plant growth (Kumar et al., 2007). Edwards et al.,

(2004) and Edwards (1988) also found the similar results of highest stem diameter with the application of vermi-

compost.

Treatment Plant height (cm) Stem diameter (cm)

30 DAT 60 DAT 30 DAT 60 DAT

Bansoon 3.39c 10.74b 1.91a 2.90bc

Mustard Oil Cake 3.45c 11.30ab 1.43bc 2.66b

Poultry Manure 4.35ab 11.68ab 1.73b 2.98b

Farmyard Manure 3d 9.44c 1.40c 2.54b

Vermi-compost 4.60a 12.29a 2.06a 3.41a

F test * ** * **

LSD 0.05 0.6432 0.75 0.6418 0.22035

SEm± 0.2088 0.243 0.2083 0.0660

CV % 10.4 4.4 25.7 4.6

Table 1. Effect of organic fertilizers on stem height during growing period of cauliflower

*, and ** denote significantly different respectively at P≤0.05 and P<.01. Means within column followed by the same letter are non-significantly different at 5 % level. DAT means days after planting.


10

Vol. 11, 2016

Leaf length and width

Vermi-compost has significant effect on leaf length and leaf width of cauliflower at different growth stages (table

2). Similarly, the highest leaf length was observed with the vermi-compost during 30 DAT (38.45 cm) and 60 DAT

(58.75 cm) whereas; farm yard manure gave the lowest leaf length during 30 DAT (27.60 cm) and 60 DAT (50.20

cm). In addition, the vermi-compost gave the highest leaf width during 30 DAT (20.85 cm) and 60 DAT (31.35

cm) and the lowest was found with farm yard manure during 30 DAT (15.30 cm) and 60 DAT (26.75 cm). The

highest leaf length and leaf width was due to the more nutrient content and highest nutrient retention capacity of

the vermi-compost as compared to other nutrients in strawberry and cauliflower crop (Arancon et al., 2004;

Arancon et al., 2006; and Jahan et al., 2014).

Root length, root weight, root to shoot ratio and biological yield

The response of organic manures had highly significant effect on root length, root weight, root to shoot ratio and

biological yield of cauliflower (table 3). In addition, vermi-compost showed the highest root length (37.46 cm),

root weight (169.3 gm plant-1), root to shoot ratio (0.149) and biological yield (54.06 t ha-1), whereas farm yard

manure produced the lowest root length (23.47 cm), root weight (130.30gm plant-1), root to shoot ratio (0.0783)

and biological yield (28.73t ha-1). The significant result of vermi-compost was because of its nutritive organic

matter (easy and quick mineralization by the microorganisms) which enhanced the soil structure, created conducive

conditions for good root development (Arisha et al., 2003; Togunand Akanbi, 2003). Moreover, the highest growth

of aerial part and underground part ultimately provided the highest biological yield.

Table 2. Effect of different organic manures on leaf length during growing period of cauliflower


Treatment Leaf length (cm) Leaf width (cm)

30 DAT 60 DAT 30 DAT 60 DAT

Bansoon 31.20b 51.50b 17.40bc 27.75bc

Mustard oil cake 35.10ab 54.95ab 19.10ab 29.15b

Poultry manure 32.84b 54.22ab 18.79b 28.64b

Farmyard manure 27.60c 50.20b 15.30c 26.75bc


F test ** * * *

LSD 0.05 3.209 4.29 2.251 2.535

SEm± 1.067 1.393 0.731 0.823

CV % 6.5 5.2 8.0 5.7

11


Days to curd initiation and maturity

The days to curd initiation and curd maturity were found to be earliest with vemi-compost and lastest with farm

yard manure treatment (table 4). The curd initiation and maturity were found to be 64 and 89 days respectively

with vermi-compost application, whereas, farmyard manure treatment took 78 days for curd initiation and 103

days for curd maturation. The early curd initiation and maturity was found with vermi-compost application as it

contains balanced plant nutrient and hormones (Arancon et al., 2004; and Frankenberger and Arshad, 1995).

Curd diameter and yield

The highest curd diameter and yield of 20.99 cm and 12.94 t ha-1 respectively were found with vermi-compost

treatment whereas the lowest curd diameter (15.43 cm) and yield (5.64 t ha-1 was found with farmyard manure

(table 4). The effect of vermi-compost revealed better impact on both curd diameter and yield as compared to

other manures. Gupta and Samnotra (2004) reported highest head diameter and yield in cabbage crop with the

application of vermi-compost.

From this study, the leaf length, diameter was found to be maximum with the application of vermi-compost (Table

1). Thus, the curd diameter and yield was highest with the application of vermi-compost as the formation of good

curd depends on the number of leaves, their size and ability to store carbohydrates. Leaf growth is a part of total

dry matter accumulation and leaf itself is the part of the dry weight of the plant. Leaf provides a platform for

photosynthesis. Photosynthesis and dry matter production of a plant are proportional to the amount of leaf area

on the plant. Leaf weight and leaf area follows pattern similar to that of total dry weight during the first half of the

growing season in strawberry crop with vermin-compost application (Arancon et al., 2004).

The promising results of vermi-compost, poultry manure and mustard oil cake reflected to the higher content of

plant nutrients and readily available to the plants within shorter period of application. Similarly, vermi-compost,

acomplete organic manure served on improving soil structure and microbial biomass (Dauda et al., 2008 and Jahan

et al., 2014).These yield increases is associated with the improvement of soil organic content and nutrients. The

earlier workers reported a positive effect of vermi-compost application on growth and yield of vegetables

Table 3.Effects of different organic manures on root length, weight, root to shoot ratio and biological

yield of cauliflower


Treatments Root length (cm) Root weight (g plant–1)

Root shoot ratio Biological yield (t ha-

1)

Bansoon 29.67cd 151.09c 0.105b 34.80c

Mustard Oil Cake 35.04b 156.47ab 0.097c 40.24b

Poultry Manure 31.65c 160.39b 0.128ab 43.62b

Farmyard Manure 23.47d 130.30d 0.078d 28.73d


F test ** ** ** **

LSD 0.05 3.105 4.721 0.019 3.268

SEm± 1.008 1.532 .00627 1.061

CV % 6.5 2.0 11.2 5.3


12

Vol. 11, 2016

(Edwards and Burrows, 1988; Atiyeh et al., 2000).

Net return and benefit cost ratio

Vermi-compost gave the highest net return (NRS. 397590) and benefit cost ratio (4.31) on cauliflower production

whereas, farm yard manure lowest net return (NRs. 101978) and benefit cost ratio of 1.8 (table 5).

CONCLUSION

It is concluded that vermi-compost has a significant effect on yield and yield components of cauliflower than other

manures. Moreover, highest net return and benefit cost ratio of NRs. 397590 and 4.31 ha-1 respectively were

found with vermi-compost treatment. An on-farm verification study is needed to recommend vermi-compost as

an alternatives for organic cauliflower production for eastern mid hill of Nepal.

Treatments Days to curd initiation

Days to curd maturity Curd diameter (cm)

Curd yield (t ha-1)

Bansoon 76ab 101ab 8.81ab 7.14c

Mustard Oil Cake 74b 99b 18.19b 9.43b

Poultry Manure 69c 93c 18.48ab 9.49b

Farmyard Manure 78a 103a 15.43c 5.64d

Vermi-compost 64d 89d 20.99a 12.94a

F test ** ** * **

LSD 0.05 3.259 2.974 2.604 1.501

SEm± 1.058 0.965 0.845 0.487

CV % 2.9 2 9.2 10.2%

Table 4. Effect of different organic manures on the days to curd initiation and maturity, curd

diameter and yield of cauliflower


Treatments Curd Yield Price Gross Income Total variable cost Net BC ratio (kg ha–1) (Rs kg-1) (Rs ha-1) (Rs ha-1) Return

Bansoon 7140 40 285600 136121 149479 2.09

Mustard oil cake 9430 40 377200 122787 254413 3.07

Poultry manure 9490 40 379600 94188 285412 4.03

Farmyard Manure 5640 40 225600 123622 101978 1.8

Vermi-compost 12940 40 517600 120010 397590 4.31

Table 5. Detail of cost-benefit analysis of cauliflower production with organic manures


13


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors express their sincere thanks to University Grant Commission (UGC), Tribhuvan University, Nepal for

providing financial support and Research Unit of Mahendra Ratna Multiple Campus, Ilam Nepal for timely

providing necessary facilities and logistic support.

REFERENCES

Arancon, N.Q., C.A. Edwards, P. Bierman, C. Welch and J.D. Metzger, 2004. Influences of vermi-composts on

field strawberries-1: Effects on growth and yields; Bioresource Technology, 93: 145-153.

Arancon, N.Q., C.I. Edwards and P. Bierman, 2006. Influences of vermi-composts on field strawberries-2: Effects

on soil microbiological and chemical properties; Bio-resource Technology, 97: 831-840.

Arisha, H.M.E., A.A. Gad, and S.E. Younes. 2003. Response of some pepper cultivars to organic and mineral

nitrogen fertilizer under sandy soil conditions. Zagazig J. Agric. Res. 30:1875 – 1899.

Aryal, S.B. 2006. Concept, status, prospects and opportunities of organic farming in Nepal. In: Proceeding of a

First National Workshop on Organic Farming, 12-14 June 2006 (Baishakh 28-30, 2063), Kirtipur,

Kathmandu. Directorate of Agriculture Extension, Directorate of Vegetable Development, and District

Agricultural Development Office, Kathmandu. pp 27-34

Atiyeh, R.M., N.Q. Arancon, C.A .Edwards, J.D. Metzger. 2000. Influence of earthworm-processed pig manure on

the growth and yield of green house tomatoes. Bioresource Technology75: 175-180.

Bajracharya, R. M. 2001. Fertility and productivity parameters for soil from five mid hill districts of central Nepal.

In: Proceedings of Third National Conference on Science and Technology. Nepal Academy of Science and

Technology. Kathmandu, Nepal. pp 813 -815.

Bhandari, D. R. 2006. Community level organic vegetable production program: an experience of Kathmandu

district. In: Proceeding of a First National Workshop on Organic Farming, 12-14 June 2006 (Baishakh 28-

30, 2063), Kirtipur, Kathmandu. Directorate of Agriculture Extension, Directorate of Vegetable

Development, District Agricultural Development Office, Kathmandu. pp 85-95

Bhatta, G.D., W. Doppler and K. B. KC. 2008. Problems and potentials of organic agriculture development in

Nepal. In: International Research on Food Security, Natural Resource Management and Rural

Development. 7-9 October 2008, Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany.DeutscherTropentag.

Bhattarai, S., K. Bhudhathoki and D. P. Sherchan. 2006. Organic farming, its role in soil fertility, effect on crop

production, constraints and future strategy. In: Proceeding of a First National Workshop on Organic

Farming, 12-14 June 2006 (Baishakh 28-30, 2063), Kirtipur, Kathmandu. Directorate of Agriculture

Extension, Directorate of Vegetable Development, and District Agricultural Development Office,

Kathmandu.pp131-137

Bose, T. K. and M. G. Som. 1993.Vegetable crops in India, NayaPrakash, Calcutta. pp 838.

Budhathoki, K. 2006. Bajarmukhi arganik ra bemausami tarkari kheti prabidhi. Mrs. Basanti Budhathoki, Lalitpur,

Nepal.

Dauda, S.N., F.A. Ajayi, and E.Ndor. 2008. Growth and yield of water melon (Citrulluslanatus) as affected by

poultry manure application. J. Agric. Soc. Sci., 4:121-4.

Dufault, R. J. 1988. Nitrogen and phosphorus requirements for greenhouse broccoli production. HortScience. 13

(3): 576–578.


14

Vol. 11, 2016

Edwards, C.A. and I. Burrows. 1988. The potential of earthworms composts as plant growth media. In: Edward,

C.A. and E.F. Neuhauser (Eds.). Earthworms in waste and environmental management. SPB Academic

Publishing, The Hague, The Netherlands; ISBN 90-5103-017-7, pp: 21-32.

Edwards, C.A., J. Domínguez and N.Q. Arancon. 2004. The influence of vermi-composts on plant growth and

pest incidence. In Shakir, S.H. and W.Z.A. Mikhail (Eds.). Soil Zoology for Sustainable Development in

the 21st Century, Self-Publisher; Cairo, Egypt, pp: 397-420.

Frankenberger, Jr., W.T. and M. Arshad. 1995.Phytohormones in soils: Microbial production and function. Marcel

and Deckker Pub., New York, pp: 503.

Freed R.D. and D.E Scott. 1986. MSTATC. Crop and soil. Michigan: Michigan State University, USA.

Gomez K.A and A.A. Gomez. 1984. Statistical procedures for agricultural research (2nd ed.). A Wiley Interscience

Publication, New York, USA. 655p.

Gorlitz, H. 1987. Studies on the influence of soil humas status on yield components and crop yield. Cited from

Field Crop Abst. 40(11): 780.

Gupta, A. K. and R. K. Samnotra. 2004. Effect of biofertilizers and nitrogen on growth, quality and yield of

cabbage cv Golden Acre. Environment and Ecology.MKK publication. India. 22 (3): 551-553.

Jahan, F.N., A.T.M. Shahjalal, A.K. Paul, H. Mehraj and A.F.M.J. Uddin. 2014. Efficacy of Vermi-compost and

Conventional Compost on Growth and Yield of Cauliflower. Bangladesh Res. Pub. J. 10(1): 33-38.

Joshi, N. and M P. Singh. 2004. Response of cauliflower to biofertilizers. In: Proceedings of the Forth National

Workshop on Horticulture. Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), Khumaltar, Lalitpur.

KC, G. K. 2006. An idea on organic agriculture system in Nepal. In: Proceeding of a First National Workshop on

Organic Farming, 12-14 June 2006 (Baishakh 28-30, 2063), Kirtipur, Kathmandu. Directorate of

Agriculture Extension, Directorate of Vegetable Development, and District Agricultural Development

Office, Kathmandu. pp 10-26

Kumar R., R. Bhatia, K. Kukreja, R. K. Behl, S. S. Dudeja, and N. Narula.2007. Establishment of Azotobacter on

plant roots: chemo tactic response, development and analysis of root exudates of cotton and wheat. Journal

of Basic Microbiology 47 (5): 436-439.

Lampkin, N. 1990. Modelling conventional and organic farming: a literature review. In: Acs, S; P.B.M. Berentsen

and R.B.M. Huirne (Eds.). Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences (NJAS), 53(1), 2005.

MOAD. 2014. Statistical information on nepalese agriculture. Ministry of Agriculture Development. Agribusiness

Promotion and Statistics Division. Agristatic section, Singha Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Mohandas, S. 1987. Field response of tomato to inoculation with a VAM and with Azotobacter. Plant and Soil.

MKK Publication. 98 (2): 295-297.

Reddy, S.R.2005. Principles of agronomy. Kalyani Publisher, Ludhiana.

Sharma, G. 2005. Organic agriculture in Nepal: An Analysis in to Status, Policy, Technology.

Singh, B. and K. Singh. 1994. Effect of nitrogen and spacing of yield and economics of seed production in mid

season cauliflower. Vegetable Science. 21 (1): 32 – 35.

Singh, K.P and R.R. Bhandari. 2015. Vegetable Crops Production Technology. Smikshya Publication, Adwait

Marg, Bagbazzar, Kathmandu, pp 96.

15


Sinha, R. K. 2003. Sustainable Agriculture: Embarking on the Second Green Revolution, Surabhee Publisher,

India; pp. 350.

Subedi, B., and H. R. Regmi. 2006. Technological development in organic vegetable production system in Nepal.

In: Proceeding of a First National Workshop on Organic Farming, 12-14 June 2006 (Baishakh 28-30,

2063), Kirtipur, Kathmandu. Directorate of Agriculture Extension, Directorate of Vegetable Development,

and District Agricultural Development Office, Kathmandu. pp 43-48.

Tennakoon, N.A. and S.D.H. Bandara. 2003. Nutrient content of some locally available organic materials and their

potential as alternative sources of nutrients for coconut. COCOS: 1523-30. Coconut Research Institute,

Lunuwila, Sri Lanka.

Togun, A.O. and W.B. Akanbi. 2003. Comparative effectiveness of organic-based fertilizers to mineral fertilizers

on tomato growth and fruit yield. Compost Sci. and Utilization. 11:337–342.

Tripathi, B. P. 2002. Review of acid soil and its management in Nepal. In: Proceedings of the Third National

Conference on Science and Technology. Nepal Academy of Science and Technology. Lalitpur,

Kathmandu, Nepal.

Wange, S. S. and R. H. Kale. 2004. Effect of bio-fertilizers under graded nitrogen levels on brinjal crop. Journal of

Soils and Crops. Association of Soils and Crops Research Scientists. Orissa Horticultural Society. India.

14 (1): 9-11.


16

Vol. 11, 2016

ABSTRACT

The experiment was carried out during the winter season of two consecutive years (2013/14 and 2014/15) at Regional Agriculture

Research Station (RARS), Khajura, Banke in Mid-Western Development Region of Nepal. Experiment was laid out in a split-plot

design with three replications. Main-plot consisted of three moisture conditions namely Irrigated, Mulched and Rain-fed, whereas sub-

plot had eight potato genotypes namely LBr-40, NPI-106, CIP388676.1, CIP396011.47, CIP395192.1, Cardinal, Desiree and

Tharu Local. The two years mean data were considered. Significantly the highest emergence percent (97.1%) was obtained from

Irrigated condition and the lowest emergence (84.3%) from Rain-fed condition. Significantly the highest emergence percent (95.5%) was

obtained from the genotype Cardinal followed by NPI-106 (94.6%), CIP388676.1 (94.4%) and Tharu Local (90.6%) which were

at par. The lowest late blight severity score (4.0) was from Mulched condition and the highest score (4.7) was from Irrigated condition.

Significantly the lowest late blight severity score (1.0) was from the genotypes LBr-40, whereas the highest score (5.3) was from the

genotype CIP395192.1. Significantly the highest yield (17.6 t ha-1) was from Irrigated condition followed by Mulched condition (15.7

t ha-1) whereas the minimum yield (10.7 t ha-1) was from Rain-fed condition. Significantly the maximum yield (23.2 t ha-1) was

from the genotype CIP388676.1 and the minimum yield (3.7 t ha-1) was from Tharu Local. Keeping in view the yield parameters

and late blight resistance the genotypes CIP 388676.1 and LBr-40 were found superior to other genotypes under the Irrigated,

Mulched and Rain-fed conditions. However among the three moisture conditions Irrigated and Mulched conditions were superior to

Rain-fed condition for potato cultivation in the mid-western terai of Nepal.

Key words: Genotypes, potato, moisture conditions, late blight severity, resistance.

INTRODUCTION

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the most important food crops of the world. The annual world

production of potato is about 364.81 million tons over an area of about 19.24 million hectares with the

productivity of about 19.44 t ha-1 of which nearly one third is produced in China and India (FAOSTAT, 2014).

The crop stands at fifth position in terms of area of cultivation after rice, maize, wheat and millet, 2nd in total

production, and 1st in productivity. The area under potato at present in Nepal is about 2,05,725 ha, production

28,17,512 tons with an average productivity of 13.696 t/ha and its contribution to AGDP is 10% and GDP is

3.25% (MoAD, 2014). Mid and Far-western terai is one of the largest areas (16,455 ha) for potato production in

the country but yields are comparatively low (NPRP, 2015). Lack of irrigation is one of the major contributing

factors for lower productivity and the potato varieties cultivated are not drought tolerant. Keeping the above facts

in view the present investigation entitled “Response of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) genotypes to different

moisture conditions in mid-western terai of Nepal” was designed and carried out with the objectives of selecting

suitable potato genotypes for Irrigated, Mulched and Rain-fed conditions as well as suitable moisture conditions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment was conducted during the winter season of two consecutive years (2013/14 and 2014/15) at

RARS, Khajura, Banke district, Nepal. Experiment was laid out in a split-plot design with three replications. Main-

plots consisted of three moisture conditions namely Irrigated, Mulched and Rain-fed, whereas sub-plots had eight

potato genotypes namely LBr-40, NPI-106, CIP388676.1, CIP396011.47, CIP395192.1, Cardinal, Desiree and

Tharu Local. The size of an individual plot was 5.4 m2 (3 m × 1.8 m). The plant to plant and row to row spacing

was maintained at 0.25 m. x 0.60 m. accommodating 36 plants in each plot. Fertilizers were applied @100:100:60

RESPONSE OF POTATO (Solanum tuberosum L.) GENOTYPES TO DIFFERENT MOISTURE CONDITIONS IN MID-WESTERN TERAI OF NEPAL

S. Ahamad, A. Srivastava, M.D. Sharma, S.C. Shah [email protected]

17


kg ha-1 (N: P2O5:K2O) and 20 t ha-1 compost as a basal dose. Full doses of compost, nitrogen, phosphorus and

potassium were applied at planting as a basal dose. The data were statistically analyzed using GENSTAT software.

Means were separated by LSD and DMRT of MSTAT-C.


Data on the emergence percent, late blight severity and yield of potato were recorded in both the years and their

mean values have been presented in Table1.

Effects of moisture conditions and genotypes on emergence percent

In the 1st year (2013/14), significantly maximum emergence percent (99.2%) was obtained from Irrigated

condition followed by Mulched condition (92.7%), both being at par, whereas the minimum emergence (83.4%)

was from Rain-fed condition. In the 2nd year (2014/15), significantly maximum emergence percent (95.0%) was

obtained from Irrigated condition followed by Mulched condition (90.7%), both being at par, whereas the

minimum emergence (85.2%) was from Rain-fed condition. Similarly, the mean data of both years showed

signification difference. Significantly the maximum emergence percent (97.1%) was from Irrigated condition

followed by Mulched condition (91.7%), both being at par, and the minimum emergence (84.3%) was from Rain-

fed condition.

Several other researchers also observed similar results. The potato emergence in field condition was influenced by

age and sprouting stage of tubers, soil temperature and soil moisture of the field as reported by Beukema and Van

Der Zaag (1990) and Singh et al. (1993).

In the 1st year, significantly maximum emergence percent (98.1%) was obtained from the genotype Tharu Local

followed by NPI-116 (97.2%), Cardinal (95.7%), CIP388676.1 (93.8%), LBr-40 (91.1%) and CIP395192.1 (90.1%)

which were all at par, whereas the minimum emergence (83.9%) was from the genotype Desiree. In the 2nd year,

significantly the maximum emergence percent (95.3%) was from the genotype Cardinal followed by CIP388676.1

(95.1%), CIP396011.47 (93.8%), Desiree (92.9%) and NPI-106 (92.0%) which was at par and the minimum

emergence (83.0%) was from the genotype Tharu Local. Similarly, two years mean data of plant emergence

showed a significant difference among the genotypes.

The maximum emergence percent (95.5%) was from the genotype Cardinal followed by NPI-106 (94.6%),

CIP388676.1 (94.4%) and Tharu Local (90.6%) but they were statistically non-significant, whereas minimum

emergence (87.7%) was from the genotype CIP395192.1.

The differences in emergence percent of potato genotypes might be due to their genetic character as well as soil

temperature, moisture and planting time. Similar results were reported by National Potato Research Programme,

Khumaltar (NPRP, 2010).

The interaction effects among moisture conditions and genotypes in the 1st year 2013/14 and both years mean did

not show significant difference, whereas the 2nd year 2014/15 showed significant difference.

Effects of moisture conditions and genotypes on late blight severity

In the 1st year, the data on late blight score showed significant difference among moisture conditions. The lowest

late blight severity score (2.7) was from Mulched condition followed by Rain-fed condition (3.4) and the highest

score (4.1) was from Irrigated condition. In the 2nd year, however, the data showed non-significant difference.

The lowest score (4.8) was from Rain-fed condition whereas the highest score (5.3) was from Mulched condition.

The two years mean data showed non-significant difference on late blight score. It might be due to the continuous

rain fall throughout the cropping season in the 2nd year 2014/15.


18

Vol. 11, 2016

The irrigation and mulch in potato crop might be contributing to create the favorable environment of spreading

the pathogens (Khatri et al., 2013).

As far as genotypes are concerned, in the 1st year, the results on late blight score showed highly significant

difference among the genotypes. The Lowest late blight severity score (1.0) was from the genotype LBr-40 whereas

the highest score (4.4) was from the genotype Tharu Local. Similarly, in the 2nd year, the data showed highly

significant difference. Significantly the lowest score (1.0) was from the genotype LBr-40 and the highest score (6.6)

was from the genotype CIP 396011.47. Similarly, the two years mean results showed highly significant difference.

Significantly the lowest late blight severity score (1.0) was from the genotype LBr-40 and the highest score (5.3)

was from the genotype CIP395192.1.

The interaction effect between the moisture conditions and genotypes on late blight severity score in the 1st year

Treatments Emergence (%) at 45DAP

Late blight severity score

(1-9 scale)

Yield (t ha-1 )

2013/14 2014/15 Mean 2013/14 2014/15 Mean 2013/14 2014/15 Mean

A-Moisture conditions

Irrigated 99.2a 95.0a

97.1a 4.1a

5.2 4.7 19.6a 15.7b

17.6a

Mulched 92.7ab 90.7ab

91.7a 2.7b

5.3 4.0 13.8b 17.6a

15.7a

Rain-fed 83.4b 85.2b

84.3b 3.4ab

4.8 4.1 6.0c 15.3b

10.7b

F- test * * * * NS NS * * *

LSD (0.05) 13.53 8.46 8.92 0.79 - - 4.52 1.81 2.58

CV% 6.5 4.1 4.3 10.1 12.1 10.7 15.1 4.9 7.8

B-Genotypes

LBr-40 91.1ab 85.2b

88.1c 1.1c

1.0d 1.1e

19.a 20.0bc 19.5b

NPI-106 97.2a 92.0a

94.6ab 4.1a

5.7abc 4.9ab

14.1bc 22.0b

18.0bc

CIP388676.1 93.8ab 95.1a

94.4ab 3.1b

4.8c 3.9d

19.5a 26.9a

23.2a

CIP396011.47 84.2b 93.8a

89.0bc 3.6b

6.6a 5.1ab

13.2c 17.8cd

15.5d

CIP395192.1 90.1ab 85.2b

87.7c 4.3a

6.2a 5.3a

11.1cd 12.3e

11.7e

Cardinal 95.7a 95.3a

95.5a 3.2b

5.0bc 4.1cd

17.2ab 16.7d

17.0cd

Desiree 83.9b 92.9a

88.4bc 3.4b

5.7abc 4.6bc

8.0d 9.6f

8.8f

Tharu Local 98.1a 83.0b

90.6abc 4.4a

5.9ab 5.2a

3.2e 4.2g

3.7g

F- test * ** * ** ** ** ** ** **

LSD (0.05) 9.59 6.40 5.68 0.53 0.84 0.46 3.46 2.34 1.70

CV% 11.0 7.5 6.6 16.3 17.3 11.3 27.6 15.2 12.2

Interaction (A

B) NS * NS * NS NS NS NS *

Means within a column followed by the same letter (s) do not differ significantly at 0.05 level of

significance by DMRT

Table 1. Effects of moisture conditions and genotypes on emergence percent, late blight severity score

and potato yield at RARS, Khajura,Banke, Nepal, 2013/14 and 2014/15

19


2013/14 showed significant deference whereas in the 2nd year 2014/15 and in both the years’ mean data it did not

show significant difference.

Effects of moisture conditions and genotypes on yield

The effect of moisture conditions on yield in the 1st year 2013/14 showed significant difference. Significantly the

maximum yield (19.6 t ha-1) was from Irrigated condition and the minimum yield (6.0 t ha-1) was from Rain-fed

condition. In the 2nd year 2014/15, significantly the maximum yield (17.6 t ha-1) was from Mulched condition and

the minimum yield (15.3 t ha-1) was from Rain fed condition. Similarly, the two years mean results showed

significant difference. Significantly it was the maximum yield (17.6 t ha-1) from Irrigated condition, followed by

Mulched condition (15.7 t ha-1) whereas the minimum yield (10.7 t ha-1) was from Rain-fed condition. In the 2nd

year 2014/15 during the crop growing season frequent rain fall was occurred. Due to the sufficient rain fall

Mulched condition was superior than other condition. Similarly, Rain-fed condition was also better than in the 1st

year 2013/14.

The effects of genotypes on yield in the 1st year 2013/14 showed highly significant difference. Significantly the

maximum yield (19.5 t ha-1) was from the genotype CIP388676.1 followed by LBr-40 (19.0 t ha-1), Cardinal (17.2 t

ha-1) and the minimum yield (3.2 t ha-1) was from the genotype Tharu Local. In the 2nd year 2014/15

significantly the maximum yield (26.9 t ha-1) was from the genotype CIP388676.1, whereas the minimum yield (4.2

t ha-1) was from the genotype Tharu Local. Similarly the both years’ mean showed highly significant difference. It

was the maximum yield (23.2 t ha-1) from the genotype CIP388676.1 whereas the minimum yield (3.7 t ha-1) was

from the genotype Tharu local. It might be due to the effect of heredity of potato genotypes as well as moisture

status.

The effect of interaction between moisture conditions and genotypes on yield in the 1st year 2013/14 and the 2nd

year 2014/15 did not showed significant difference, whereas the both years’ mean showed significant difference. In

the Irrigated condition the results differed significantly, the maximum yield (26.9 t ha-1) was from the genotype

CIP388676.1 and the minimum yield (4.3 t ha-1) was from Tharu Local. In the Mulched condition the results also

differed significantly, the maximum yield (23.43 t ha-1) was from the genotype CIP388676.1, whereas the

minimum yield (4.5 t ha-1) was from Tharu Local.

Table 2. Interaction effect between moisture conditions and genotypes on mean yield of two years at

RARS, Khajura, Banke, Nepal, 2013/14 and 2014/15.

Treatments LBr-40 NPI-106 CIP388676.1 CIP396011.47 CIP395192.1 Cardinal Desiree Tharu Local

Irrigated 23.0bc 20.9bcde 26.9a 18.6def 14.0ghi 21.2bcd 12.4hij 4.3n

Mulched 20.5bcde 19.4bcde 23.4ab 17.0efg 13.0hi 19.5bcde 8.6jkl 4.5mn

Rain-fed 15.0fgh 13.9ghi 19.3cde 11.0hijk 8.2klm 10.2ijk 5.6lmn 2.2n

F-test LSD (0.05) Sub at same levels of main treatment LSD (0.05) Main at same levels of sub treatment CV%

* 3.39 2.95 12.2

Means within a column followed by the same letter (s) do not differ significantly at 0.05 level of

significance by DMRT


20

Vol. 11, 2016

CONCLUSIONS

Keeping in view the yield parameters and late blight resistance, the genotypes CIP 388676.1 and LBr-40 were

found superior to other genotypes under the Irrigated, Mulched and Rain-fed conditions. However, among the

three moisture conditions, Irrigated and Mulched conditions were superior to Rain-fed condition for potato

cultivation in mid-western terai of Nepal.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors are very much thankful to National Potato Research Program Khumaltar, Lalitpur for providing planting

materials, Regional Director of Regional Agriculture Research Station Khajura, Nepalgunj for providing research

materials and necessary equipments to conduct the experiment. Mr Y.P.K.C and all support staff working at

Horticulture Research Unit, Regional Agriculture Research Station Khajura, Banke were highly acknowledged for

their help during experiment.

REFERENCES

Beukema, H. P. and D. E. Van Der Zaag. 1990. Introduction to potato production. Centre for Agricultural

Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen, Netherlands. ISBN 90-220-0963-7. 208p.

FAOSTAT. 2014. Available at: www.FAO.fao.org/site/339/default aspk (Retrieved on: 15th July 2015.).

Khatri, B. B., S. L. Shrestha, D. Chaudhary, B. P. Luitel and Raj. L. Saha. 2013. Performance of potato genotypes

in different moisture conditions. Proceedings of 8th National Horticulture. Nepal Horticulture Society,

Lalitpur, Nepal: 51-56.

MoAD. 2014. Agriculture Diary. Ministry of Agriculture Development, Agriculture Information and

Communication Center, Hariharbhawan, Lalitpur, Nepal.

NPRP. 2010. Annual report. National Potato Research Programme,NARC, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal.

NPRP. 2015. Annual report. National Potato Research Programme,NARC, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal. 80p.

Singh, N., Y. S. Malik, M. L. Pandita and B. K. Nehra. 1993. Effect of seed size, spacing and haulm cutting dates

on yield of seed size tubers in potato cv. Kufri Badshah. The Horticultural Society of Hariyana India.

Hariyana. J. Hort. Sci. 22(4): 311-315.

21


ABSTRACT

Public private partnership (PPP) is a contractual agreement between public agency and private sector to accomplish the certain task.

The PPP model has been adopted in different sectors in Nepal. To assess the effectiveness of PPP model in vegetable sector, a case of

tomato hybrid cultivar Srijana seed production in Nepal was selected. This study employed qualitative approach of analysis.

Information was collected from key stakeholders and experts through semi-structured interview schedule; and review of reports. Study

found three types of PPP model existing on hybrid tomato seed production in Nepal namely: farmers group directly linked with

NARC; NGOs facilitating community based seed production organizations (CBOs) and provide inbred lines from NARC; and

private seed companies providing inbred lines to CBOs from NARC Mainly NARC has been providing technology and support

services to private sectors to minimize the market risk in tomato seed production. Among the different models, NARC and farmer

group collaboration was found more effective followed by NGOs facilitating model and private companies. The study noted that the

agreement between public and private sector is not executed as per the MoU. Public sector for maintenance of parental lines of hybrid

seeds and the private sectors for the multiplication and distribution of hybrid seeds are essential to maintain seed cycle. Moreover, prior

information on demand of inbred lines, empowerment of local CBOs and capacity building to private sector is necessary for the

effectiveness of PPP model in vegetable sector through formulation of conducive policy.

Key words: Hybrid seed and vegetable, inbred lines, public private partnership,

INTRODUCTION

Public private partnership (PPP) is a contractual agreement between a public agency (Government at central or

local level) and a private sector entity, in which the private party provides a public service and assumes substantial

financial, technical and operational risks and rewards inherent in it. PPP is essentially a business venture which is

funded and operated through a partnership of government and one or more private sector companies. The key is

partnership between the government and private business sector(s). The structure of the partnership should be

designed to allocate risks to the partners who are the best able to manage those risks and thus minimize costs while

improving performance. Risk transfer is one of the major components through which PPP projects can generate

better value for money. Different types of risks such as public risks, market risk, economic and financial risk,

construction risks, environmental risks etc are included in the PPP model (NPC, 2011). The Government of Nepal

wishes to introduce three kinds of PPPs models in Nepal and has already different kinds of policies of PPP model;

however it is not getting momentum to start PPP model in the agriculture sector rapidly. However, recent

Agricultural Development Strategy (2015-2035) of Nepal has focused on public private partnership (PPP)

approach in several areas of Agriculture including vegetables.

The production and supply of seeds is increasing in formal sector in Nepal with a surge of community based and

contract seed production led by community groups and private seed companies respectively. The role of private

sector is evolving and emerging rapidly with its higher share in the production of commercial seeds and making

availability of hybrid varieties in rice, maize and vegetables. The public sector is dominating in supply of varieties

and seeds of OPVs including source seed production and supply of major food crops (rice, wheat, maize). Public

sector is still a major player for agricultural research and provision of source seeds and support services (subsidies,

TOMATO HYBRID SEED PRODUCTION: INITIATION OF PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP APPROACH IN AGRICULTURE

S. Gairhe1, K. P. Timsina2, Y. N. Ghimire2, D.B. Thapa Magar2 and S. L. Shrestha3 1NARC, Singhdurbar Plaza, Kathmandu

2SARPOD, Khumaltar, Lalitpur 3HRD, Khumaltar, Lalitpur


22

Vol. 11, 2016

extension services etc.) including quality assurance services in the country. Despite these positive outlook and

initiatives, presently the available options for quality seeds of new farmer preferred varieties are limited at the farm

level (Gauchan, 2015; Timsina et al., 2015). Recently vegetable seeds sector is also getting momentum to expand

the business. However, there is still gap in achieving strategic fit between downstream and upstream part of the

seed chain (Timsina et al., 2016b). Timsina et al. (2015) reported that the national demand of vegetable seed could

be met by adopting two strategies: first, the effort of varietal development, maintenance, testing and national listing

of imported varieties that should be combined with the maintenance of the seed cycle based on the farmer's

preference, and second, the effort is needed to improve the quality of seeds by adopting proper postharvest

operation such as appropriate drying and storage technology. Timsina et al. (2016a) highlighted that Nepalese

farmers have high willingness to pay for good quality tomato seed in Nepal. Therefore, public sector is responsible

for the task that required high skills and mandate to produce breeder seeds, maintenance of parental lines of hybrid

seeds and the private sector for the multiplication and distribution of seeds. The public private partnership model

has become essential to maintain seed cycle through attraction of private sectors and to cope with the growing

demand of quality seed to feed the growing population (Ghimire, 2012). With the use of PPP approach a

government manages to carry out an economic activity which cannot be done, in general, based on market

mechanism of neo- liberal economies due to low return to investment or presence of high risk or lack of capacity

of the government of developing countries (Fugile et al., 1996). Recent studies have shown higher research return

from investments in agricultural sector in the country, and also the country has dearth of required resources, the

partnering between private and public sectors for the growth of the county seems a rational development strategy.

Over the fifty years' experience in Nepal for seed sector development led by public sector was not satisfactory and

involvement of private sectors has been realized for its development (Bharati et al., 2008).

In the present context, public private partnership model is drawing attention of present policy makers and

politicians. This concept is simpler in delivery of scientific information to the recipients; however, it is equally

complicated in case of agricultural sector and innovation in a country like Nepal where most of the farmers are

small and marginal. Public private partnership has been started to take as an alternative model of development in

different sectors.

METHODOLOGY

This study employed qualitative approach of analysis. Information was collected from key stakeholders, through

semi-structured interview schedule and review of reports and publications. A case of tomato hybrid cultivar Srijana

seed production in Nepal was studied. Thus the respondents included are research and development workers,

farmers, officials from NGOs, Seed companies, Agriculture Enterprise Centre (AEC) of Federation of Nepalese

Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FNCCI).

Existing policies on PPP

The Government of Nepal has already accepted public-private partnership (PPP) as an alternative source of

procuring assets and services, including the private sector's financial participation for meeting the increasing

demand for infrastructure and service in the country (NPC, 2011). In order to promote PPP modality in

agricultural sector in the country, all the relevant laws and regulations of the government should be conducive.

Policy review comes to the analysis that many policies in agriculture are directly related to this concept. Nepal

Agricultural Policy, 2004, has spelt out promotion of participatory and competitive agricultural research and

development system involving the private and the non-governmental sectors. Such participatory activities include

agricultural production, collection, grading, storage and packaging of agricultural products. The policy also

envisages development, expansion and dissemination of a market information system in partnership with the

23


private sectors. The National Fertilizer Policy, 2002 supports agricultural production by ensuring supplies of

quality fertilizer (production, import and distribution) in the country, one of the key features of which is to ensure

and sustain the participation of the private sector in the import and distribution of the fertilizers. Others policies

like National Seeds Policy, 1999; National Tea Development Policy, 2000; National Coffee Development Policy,

2003; Agricultural Biodiversity Policy, 2003; Public private partnership policy for local organization 2004;

Agribusiness Policy 2006; industrial policy 2009; and trade policy 2010, White paper policy of NPC 2011, ADS

2015, MOF 2015 have recognized the role of the private sector and included several provisions to attract private

sector investment in agribusiness and value chain development. The Government of Nepal wishes to introduce

three kinds of PPPs models in Nepal i.e. availability based, revenue based and hybrid types (NPC, 2011). Until

now some of the initiatives have already been taken in PPPs model in the sectors like Infrastructure development,

environment management etc. However, it is also prioritizing in the agriculture sector too. Recent Agricultural

Development Strategy (2015-2035) of Nepal has focused on public private partnership (PPP) approach in several

areas such as developing values chain on maize, dairy, vegetables, lentils and tea through comprehensive and

integrated measures, market infrastructure development, liquid nitrogen program, commercial bio-fertilizer

production enterprises, fertilizer factory and buffer stock establishment, power development with farming

community, central warehouse and auction market and construction of facilities and equipment for business

incubators (MOAD, 2014).

Case Study: Srijana tomato hybrid seed production in Nepal

Tomato is one of the most important vegetable crops with continuous demand throughout the year and has

covered 16416 ha of area with productivity of 17 mt per ha (ABPSD, 2012). The rainy season tomato is highly

affected by late blight and bacterial wilt diseases (HRD 2015). Trend of tomato production under plastic house

during rainy season in the hills of Nepal has been increasing rapidly over the years. Four open pollinated varieties

(Pusa Ruby, Roma, Monprecus and NCL-1) released by National Seed Board are determinant type and are not

suitable for rainy season production. To meet the varietal demand for rainy season production, 22 exotic hybrids

have been registered by private sector and about 500 kg of hybrid tomato seed of these varieties is imported in

Nepal (CEAPRED 2013). To reduce the dependency on import of expensive hybrid tomato seeds, Horticulture

Research Division (HRD) of NARC registered hybrid tomato Srijana in 2009. This is the first tomato hybrid

variety developed in Nepal. The parental line of the hybrid in last three years (2011/12-2013/14) received by 20

actors (Thapa Magar et al., 2016). Srijana is indeterminate type in growth habit, wilt resistance and tolerant to late

blight. It can give up to 15 kg fresh fruit yield per plant under plastic house condition. It became popular among

tomato growers in short period of time. To fulfill the increasing seed demand of Srijana; commercial seed

production was initiated in a public private partnership (PPP) model. Private sector in PPP model is normally

registered company or firm as per prevailing rules and regulations of Nepal. However, sometimes small

entrepreneurs or community organizations can take part in smaller local PPP projects. Therefore, NARC has

started to work with seed companies and some community based organizations. Basically, different types of risk

included in the PPP model is not covered in PPP model of Srijana seed production, however NARC has been

providing different support services to the private sectors to minimize the market risk. In the model, HRD and

interested private sectors have signed a MOU in 2011 with terms and conditions. In year 2012/13 five private

seed companies, three NGOs and one farmers group had involved in this modality (HRD, 2013). In the same year,

HRD provided 230 g parental lines seed to the private sectors and they produced 43.86 kg of hybrid seed which

was worth of NRs 3.728 million based on current government price (Table 2). In the year 2014 private sector

produced 131 kg of hybrid seed and the worth was NRs 11.135 million (Table 3). Similarly in the year of 2015

hybrid seed produced by private sector was 79 kg and the market price was around NRs 6.715 million (Table 4).


24

Vol. 11, 2016

Until now HRD has made agreement with 11 partners. The roles and responsibilities of each actor in PPP model

are given below.

NARC:

Supply seed of inbred lines for commercial hybrid seed production on payment annually.

Provide technical assistance at critical stages during the crop cycle as per the demand

Provide hand-on training to technical staff and or collaborating farmers.

Private sectors:

Demand the required quantity of inbred lines in the previous tomato season( prior to sowing season)

Inform HRD and SQCC about area of seed multiplication plot and site well in advance,

Request for technical assistance one week advance,

Arrange three visits of SQCC staff at nursery, one month after transplanting , first cluster setting stages

Arrange four visits of HRD staff at nursery, one month after transplanting , first cluster setting and seed

extraction stages

Maintain security of the given inbred lines and not to use in other breeding program

Should not obtain seeds from the inbred provided by HRD, Khumaltar

Financial arrangements

Private sectors have to bear all cost related with hybrid seed production and have right to fix price of the seed

Should pay 3 % of its seed sale value based on dealer price to NARC annually.

Should provide the daily subsistence and travelling allowance of the breeders/technicians provided by HRD as

per the NARC rules and mutual understanding

The material cost, staff cost of the technician and the resource person of HRD for hands on training should be

borne by the organization itself.

There are three types of private sectors such as farmers group directly linked with NARC; NGOs are facilitating

community based seed production organizations (CBOs) and provide inbred lines from NARC and its marketing;

Private seed companies are also providing inbred lines to CBOs from NARC and purchase their produced seeds

for its marketing.

Model 1: Farmers group directly linked with NARC

NARC played an important role for the production and maintenance of inbred lines of tomato hybrid seed cultivar

Srijana. Agriculture Research Station (ARS), Malepatan of NARC has been promoting farmer groups of

Chuinkhor VDC of Syngjaand Armala and Dhikurpokhari VDCs of Kaski districts for the production of hybrid

tomato seed in participatory way since 2009 before of this cultivar registration (ARS, 2013). It has been providing

technology and support services such as trainings, plastic tunnels, material inputs, technical help and also

facilitation for marketing of seeds in and around agrovets of pokhara. Moreover, it collects random samples of

hybrid seed produced by farmer groups and test its quality through grow out test. In 2012/13, farmer groups of

those area produced 15 Kg of hybrid seed. The model is operating effectively as farmers are getting attractive price

for their product (Rs 90- 100 thousand per Kg). Since marketing of seed is facilitated by ARS, Malepatan to

minimize the market risk, the producers share is high due to direct linkage of farmers group with agrovets.

25


Model 2: NGOs are facilitating CBOs and provide inbred lines

NARC has been providing inbred lines to NGOs for production of hybrid seed. It is also providing technical

support as per request. Centre for Environmental and Agricultural Policy Research, Extension and Development

(CEAPRED), a NGO facilitating farmer groups of Parbat and Kavre districts for the production of tomato hybrid

seed cultivar Srijana from its Vegetable Support Project (VSP). NGO provides technical inputs, plastic tunnel and

help in production of quality seed through regular monitoring and supervision by their own staff at field level. The

farmers are empowered by forming a cooperative and linked with the traders and agrovets. CEAPRED is

facilitating to make contract between the cooperatives and private sectors (seed companies, traders and agro-vets)

before each production season and fixed the price. In the year 2011/12, farmers were getting only 50 thousand per

Kg of seed because most of the buyers suspect to buy the seed due to its lower quality in the first year as they

produced 1.5 Kg of hybrid seed. However, based on the performance, demand of seed increased and private

sectors made agreement with cooperatives for 4 Kg of hybrid seed and farmers were able sell their seed at Rs 80

thousands per Kg in 2012/13. Most of the cooperative members initiated hybrid seed production and produced

20.2 Kg in the year 2013/14 but the agreement price was 75 thousand per kg of seed. This model is also operating

effectively. However, there is question for its sustainability after completion of VSP. Therefore, it is necessary to

strengthen the CBOs and linked directly to NARC.

Model 3: Private seed companies providing inbred lines to CBOs

In this model, NARC has been providing inbred lines as model 2 for hybrid seed production. There are different

private seed companies which have been involved for hybrid seed production. The major seed companies are

SEAN service center, Anamoul, Kasthamandap International, Agrosala etc. Private companies have been

producing hybrid seed in their own farm as well as supplying inbred lines to CBOs for hyrbid seed production. In

case of Dolakha district, the SEAN seed company has been providing inbred lines to farmers group and made

agreement with farmers to purchase produced seed at around Rs 40,000 per Kg in recent year. In this model,

farmers are compelled to sell their seed at low price even though the market price is very high because the

company has agreement to purchase other vegetables seed too. This model is not operating effectively as farmers

are not satisfied with low farm gate price and high marketing margin of seed companies.

Constraints for using PPP model in Vegetable seed sector

Private sectors are not paying revenue of seed sale as per agreement with NARC

Supply and demand of inbred lines are mismatched due to lack of prior demand on inbred lines.

Farmers are not getting reasonable farm gate price for their product in some cases.

Stakeholders limited capacity in updated technical knowledge

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The results shows direct linkage of public sector with community based organization seems profitable and

sustainable among different models. However, different conditions should be satisfied to achieve success in this

model such as private sectors should inform timely for inbred lines; capacity and bargaining power of CBOs

should be strengthen to get reasonable price of their product and NARC should enhance its capability to supply

inbreed lines and increase the intensity of capacity building activities such as training, technology inputs to the

private sectors.


26

Vol. 11, 2016

REFERENCES

ABPSD, 2012. Statistical information on Nepalese agriculture, Ministry of agricultural development (MoAD),

Singhdurbar, Kathmandu, Nepal.

ARS, 2013. Annual Report 2069/70 (2012/13). Agriculture Research Station (Horticulture), Pokhara-5, Malepatan,

Kaski, Nepal.

Bharati, M.P., D.P. Adhikari, and N.Jha. 2009. Approaches towards privatization of public seed sectors for the

development and growth of seed industry. In: proceeding of the Fourth National Seed Seminar held from

19-20 June, 2008. Published by Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agriculture Cooperatives, National Seed

Board, Hariharbhawan, Pulchowk, Lalitpur. pp 99-106.

CEAPRED, 2013. Market information study for analyzing national demand, supply, import and export situation of

vegetable seeds in Nepal. Centre for environment and agricultural policy research, extension and

development. pp 19.

Fugile, K., N. Ballenger, K. Day, C. Klotz, M. Ollinger, J. Reilly, U. Vasavada, and J. Yee. 1996. Agricultural

research and development: public and private investments under alternative markets and institutions.

Agricultural Economics Report p 88.

Gauchan, D. 2015. Research and support service in seed production and supply in Nepal. Thematic paper for seed

summit, 2015.

Ghimire, Y.N. 2012. Public private partnership model for agricultural research and development in Nepal,

Proceedings of the 4th SAS-N Convention, Lalitpur, pp 188-193.

HRD, 2013. Annual Report 2069/70 (2012/13).Horticulture Research Division, NARC, Khumaltar, Lalitpur,

Nepal.

HRD, 2014. Annual Report 2070/71 (2013/14).Horticulture Research Division, NARC, Khumaltar, Lalitpur,

Nepal.

HRD, 2015. Annual Report 2071/72 (2014/15). Horticulture Research Division, Khumaltar, Lalitpur.

MOAD, 2014. Agricultural Development Strategy (2015-35), Ministry of Agricultural Development, Singhdurbar,

Kathmandu, Nepal

MOF, 2015. Public private partnership (PPP) policy 2015. Ministry of Finance, Government of Nepal.

NPC, 2011. White paper on public private partnership (PPP). National Planning Commission, Government of

Nepal.

Shrestha, R.P. 2009. Sustainable seed production and marketing in Nepal: Role of public and private sector for

seed industry development. In: proceeding of the Fourth National Seed Seminar held from 19-20 June,

2008. Published by Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agriculture Cooperatives, National Seed Board,

Hariharbhawan, Pulchowk, Lalitpur. pp 92-98.

Thapa Magar D.B., D. Gauchan, K.P. Timsina and Y.N. Ghimire, 2016. Srijana hybrid tomato: A potential

technology for enterprise development in Nepal. Socioeconomics and Agricultural Research Policy

Division, NARC.

Timsina, K.P., D. Jourdain and G.P. Shivakoti, 2016a. Farmer preference for seed quality: A discrete choice

27


experiment with tomato growers in Nepal. International journal of value chain management. Inderscience

Publisher (in press).

Timsina, K.P., G.P Shivakoti and K.J. Bradford, 2015. Supply situation of vegetable seeds in Nepal: An analysis

from policy perspective. Horticulture Journal. Horticulture Society of Nepal, 10, pp 26-36.

Timsina, K.P., R.C. Bastakoti and G.P. Shivakoti, 2016b. Achieving strategic fits in onion seed supply chain in

Nepal. Journal of agribusiness in developing and emerging economies. Emerald Group Publishing, Vol. 6,

No. 2.

Organization

Year of MOU

Production sites Inbred provided (gm)

Hybrid seed produced (kg)

Kasthamandap International

2011 Panauti , Kavre 11 6.5

CEAPRED 2011 Kavre, Surkhet 20 5.2

SEAN, Kathmandu 2011 Thankot, Kathmandu 8 2.2

Anmoul Biu 2011 20 2.5

Total 59 15.4

Table 1: Details of Srijan inbred line distribution and hybrid seed production in first year of PPP

initiation, 2011/12

Table 2: Srijana hybrid seed production by private sector in 2012/13

S. N. Name of Organization Inbred seed provided (g)

Hybrid seed produced (Kg)

Estimated market price (NRs)

1 Anmoul Biu Pvt. Limited Chitwan

65 8.0 680,000

2 Social Rise Help Center, Palpa

12 0.9 76,500

3 SEAN Seed Service Company, Thankot

14 12.0 1,020,000

4 CEAPRED, Lalitpur 101 11.46 974,000

5 Agro Shala Nepal, Lagankhel

28 5.5 667,500

6 Women Group 10 6.0 510,000

Total 230 43.86 3,728,000


28

Vol. 11, 2016



S. N. Name of Organization Inbred seed provided (g)

Hybrid seed produced (Kg)

Estimated market price (NRs)

1 Anmoul Biu Pvt. Limited Chitwan

42 7.0 595,000

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Kathmandu Agro Concern SEAN Seed Service Company, Thankot CEAPRED, Lalitpur Agro Shala Nepal, Lagankhel Puspanjali Seed production group, Lalitpur N-Agro concern, lalitpur Mero Agro Concern, Lalitpur

35 25 140 27 35 35 55

12.0 18.0 55.0 12.0 8.0 5.0 14.0

1020,000 1530,000 4675,000 102,000 680,000 425,000 1190,000

Total 394 131 11135,000

S. N. Name of organization Inbred seed provided (gm)

Hybrid seed produced (kg)

Estimate market price (NRs)

1. Anmoul Biu Pvt. Limited, Chitwan 35 8.0 680000.

2. Kathmandu Agro Concern, Lalitpur 40 12.0 1020000.

3. NEMACOL, Kalimati 10 2.0 170000.

4. CEAPRED, Lalitpur 97 25 2125000.

5. Agro Shala Nepal, Lagankhel 45 10.0 850000.

6. Puspanjali Seed Production Group,

Lalitpur

15 10.0 850000.

7 Fresh Organic Farm, Kathmandu 70 4.0 340000.

8 Pramila Krishi Farm, Kathmandu 8 8.0 680000.

Total 320 79.0 6715000.

29


ABSTRACT

Seven promising genotypes of gladiolus viz., ‘ HRSDG-01’, ‘ HRSDG-02’, ‘ HRSDG-03’, ‘ HRSDG-04’, ‘ HRSDG-05’, ‘

HRSDG-06’and ‘ HRSDG-07’ were evaluated for their performances in terms of important vegetative and floral characters. Of these

genotypes, ‘HRSDG-04’ and ‘HRSDG-03’ were promising ones for earlier sprouting of corms and per cent of corm sprouting.

‘HRSDG-04’as well as HRSDG-02’ were earlier for the first spike emergence, full spike emergence and first floret unfurling.

‘HRSDG-01’ and ‘HRSDG-04’ were better for maximum number of marketable spikes per mother corm. ‘HRSDG-3’ and

HRSDG-06 were noted to be more promising in terms of plant height, floret diameter, and number of florets per spike, spike length

and rachis length. Keeping in view of overall performances, ‘HRSDG-04’ and ‘HRSDG-03’ proved to be recommended for general

cultivation of gladiolus.

Key Words: Floral, rachis, spike, vegetative, unfurling

INTRODUCTION

Gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflorus L.) is one of the most’ popular flowers for garden use and cut flower. It is a

member of Iridaceae (Iris family) and sub-family Ixioideae, originated from South Africa, with some species found

wild in southern Europe and the Near East .Being an important bulbous ornamental plant, it occupies a prime

position among commercial flower crops which has high demand in both domestic and international markets.

With changing life style and increased urban affluence, floriculture has assumed a definite commercial status in

recent times, and it has emerged as an important agri-business venture. In this regard gladiolus has gained much

importance as it is the’ Queen of bulbous flower. The plants, ranging from two to six feet in height, have sturdy

sword shaped leaves and produce flower spikes with trumpet-shaped florets borne in double rows. Gladioli have

great diversity of flower color and shape. Flower shapes range from those with plain petals to those that are deeply

ruffled and cut. The colors cover the spectrum and there are solid as well as bicolor types. Florets range in size

from 2.5 cm in diameter up to giants 19.00 cm in diameter (Grieving ,1987; Mishra et al. 2014).Its magnificent

inflorescence in a variety of colors coupled with its long lasting vase life has made it excellent for vase decoration,

preparation of bouquets and other pots and also in garden display (Singh, 2006). Gladiolus is very rich in its

varietal wealth and every year there is an addition of new varieties; hence varietals evaluation becomes necessary to

find out suitable variety for a particular region. The performance of any crop or cultivar largely depends on a

genotype and environmental interaction. Improvement of any crop is a continuous process and in gladiolus also

there is scope to improve existing cultivars or genotypes. In gladiolus, the most common method of improvement

is through hybridization due to its highly heterozygous nature (Cantor and Pop, 2011). At present, large numbers

of exotic as well as Indian cultivars are under cultivation, transformation of gladiolus cultivation from the hobbyist

activity into a commercial enterprise started only from the past decades ago in Nepal. The information available on

performances of important vegetative and floral characters of commercially cultivated genotypes of gladiolus is not

adequately available for further utilization in varietal development work in Nepal. The availability of well-

documented vegetative and floral characters will definitely provide additional opportunity of developing preferable

EVALUATION OF PROMISING GENOTYPES OF GLADIOLUS FOR IMPORTANT VEGETATIVE AND FLORAL CHARACTERS UNDER MID-HILL ENVIRONMENT

OF DAILEKH

T. B. Poon , B. Chalise and OB. OLI

Senior Scientist, National Citrus Research Program , Dhankuta Senior Scientist, Horticulture Research Station, Jumla

3 Technical Officer, Horticulture Research Station, Dailekh


30

Vol. 11, 2016

new gladiolus variety exploiting desirable traits by discovering variations found in commercially cultivated varieties.

Hence, investigation was set up so as to discover suitable genotypes with important vegetative and floral characters

among seven promising gladiolus genotypes in the mid –hill environment of Dailekh district.

METHODOLOGY

Seven promising genotypes of gladiolus that were selected on the score of important vegetative and floral

characters from the previous experiment: they were evaluated under further experiment in RCBD design with

three replications. Genotypes viz.,’ Check/HRSDG-01’, ‘HRSDG-02’, ‘HRSDG-03’, ‘HRSDG-04’, ‘HRSDG-05’,

‘HRSDG-06’ and ‘HRSDG-07’ were evaluated during early spring-late summer season in the field of Horticulture

Research Station (HRS), Dailekh during two consecutive years (2013 and 2014). In each replication, thirty five

corms of each genotype were planted in the spacing of 47 cm between the rows and 30 cm within the row. In the

second fortnight of February, thirty five corms were planted in each plot size of 7.852 m as per experimental

design. The recommended FYM 20 t/ha and fertilizer 60kg N, 80 kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O were incorporated into

soil during the operation of land preparatory tillage. Remaining 60 kg Nitrogen was applied into two split doses:

30 kg Nitrogen/ha at 3-5 leaf stage and 30 kg Nitrogen/ha at 7-9 leaf stage. Uniform cultural operations like

intercultural weeding, plant protection measures, and remaining all practices were adopted to grow successful crop.

Ten plants/genotype/replication were labeled and used for recording various parameters of vegetative and floral

characters. The performances of six vegetative characters (days to 50% sprouting, per cent of corm sprouting, days

to the first emergence of spike, days to full spike emergence, number of marketable spikes/ mother corm and

plant height) and six floral characters (days to the first floret unfurling, number of florets opening at a time, floret

diameter, number of florets /spike, spike length and rachis length) that keep significant values from the view point

of crop improvement were recorded in both years (2013 and 2014), and values were exposed to statistical analysis

of variance.

Photos of evaluated Genotypes of Gladiolus for Vegetative and Floral Traits

ARSDG-01 (American Beauty) ARSDG-02 (Interpid)

31


ARSDG-03 (Ginger Red) ARSDG-04 (Unidentified genotype)

ARSDG-05 (Summer Sun Shine) ARSDG-06 (White Prosperity) ARSDG-07 (Pscittacinus Hybrid)


32

Vol. 11, 2016


The performances of six vegetative and six floral characters of evaluated gladiolus genotypes are projected in

Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. The pooled results of five vegetative characters(days to 50% sprouting, per cent of corm

sprouting, days to the first emergence of spike, days to full spike emergence and plant height) were noted to be

highly significant but only one character (number of marketable spikes /mother corm) was significant. Almost

analogously, the pooled results of six floral characters (days to the first floret unfurling, number of florets opening

at a time, floret diameter, number of florets/spike, spike length and rachis length) were noted to be highly

significant. The pooled results of six vegetative characters have been highlighted in Table1, 2 and 3.

The pooled values for days taken to 50% sprouting were variable between 21.15 and 41.34 with the mean value of

28.90 days. Genotype ‘HRSDG-04’ revealed the earliest for days taken to 50% sprouting in both the years (19.30

days and 23.00 days respectively).The pooled values of days to 50% sprouting were inconsequentially early in three

genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-04’ with 21.15 days , ‘HRSDG-03’with 23.48 days and ‘HRSDG-02’ with 24.00 days.

‘HRSDG-07’ recorded contrastingly and consequentially the greatest number of days for pooled value of days to

50% sprouting (41.34 days). Check genotype ‘HRSDG-01’ recorded the pooled value of days to 50% sprouting

(29.17 days) which was statistically insignificant from ‘HRSDG-05’ with 30.14 days and ‘HRSDG-06’ with 32.84

days but different from early group (‘HRSDG-04’ with 21.15 days, ‘HRSDG-03’ with 23.48 days and ‘HRSDG-

02’with 24.00 days) as well as late genotype (‘HRSDG-07’ with 41.34 days) for days to 50% sprouting. Of the

evaluated genotypes in this experiment, only four genotype such as ‘Check/HRSDG-01’ (29.17 days), HRSDG-

02’(24.00 days), ‘HRSDG-03’(23.48 days) and ‘HRSDG-04’(21.15 days) reflected more or less the similar results in

those genotypes viz., ‘City Light’ (27.40 days), ’Praha’(24.60 days)’, Red Beauty’(23.40 days), and ‘Oscar’ (21.00

days) as evaluated by Ahmed et al.( 2002) under Jammu and Kashmir condition of India.

The pooled values of per cent of corm sprouting were highly variable from 56.17 to 88.62 with the mean value of

72.54. The genotype ‘HRSDG-04’ showed the highest per cent of sprouting (88.62) but inconsequentially followed

by ‘HRSDG-03’ with 83.90 and ‘HRSDG-05’ with 82.18. In contrast, three genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-06’, ‘HRSDG

-02 and ‘HRSDG-07’ showed considerably the lowest per cent of sprouting (56.17, 61.69 and 64.78 respectively).

Three genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-04’, ‘HRSDG-03’ and ‘HRSDG-05’ were superior to check/‘HRSDG-01’ whereas

three genotypes viz., ‘check/HRSDG-01’, ‘HRSDG-07’ and , ‘HRSDG-02’ were statistically at par. On the

contrary, ‘HRSDG-06’ was inferior to check/‘HRSDG-01’ in respect of per cent of corm sprouting (Table 1).The

per cent of corm sprouting in three genotypes such as ’HRSDG-4’ (88.62), ‘HRSDG-3’ (83.90) and ‘HRSDG-

5’ (82.18) were in consonance with the results of two cultivars viz., ’Red Majesty’(86.23) and ’Early Yellow’ (82.14)

cited by Kareem et al. (2013).

The pooled value for the days taken to the first spike emergence was significantly variable from 76.42 to 90.99 with

the mean value of 83.34.Two genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-02’ and ‘HRSDG-04’ reflected considerably early for the

days taken to the pooled value of the first spike emergence of spike (76.42 and 77.34 respectively). On the

contrary, two genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-07’ and ‘HRSDG-06’ showed remarkably the greatest number of days

taken for the first spike emergence (90.99 and 87.50 respectively). As for the pooled value of days taken to the first

spike emergence, only two genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-02’ and ‘HRSDG-04’ were found superior to check/‘HRSDG

-01’ but ‘HRSDG-07’ was found remarkably late as comparing to that of check/ ‘HRSDG-01’ in this regard (Table

2). Days taken to the first spike emergence of seven genotypes recorded in the study were relatively late in

comparison to those in five genotypes viz., ‘Priscilla’ (80.87 days)’ ,‘Amsterdam’(74.00 days),’Fidelio’(72.22 days),

‘Peter Pears’ (63.77 days) and Applause’(62.89 days) cited by by Shaukat et al.(2013).

The pooled value for the days taken to full spike emergence considerably varied from 80.00 to 93.49 with the mean

33


value of 86.62. Two genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-02’ and, ‘HRSDG-04’ reflected considerably early for the days taken

to the pooled value of the full spike emergence (80.00 and 81.34 respectively). On the contrary, two genotypes viz.,

‘HRSDG-07’ and ‘HRSDG-06’ showed remarkably the greatest number of days taken for the full spike

emergence (93.49 and 92.17 days respectively). As for the pooled value of days taken to the full spike emergence,

only two genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-02’ and ‘HRSDG-04’ were found superior to ‘check/HRSDG-01’ but ‘HRSDG

-07’ and‘HRSDG-06’ were found remarkably late as comparing to that of check/ ‘HRSDG-01’(Table 2).

The pooled value for the number of marketable spikes/mother corm was recorded to be variable from 1.18 to

2.28 with the mean value of 1.69.The pooled number of marketable spikes /mother corm was significantly high in

two genotypes viz., ‘Check/HRSDG-01’ (2.28) and ‘HRSDG-04’ (2.12).Genotype viz., ‘HRSDG-07’ produced

remarkably the low pooled number of marketable spikes (1.18/mother corm). The pooled number of marketable

spike/mother corm was statistically higher in ‘check/HRSDG-01’ than five genotypes: ‘HRSDG-03’ (1.70),

‘HRSDG-06’ (1.58), ‘HRSDG-05’ (1.56), ‘HRSDG-02’ (1.42), and ‘HRSDG-07’ (1.18) in (Table 3). The number of

marketable spikes/ mother corm of seven genotypes in the study were comparably similar to those of six

genotypes such as ‘ Subnam’ (2.23), ‘GS-10’ and ‘Urmil’(2.00), ‘Sancerre’ (1.60), ‘Dhanvantri’(1.47/spike) and

‘Peter Pears’ (1.40) as reported by Choudhary et al. (2011).The number of marketable spike /mother corm is very

much important as it decides the spike yield per unit area. In Gladiolus, the number of spikes /mother corm

depends on the number of shoots/mother corm, which also decides the number of corms/mother corm

(Shiramagondi and Hanamashetti, 1999).

The pooled value of plant height varied significantly from 100.05 cm to 147.50 cm with the mean value of 115.36

cm. Genotype ‘HRSDG-01’ had the shortest plant with 100.05 cm but its pooled plant height was at par with

Genotypes Days to 50% sprouting Per cent of Corm sprouting

2012/013 2013/014 Two years ‘ Pooled value


Check/ HRSDG-01

24.00 34.33 29.17 64.33 76.54 70.44

HRSDG-02 22.00 26.00 24.00 74.00 49.38 61.69

HRSDG-03 22.30 24.67 23.48 82.67 85.13 83.90

HRSDG-04 19.30 23.00 21.15 93.30 83.95 88.62

HRSDG-05 23.30 37.33 30.14 69.30 95.05 82.18

HRSDG-06 26.00 39.67 32.84 59.30 53.03 56.17

HRSDG-07 38.00 44.67 41.34 74.00 55.55 64.78

GM 24.98 32.81 28.90 73.84 71.23 72.54

F-test ** ** |** ** ** **

LSD (0.01) 2.047 7.39 4.718 11.18 11.83 11.505

CV% 2.72 12.67 7.695 27.78 9.35 12.565

Table 1: Performance of seven promising genotypes of gladiolus on vegetative traits viz., days to 50%

sprouting and per cent of corm sprouting during two consecutive years 2012/013 and 2013/014 at HRS,

Dailekh.

** Highly significant


34

Vol. 11, 2016

those of other four genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-04’(101.42 cm), ‘HRSDG-07’(108.45 cm), ‘HRSDG-05’(112.63 cm)

and ‘HRSDG-01’(113.85 cm). ‘HRSDG-03’ recorded remarkably the tallest plant (147.50 cm). The pooled value

of plant height of check/‘HRSDG-01’ (113.85 cm) was inconsequential with those of other four genotypes viz.,

‘HRSDG-05’with 112.63 cm, ‘HRSDG-07’ with 108.45 cm, ‘HRSDG-04’ with 101.42 cm and ‘HRSDG-02’ with

101.05 cm (Table 3). Plant height(cm) in all evaluated genotypes were noted to be nearly in agreement with the

results of plant height in six genotypes viz., ‘Applause (146 cm),’Amsterdam’(136.70 cm),’Fidelio’ (129.70

cm),’Peter Pears’ (124.40 cm), ‘Nova Lux’(117.70 cm) and ‘Priscilla’(99.00 cm) as evaluated by Shaukat et al. (2015)

under the Rawalakot condition of Pakistan.

The pooled results of six floral characters have been projected in table 4, 5 and 6. As for days taken to the first

floret unfurling was considerably early in two genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-04’ (86.17 days) and ‘HRSDG-02’ (86.67

days) but two genotypes such as ‘HRSDG-07’ and ‘HRSDG-06’ recorded considerably late for the days taken to

the first floret unfurling (99.65 days and 96.67 days respectively). In respect of this floral character, the differences

In ‘Check/HRSDG-01’ (93.84 days) were noted to be consequentially similar to those of ‘HRSDG-03’ (93.82 days)

and ‘HRSDG-05’ (91.67 days).On the other hand, ‘HRSDG-07’ (99.65 days) was significantly late as comparing

against the ‘check/HRSDG-01’ (93.84 days). All seven genotypes evaluated in the experiment proved almost same

results as those three genotypes such as ’Hb-15-A’ (84.67 days), ‘Hb-15-4’ (86.67 days) and ‘Hb-2-22’ (99.00 days)

as assessed under low hills of Himanchal Pradesh, India by Nagi et al.( 2014).

The pooled values of number of florets opening at a time was maximally the highest in ‘HRSDG-06’ (7.85) and

minimally the lowest in ‘HRSDG-07’ (3.40 days) revealing the mean value of 6.29. Although ‘HRSDG-06’

reflected the highest pooled number of floret opening at a time (7.85) rest of genotypes such as ‘HRSDG-

03’ (7.00) and ‘HRSDG-05’ (6.95) were at par with that of ‘HRSDG-06’. ‘HRSDG-07’ recorded remarkably the

lowest pooled number of floret opening at a time (3.40).Check/‘HRSDG-01’ (6.85) did not differ significantly

Genotypes Days to the first emergence of spike Days to full spike emergence



Check/ HRSDG-01

84.67 85.00 84.84 88.00 88.00 88.00

HRSDG-02 75.00 77.83 76.42 79.33 80.67 80.00

HRSDG-03 85.00 84.67 84.84 87.00 87.67 87.34

HRSDG-04 76.00 78.67 77.34 81.00 81.67 81.34

HRSDG-05 79.30 83.67 81.49 81.00 87.00 84.00

HRSDG-06 85.00 90.00 87.50 91.67 92.67 92.17

HRSDG-07 91.30 90.67 90.99 93.30 93.67 93.49

GM 81.89 84.36 83.34 85.90 87.33 86.62

F-test ** ** ** ** ** **

LSD (0.01) 3.93 3.05 3.490 3.325 3.39 3.357

CV% 6.67 2.03 4.320 6.35 2.19 4.870

Table 2: Performance of seven promising genotypes of gladiolus on vegetative traits viz., days to the first

emergence of spike and days to full spike emergence during two consecutive years 2012/013 and 2013/014

at HRS, Dailekh.


35


from ‘HRSDG-02’ (6.75) in this regard (Table 4). The pooled number of floret opening at a time recorded in the

present study was comparatively high In comparison to the findings registered by Choudhary et al. (2011) under

the condition of Rajasthan, India as the values of number of floret opening at a time were found varying from 3.33

(‘Chandani’ and ‘GS-2’) to 5.33 (‘Priscilla’) with the mean value of 4.30.

Genotypes Number of marketable spikes / mother corm Plant height (cm)



Check/ HRSDG-01

3.00 1.56 2.28 112.30 115.40 113.85

HRSDG-02 1.67 1.17 1.42 99.00 101.10 100.05

HRSDG-03 1.67 1.72 1.70 152.30 142.70 147.50

HRSDG-04 2.30 1.94 2.12 103.67 99.17 101.42

HRSDG-05 1.67 1.45 1.56 112.67 112.60 112.63

HRSDG-06 1.67 1.49 1.58 121.30 125.80 123.55

HRSDG-07 1.30 1.06 1.18 104.30 112.60 108.45

GM 1.91 1.48 1.69 115.09 115.63 115.36

F-test NS ** * ** ** **

LSD (0.01) - 0.35 0.19 25.405 10.56 17.98

CV% 40.34 13.21 26.77 16.45 5.13 10.79

Table 3: Performance of seven promising genotypes of gladiolus on vegetative traits viz., number of

marketable spikes /corm and plant height during two consecutive years 2012/013 and 2013/014 at HRS,

Dailekh.

NS Non-significant * Significant **highly significant

Genotypes Days to the first floret unfurling Number of florets opening at a time



Check/ HRSDG-01

94.00 93.67 93.84 6.80 6.90 6.85

HRSDG-02 85.00 88.33 86.67 6.80 6.70 6.75

HRSDG-03 94.30 93.33 93.82 7.00 7.00 7.00

HRSDG-04 85.00 87.33 86.17 5.20 5.00 5.10

HRSDG-05 89.00 94.33 91.67 7.00 6.90 6.95

HRSDG-06 94.00 99.33 96.67 7.80 7.90 7.85

HRSDG-07 100.30 99.00 99.65 3.30 3.50 3.40

GM 91.61 93.62 92.62 6.30 6.27 6.29

F-test ** ** ** ** ** **

LSD (0.01) 3.013 3.16 3.086 0.975 0.970 0.973

CV% 6.03 1.90 3.965 23.54 21.42 22.480

Table 4: Performance of seven promising genotypes of gladiolus on vegetative traits viz., days to the first

floret unfurling and number of florets opening at a time during two consecutive years 2012/013 and

2013/014 at HRS, Dailekh.



36

Vol. 11, 2016

The pooled value of floret diameter (cm) significantly varied from 5.53 to 9.92 with the mean value of 8.04 cm.

Despite the widest floret diameter in ‘HRSDG-03’ (9.92 cm), it was at par with two genotypes such as ‘HRSDG-

06’ (9.36 cm) and ‘HRSDG-01’ (9.17 cm). In contrast, ‘HRSDG-07’ recorded remarkably the narrowest pooled

diameter (5.53 cm) which was consequentially different from those of other five genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-02’ (7.15

cm), ‘HRSDG-05’ (7.52 cm). ‘HRSDG-04’ (7.66 cm), ‘HRSDG-01’ (9.165 cm) and ‘HRSDG-03’ (9.92 cm).

‘Check/HRSDG-01’ with 9.17 cm reflected inconsequentially similar to those of two genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-

03’ (9.92 cm) and ‘HRSDG-06’ (9.36 cm) but ‘check/HRSDG-01’ was consequentially different from those of

‘HRSDG-04’(7.66 cm), ‘HRSDG-05’(7.52 cm), ‘HRSDG-02’(7.15 cm) and ‘HRSDG-07 ’ (5.53 cm) in this regard

(Table 5).The pooled floret diameter of all seven genotypes varying from 5.53 cm to 9.92 cm in the recent study

showed more or less analogous findings of eleven different genotypes by Negi et al. (2014) as they recorded the

floret size varying from 4.83 cm (‘Hb-6-31’) to 9.00 cm (‘Hb-2-52’) in their study under low hill of Himanchal

Pradesh, India.

The pooled values of number of floret/spike were noted to be consequentially variable between 11.95 and 19.54

with mean value of 15.70. The genotype ‘HRSDG-03’ recorded the greatest number of florets (19.54/spike)

inconsequentially followed by HRSDG-06’ (17.67/spike).In contrast, HRSDG-07’ produced the lowest number of

florets (11.95/spike) inconsequentially followed by ‘HRSDG-04’ (13.47/spike). The number of florets of check/

HRSDG-01’ (15.14) was at par with those of two genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-02’ (15.44/spike) and ‘HRSDG-

05’ (16.67/spike). Since any genotype having more than 12 florets /spike is contemplated as suitable one for

marketing purpose, leaving out ‘HRSDG-07’ (11.95 florets/spike), remaining six genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-

01’ (15.14 spike), ‘HRSDG-02’ (15.44 /spike), ‘HRSDG-03’(19.54/spike), HRSDG-04’(13.47/spike), HRSDG-

05’(16.67/spike) and ‘HRSDG-06’(17.67/spike) were more or less suitable for marketing as cut flower (Table 5).

Of evaluated seven genotypes, five genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-03’(19.54/spike), ‘HRSDG-06’(17.67/spike),

‘HRSDG-02’(15.44/spike), ‘Check/HRSDG-01’ (15.14/spike) and ‘HRSDG-04’(13.47/spike) noted in the study

reflected nearly analogous results to those of six genotypes viz.,’Peter Pears’(19.00/spike), ’Applause’(18.66/

spike),’Amsterdam’(16.89/spike),’Nova Lux’(16.00/spike), ,Fidelio, (15.66/spike) and ‘Priscilla’(13.55/spike) which

Genotypes Floret diameter (cm) Number of florets/ spike



Check/ HRSDG-01

9.70 8.63 9.17 15.00 15.27 15.14

HRSDG-02 7.60 6.69 7.15 15.67 15.20 15.44

HRSDG-03 10.30 9.54 9.92 21.00 18.07 19.54

HRSDG-04 8.20 7.12 7.66 13.67 13.27 13.47

HRSDG-05 7.96 7.08 7.52 16.30 17.03 16.67

HRSDG-06 9.50 9.22 9.36 17.67 17.67 17.67

HRSDG-07 3.67 7.38 5.53 12.30 11.60 11.95

GM 8.13 7.95 8.04 15.95 15.44 15.70

F-test ** ** ** ** ** **

LSD (0.01) 0.89 0.75 0.82 2.352 1.48 1.916

CV% 25.21 5.31 15.26 17.67 5.39 11.53

Table 5: Performance of seven promising genotypes of gladiolus on vegetative traits viz., floret diameter

and number of florets/ spike during two consecutive years 2012/013 and 2013/014 at HRS, Dailekh.


37


were assessed by Shaukat et al.(2015) under the Rawalakot condition of Pakistan.

The pooled values of spike length (cm) were remarkably variable between 87.57 and 132.94 with mean value of

102.90 cm. The genotype ‘HRSDG-03’ possessed the longest spike (132.94 cm) consequentially followed by

‘HRSDG-06’ (109.70 cm) and ‘HRSDG-01’ (101.15 cm). On the contrary,’ HRSDG-02’ possessed the shortest

spike (87.57 cm) in spite of being at par with other five genotypes: ‘HRSDG-04’(90.75 cm), ‘HRSDG-07’(98.33

cm), ‘HRSDG-05’(99.42 cm), cm), ‘HRSDG-06’(109.70 cm) and ‘HRSDG-01’(101.15 cm).The spike length of

check/‘HRSDG-01’ (101.15 cm ) was considerably shorter than that of‘HRSDG-03’ (132.94 cm) but

inconsequentially similar to those of other four genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-05’ with 99.42 cm, ‘HRSDG-07’ with

98.33 cm, ‘HRSDG-04’ with 90.75 cm and ‘HRSDG-02’ with 87.57 cm (Table 6).

The pooled values of rachis length (cm) were noted to be consequentially different from 48.95 cm to 71.81 cm

with the mean value of 58.29 cm. The genotype ‘HRSDG-03’ possessed the longest rachis (71.81 cm)

inconsequentially followed by ‘HRSDG-05’ (66.61 cm) and ‘HRSDG-06’ (61.95 cm). On the contrary,’ HRSDG-

07’ possessed the shortest rachis (48.95 cm) in spite of being at par with other three genotypes: ‘HRSDG-02’(49.54

cm), ‘HRSDG-04’(50.95 cm), and ‘Check/HRSDG-01’(58.25 cm).The rachis length of ‘check/HRSDG-

01’ (58.25 cm ) was considerably shorter than that of ‘HRSDG-03’ (71.81 cm), but inconsequentially similar to

those of other two genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-06’ with 61.95 cm, and ‘HRSDG-05’ with 66.61 cm (Table 6 ). The

rachis length of seven genotypes in the recent study imparted almost similar results to those of seven cultivars viz.,

‘White Prosperity’ (67.80 cm), ‘Popy Tear’ (61.73cm),’Candyman’ as well as ‘Red Majesty’ (61.33cm), ‘Jester’(59.47

cm),’Red Beauty’ (56.33 cm) and ‘Charm Flow’ (57.47 cm) accordingly as noted under Gujarat condition of India

by Chourasia et al.(2015).

Genotypes Spike length (cm) Rachis length (cm)



Check/ HRSDG-01

102.30 100.90 101.15 59.00 57.50 58.25

HRSDG-02 89.30 85.83 87.57 51.30 47.77 49.54

HRSDG-03 142.67 123.20 132.94 76.67 66.95 71.81

HRSDG-04 95.00 86.49 90.75 52.67 49.23 50.95

HRSDG-05 102.67 96.17 99.42 65.00 68.21 66.61

HRSDG-06 111.00 108.40 109.70 62.20 61.70 61.95

HRSDG-07 96.67 99.98 98.33 48.30 49.60 48.95

GM 105.66 100.14 102.90 59.30 57.28 58.29

F-test ** ** ** ** ** **

LSD (0.01) 27.170 10.76 18.695 11.03 11.08 11.055

CV% 17.84 6.04 11.940 16.64 10.87 13.755

Table 6: Performance of seven promising genotypes of gladiolus on vegetative traits viz., Spike length

and rachis length during two consecutive years 2012/013 and 2013/014 at HRS, Dailekh.



38

Vol. 11, 2016

CONCLUSION

The present study anticipated that genotype ‘HRSDG-04’ proved to be the most suitable Gladiolus varieties for

cultivation under the agro-climatic conditions of mid-hills of Dailekh and similar agro-climatic condition of mid-

hills across the country. As this genotype revealed most of the characters viz., days taken to 50% sprouting, per

cent of sprouting, days taken to the first spike emergence and full spike emergence, number of marketable spikes

per corm, days taken to the first floret unfurling and plant height in the best ways in for suitable garden display

and cut flower. Secondly, ‘HRSDG-03’ was proven to be having maximally high number of floret opening at a

time, floret diameter, number of florets per spike, plant height coupled with rachis length and spike length as being

the best for giant flower purpose.

REFERENCES

Ahmed, M.J., J.Akbar, N.Kosar and Z.A. Khan.2002.Introduction and Evaluation of Exotic Gladiolus (Gladiolus

grandiflorus) Cultivars. Asian Journal of Plant Science 1(5):560-562).

Cantor, M. D. and R. Pop.2011.Evaluation of Promising Hybrids of Gladiolus hybridus L. Journal of Ornamental

Horticulture 7 (3-4):71-74.

Choudhary, M., S.K. Mood, A.Kumari and B.S, Beniwal. 2011. Evaluluation of Gladiolus (Gladiolus hybridus

Hort) Varieties for Cut Flower Production under Sub-tropical Condition of Rajasthan. Crop Research 41

(1, 2 and 3):123-126.

Chourasia, A., R.R.Viadia, H. Ansar and S. Madle.2015. Evaluation of Different Gladiolus Cultivars for Growth,

Flowering, Spike Yield and Corm Yield under Saurastra Region of Gujarat. An International Quarterly

Journal of Life Sciences 1(1):131-134.

Grieving, A.J.1987.G87-852 Growing Gladiolus. Historical Material from University of Nebraska –Lincoln

Extension Paper 978.http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/extdharZensionhist/978.

Kareem, A., M.A. Khan, S.U.Rehman and I.Afzal.2013. Different Corm Sizes Affect Performances of Gladiolus

cvs.Red Majesty and Early Yellow. Advances in Zoology and Botany 1 (4):86-91.

Mishra, P. S., A.K. Singh and O.P. Singh.2014. Genetic Variability, heritability, Genetic advance, correlation

coefficient and path analysis in gladiolus. IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science 7: 23-26

www.iosrjournals.org

Negi, R., S. Kumar and S.R. Dhiman.2014.Evaluation of Different Cultivars of Gladiolus grandiflorus L.) Suitable

for Low Hills of Himanchal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Science Research and Technology 2 (6):6-11.

Shaukat, S.K., S.Z.A. Shah and S. W. Shaukat. 2013. Performance of Gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflora L.) Cultivars

under the Climatic Conditions of Bagh Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Journal of Central European

Agriculture 14(2):636-645.

Shaukat, S.A., Shah, S.Z.A., Aslam, M. Shaukat, S.K. and S.W. Shaukst.2015.Performance of Gladiolus Cultivars

under Rawalakot AJ and K conditions. Pakistan. Journal of Recent Advances in Agriculture 3 (2):351-355.

Shiramagond, M.S. and S.I.Hanamashetti.1999.Evaluation of Varieties in Gladiolus under Ghataprapha Command

Areas. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Science 12(1-4):159-163.

Singh, A.K.2006. Cultivation and Management of Gladiolus Flower Crops. Publishing Agency Pitampura, New

Delhi-110086, Pp.147-166.

39


ABSTRACT

An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of plant growth regulators on corm characteristics and post harvest performance of

gladiolus cv. American Beauty at the Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan during September, 2013 to March,

2014. The study consisted of 10 treatments laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) and replicated three times. Three

levels of NAA (50 ppm, 100 ppm and 150 ppm), three levels of GA3 (50 ppm, 100 ppm and 150 ppm), three levels of Kinetin (50

ppm, 100 ppm and 150 ppm) and control (no PGR application) were applied as foliar sprays at 30 and 45 Days after planting.

GA3 shows significantly promising results on corm, cormels characteristics, vase life and post harvest behavior of gladiolus spike. GA3

@ 150 ppm resulted maximum corm weight and corm diameter whereas both GA3 @ 100 ppm and NAA @ 150 ppm recorded

significantly high number of cormels/plants. GA3 @150 ppm and NAA @ 150 ppm showed significantly maximum corm weight

and days to the fist basal floret withering. However, the vase life of gladiolus spike was superior with GA3 @ 150 ppm.

Key words: gladiolus, NAA, GA3 and kinetin

INTRODUCTION

The name Gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflorusL.) was derived from the Latin word Gladius meaning a sword due to

its sword shaped foliage. Gladiolus is perennial bulbous flowering plant and belongs to the family Iridaceae.

Gladiolus is also called as sword-lily and corn flag (Negi & Raghava 1997). There are more than 30,000 varieties

and 240-300 species of gladiolus while about 200 varieties are added, and the same number is dropped every year

because of degeneration due to fungi like Fusarium, Botrytis and viral diseases. Gladiolus is the first commercially

grown cut flower crop in Nepal and the most dominating cut flowers in Nepalese cut flower market (Malla 1988 &

Subedi 2004). It occupied first position in terms of cut flower production and consumption in Nepal for several

years (Pun 2004) but lately it has been relegated to third position by carnation and gerbera and the demand of

gladiolus spikes is 8000-10000 sticks per day in Kathmandu.

Plant growth and flowering along with senescence, are controlled through a balance between plant hormones

interacting with each other and with other factors (Mayak & Halevy 1980). Plant Growth Regulator (PGR) are

being used extensively in commercial flower production throughout the world. The growth parameters of gladiolus

plants were significantly altered due to the application of plant growth regulators (Bhalla & Kumar 2008). Foliar

applications of these regulators are becoming extremely important and valuable in the commercial floriculture for

manipulating the growth and flowering of plants and also for improving the quality parameters of fruits and cut

flowers (Sajid et al. 2009, Khalid et al. 2012). Plant growth regulators are the important compounds for the cut

flower production as it results in effective plant growth and development and produce high quality flowers with

long postharvest life.

In Nepal, American Beauty, Interpret, White Prosperity and Candymen are mostly grown varieties of gladiolus.

Among them American Beauty is most demanding variety having good export quality. The varied temperature

EFFECTS OF PRE-HARVEST SPRAY OF PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS ON CORM AND CORMELS CHARACTERISTICS AND POST-HARVEST

PERFORMANCE OF GLADIOLUS CUT FLOWERS CV. AMERICAN BEAUTY

A. Khanal1 , K. Mishra 2, U. K. Pun 3 and M. Dhital.2 1 Nepal Agricultural Research Council

2 Faculty of Agriculture, Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur 3 Himalayan Flora Enterprises (P) Limited, Lalitpur

Email: [email protected]


40

Vol. 11, 2016

range in different season creates potentiality for year round production of gladiolus in our context. Gladiolus

prefer temperature regime between 10° and 25°C. It can, however, temporarily tolerate very high temperatures

when the relative humidity is high and the soil is moist. It can be grown both in terai and mid hills of Nepal.

Various research workers have reported that the foliar sprays of growth regulators like GA3 and NAA help to

produce good quality cut flowers as well as yield of gladiolus corms. Good quality planting material is crucial for

the successful plant growth and production. Huge amount of gladiolus corm is required for massive production.

Not only the production of spike but also the production of gladiolus corm is the big challenge to gladiolus

grower. Production of planting material is one of the important economic characters in gladiolus cultivation, which

has been reported to be influenced by the different PGRs and its concentrations. Treating the gladiolus cormels

and foliar spray at 4 leaf stage with the GA3 helps to produce corm earlier with the highest values for percentage

of cormels sprouted (Singh et al. 2002).

Plant physiologist defined auxin (NAA) as an organic compound characterized by their capacity to induce cell

enlargement even at low concentration along the longitudinal axis (Moore 1989). Gibberellins are the strong

growth promoters as they can increase internodal distance, induce flowering and can also modify sex expression in

some plant species (Davies 1995). Gibberellins are the plant growth regulators that constitute a group of tetracyclic

diterpenes and are known to stimulate physiological responses in plant which alter the source - sink metabolism

through their effect on photosynthesis and sink formation (Iqbal et al. 2011). Cytokinin plays an important role in

metabolic processes i.e. nucleic acid metabolism or protein metabolism. The cytokinins have influence on process

of cell division (Francis & Sorrel, 2001), biosynthesis of chloroplast pigments (Bondok et al. 1995), nutrient uptake

especially potassium (Guo et al. 1994) and increasing photosynthetic efficiency (Oosterhuis & Zhao, 1998).

METHODOLOGY

The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with ten treatments which were

replicated three times. The corms of cv. American Beauty were planted in the research field of Department of

Horticulture, Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan at 25 cm plant to plant and 25 cm row to row

distance in September 2013. All the cultural practices including fertilization, irrigation, weeding and earthing up

were done according to recommendations. The gladiolus plants were sprayed thoroughly with different

concentrations (50, 100 and 150 ppm) of freshly prepared solution of nephthaleic acetic acid, gibberellic acid and

kinetin in distilled water separately. Each treatment contained about 0.83 liter of solution. The sprays were applied

at 30 days and 45 days after planting. Only distilled water was sprayed on control plots.

The parameters including corm weight (gm), corm diameter(cm), no. of cormels/plant, first basal floret withering

(days), 50% withering of florets(days) and vase life(days) were recorded accordingly. The collected data were

entered on MS- Excel sheet and analyzed for analysis of variance by using MSTATC software and treatment

means were compared by Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5% level of significance.


Effect of plant growth regulators on corms and cormels characters of Cv. American Beauty

Corm weight

Weight of daughter corm was significantly maximum in GA3@150 ppm (38.61g) and NAA 150 ppm (36.50g)

whereas it was the lowest in control (17.22g) (Table 1).Gibberellic acid is known to increase the plant height and

number of leaves that might have led to increased rate of photosynthesis. As a result of this, availability of

metabolites to the developing corm and cormels might have increased, thereby leading to increase in the weight of

corm. (Sarkar et al. 2014) conducted a research at Horticulture farm, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka,

41


Bangladesh during the period from May 2011 to August 2011, who revealed that GA3 @ 150 ppm was most

effective and produced highest weight of single corm.

GA3 when used as foliar application has increasing effects on corm yield and corm weight of gladiolus (Ved et al.,

1998). Singh et al. (2002) and Naveen and Chandrashekar (2008) also observed that foliar application of gibberellic

acid on gladiolus plant increased the corm weight.

Means within the column with the same letter for corm and cormel characters are not significantly different at 5%

level of significance by DMRT. SEM = Standard Error of Mean, LSD = Least Significant Difference and CV =

Coefficient of Variation. * Significant at 5% level and ** Significant at 1%level and NS = non significant

Corm diameter

The maximum corm diameter (5.917 cm) was recorded in GA3 @ 150 ppm followed by NAA @150 ppm (5.11

cm) but the lowest diameter was in control (3.86 cm) (Table 1). The result showed that the corm having maximum

diameter had highest weight and corm having minimum diameter had lowest weight. Increased rate of

photosynthesis due to maximum vegetative growth increased the metabolites to the developing corms and cormels

which led to production of large size corm. Sarkar, et al. (2014), in gladiolus reported that GA3 @ 150 ppm was

more effective to enhance diameter of corm. (Sajjad et al., 2014) conducted an experiment on White Prosperity in

Institute of Horticultural Sciences, University of Agriculture, in October, 2011 and reported that foliar application

of gibberellic acid at 1mM concentration increased the corm diameter. Yousif and Al-Safar (2006) also observed

bigger corm diameter from the GA3 treated corms.

Number of cormels per plant

GA3 @ 100 ppm and NAA @ 150 ppm gave relatively high number of cormels (30.91 and 29.66/plant

Treatment Corm weight (gm) Corm diameter (cm) Number of Cormels/

plant

NAA @ 50 ppm 26.65c 4.473bcd

25.46bc

NAA @ 100 ppm 33.26b 4.720bc

27.90ab

NAA @ 150 ppm 36.50ab 5.113b

29.66a

GA3 @ 50 ppm 27.55c 4.457bcd

27.61ab

GA3 @ 100 ppm 27.98c 4.507bcd

30.91a

GA3 @ 150 ppm 38.61a 5.917a

29.22ab

Kinetin @ 50 ppm 28.12c 4.567bc

23.08cd

Kinetin @ 100 ppm 23.36cd 4.303cd

22.47cd

Kinetin @ 150 ppm 20.39de 4.270cd

22.23cd

Control 17.22e 3.860d

20.74d

Grand mean 27.964 4.619 25.927

SEM ± 1.4727 0.2013 1.2067

LSD at 5 % 4.375** 0.5992** 3.585**

CV (%) 9.12 7.55 8.06

Table 1.Effect of plant growth regulators on Corm weight, Corm diameter and Number of cormels per

plant in Gladiolus cv. American Beauty grown under Chitwan condition (2013/2014)


42

Vol. 11, 2016

respectively).In contrast, control gave the lowest number of cormels (20.74 per plant). Gibberellic acid is known to

increase the vegetative growth that might have led to increased rate of photosynthesis. As a result of this,

availability of metabolites to the developing bulblets might have increased, thereby leading to increase in the

number of bulb count. Sajjad et al. (2014) revealed that foliar application of gibberellic acid increased the number

of cormels and the total cormels weight. Dograet al. (2012) and Singh et al. (2002) also found that application of

GA3 on gladiolus increased the number of cormels and cormels weight.

Effect of plant growth regulators on postharvest performance

Days to first basal floret withering

Days to the first basal floret withering was found significantly maximum in GA3 @ 150 ppm (9.73 day)s ,GA3

@100 ppm (9.60 days) and NAA @ 150 ppm (9.50 days). Nevertheless, control took the fewest number of days

(7.67 days) for the first basal floret withering (Table 2). Withering of floret is the most important quality attributes

of cut flowers. Gibberellic acid application resulted in continuous supply of photosynthetic assimilate for longer

duration due to high source strength at higher concentration so that the florets on the gladiolus spike remained for

longer duration. Padmalatha et al. (2013) revealed that application of gibberellic acid increased the number of days

to withering of the basal floret of gladiolus. Singh and Jitendra (2008) revealed that membrane stability of cut spike

of gladiolus have been increased by using gibberellic acid.

Means within the column with the same letter for corm and cormel characters are not significantly different at 5%

level of significance by DMRT. SEM = Standard Error of Mean, LSD = Least Significant Difference and CV =

Coefficient of Variation. * Significant at 5% level and ** Significant at 1%level and NS = non significant and **

Significant at 1%level and NS = non significant.

Treatment First basal floret

withering (days)

50% withering of

floret (Days)

n Vase life (days)

NAA @ 50 ppm 8.967bc 14.28cd

16.34de

NAA @ 100 ppm 8.967bc 15.05bc

17.33bcd

NAA @ 150 ppm 9.500a 15.22bc

17.57bc

GA3 @ 50 ppm 9.233ab 14.36cd

16.56cde

GA3 @ 100 ppm 9.600a 15.72b

17.83b

GA3 @ 150 ppm 9.733a 16.90a

19.07a

Kinetin @ 50 ppm 8.567c 14.54cd

16.66cde


16.66cde


16.81bcde

Control 7.667d 13.62d

15.76e

Grand mean 8.953 14.893 17.059

SEM ± 0.1642 0.3258 0.3193

LSD at 5 % 0.4882** 0.9673** 0.9489**

CV (%) 3.18 3.79 3.24

Table 2.Effect of plant growth regulators on First basal floret withering, 50% withering of floret and Vase

life in Gladiolus cv. American Beauty grown under Chitwan condition (2013/2014)

43


Days to 50% florets withering

Spike from the treatment of GA3 @ 150 ppm resulted maximum days (16.90) to 50% florets withering (Table 2).

Application of GA3 resulted in continuous supply of photosynthetic assimilates for longer duration due to high

source strength at higher concentration. Kumar and Gupta (2014) observed the maximum longevity of whole

gladiolus spike with foliar spray of GA3 @ 100 ppm. Rani and Singh (2013) also observed that application of GA3

increased the durability of flowers and maximum durability was observed at the highest concentration of GA3.

Vase life

GA3 @ 150 ppm gave the longest vase life (19.07 days) to the gladiolus spike (Table 2). Gibberellic acid might

have significant response on alpha amylase synthesis so that the total soluble carbohydrate content increased and

this could have contributed to improve the energy pool and increased the osmotic potential of flower thus the vase

life of flower get increased (Sakine et al., 2011). Padmalatha et al. (2013) revealed that application of gibberellic

acid increased the vase life of gladiolus var. Darsan at Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. It was also in accordance with

the findings of Singh and Jitendra (2008) who revealed that vase life and membrane stability of cut spike of

gladiolus have been increased by using gibberellic acid.

CONCLUSION

In context of Nepal, American Beauty is the most demanding variety for the cut flower production which has

good export quality. But there is still lack of planting material (corm) to go on massive production. To meet the

demand huge amount of corm has to be imported. So fulfill the demand, corms and cormels production is

challenging which can be addressed through PGRs application. Based on the results obtained, it can be concluded

that, PGRs application at 30 DAP and 45 DAP showed marked influence on the corm and cormels characteristics

and postharvest behavior of gladiolus cut flowers (cv. American Beauty) in Chitwan district. GA3 resulted in the

highest corm weight, maximum corm diameter, maximum no of cormels/plant and superior postharvest behavior

with longer vase lifewhich are the major contributing traits for floriculture industries. Use of plant growth

regulators may be an effective approach to increase corm and cormel production of commercially important

cultivar. This is very important information that has been tested in our conditions and can be useful for rapid

multiplication of our own gladiolus cultivars that are being released by Nepalese research organizations in next few

years.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The first author would like to thank Department of Horticulture, AFU for providing research field and other

logistics for this research.

LITERATURE CITED

Bhalla, R., and A. Kumar, 2008.Response of plant bio-regulators on dormancy breaking in gladiolus.Journal of

Ornamental Horticulture11(1): 1-8.

Bondok, M. A., A. F. Nadia and M. S. E. Felaifel 1995. The effect of some triazole compounds on the productivity

of squash plants. Journal of Agricultural Science. Mansoura Univ. 20: 3677-3690.

Davies, P. J. 1995. Plant hormones: Physiology, biochemistry and molecular biology. Dordrecht, The Netherlands:

Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Dogra, S., R. K. Pandey and D. J. I. Bhat 2012. Influence of gibberellic acid and plant geometry on growth,

flowering and corm production of gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflorus) under jammuagroclimate.

International Journal of Pharmacological Biological Science3(4): (B), 1083-1090.


44

Vol. 11, 2016

Francis, D. and D. A. Sorrel 2001. The interface between the cell cycle and plant growth regulators: a mini review.

Plant Growth Regulation. 33: 1-12.

Guo, C., D. M. Oosterhuis and D. Zhao 1994.Enhancing mineral uptake of cotton plants with plant growth

regulators. In: Sabbe, W. E. (ed.), Arkansas Soil Fertility Studies. Arkansas Agriculture Experiment

Station.University of Arkansas Research Series.436: 83-87.

Iqbal, N., R. Nazar, M. Iqbal, R, Khan, A. Masoodand N. A. Khan 2011. Role of gibberellins in regulation of

source–sink relations under optimal and limiting environmental conditions.Current Science.100(7): 998-

1007.

Khalid, S., A. U. Malik, A. S. Khan, and A. Jamil 2012. Influence of exogenous applications of plant growth

regulators on fruit quality of young 'Kinnow' mandarin (Citrus nobilis× C. deliciosa) trees. International

Journal of Agricultural and Biology.14: 229-234.

Kumar, S. and A. K. Gupta 2014.Postharvest life of Gladiolus grandiflorus L. cv. Jessica as influenced by pre-

harvest application of gibbrellic acid and kinetin.Journal of Postharvest Technology, 2(03): 169-176.

Malla, K. J. 1998. Floriculture in Nepal present status and future scope.Vasanta Floriculture Trade Fair, 2054

(Souvenir). Floriculture Association Nepal (FAN) Kathmandu, Nepal.

Mayak, S. and A. H. Halevy 1980.Flower senescence plants.Thimanna, V. CRC press.Boca.Raton. 132.

Moore, T. C. 1989. Auxins.Biochemistry and Physiology of Plant Hormones.Narosa Publishing House, New

Delhi. pp. 28-93.

Naveen, K. P., and Chandrashekar, R. Y. N. 2008.Effect of growth regulators on flowering and corm production

in gladiolus.Indian Journal of Horticulture. 65, 73-78.

Negi, S. S. and S. P. S. Raghava 1997.Gladiolus. In: Ornamental Horticulture. Indian Council of Agricultural

Research, New Delhi.

Oosterhuis, D. M. and D. Zhao 1998.Growth yield and physiological responses of field grown cotton to plant

growth regulators. In: Oosterhuis, D. M. (ed.), Proceeding of cotton research meeting and summaries of

research in progress. University of Arkansas Agriculture Experiment Station Special Report188: 140-144.

Padmalatha, T., Reddy, G. S., Chandrasekhar, R., Siva Shankar, A.,and Chaturvedi, C. 2013.Effect of foliar Sprays

of bio regulators on growth and flowering in gladiolus.Indian Journal of Agriculture Research. 47(3): 192-

199.

Pun, U. K. 2004.Commercial cut flower production in Nepal and status of four important cut flowers.Journal of

Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science25: 17-21.

Rani, P. and P. Singh 2013.Impact of gibberellic acid pre-treatment on growth and flowering of tuberose

(Polianthes tuberose L.) cv. Prajwal.Journal of Tropical Plant Physiology5: 33-41.

Sajid, G. M., M. Kaukab and Z. Ahmad 2009.Foliar application of plant growth regulators (PGRs) and nutrients

for improvement of lily flowers.Pakisthan Journal of Botany41: 233-237.

Sajjad, Y., Jaskani, M. J., Ashraf, M. Y., Qasim, M., and Ahmad, R. 2014.Responses of morphological and

physiological growth attributes to foliar application of plant growth regulators in gladiolus ‘White

Prosperity’. Pakisthan Journal of Agricultural Science 51(1), 123-129.

Sakine, F., Naderi, R., Ibadli, O. V., Basaki, T., Gasimov, S. N., and Hosseinova, S. 2011. Effect of post harvesting

45


on biochemical changes in Gladiolus cut flowers cultivar (White Prosperity).Middle- East Journal of

Scientific Research. 9(5), 572-577.

Sarkar, M. A. H., M. I. Hossain, A. F. M. J. Uddin, M. A. N. Uddin, and M. D. Sarkar 2014. Vegetative, floral

and yield attributes of gladiolus in response to gibberellic acid and corm size. Scientific Agriculture7(3): 142

-146.

Singh, A., and Jitendra, K. 2008. Effects of plant growth regulators and sucrose on post harvest physiology,

membrane stability and vase life of cut spikes of gladiolus. Plant Growth Regulation. 55, 221-229.

Singh, M. K., A. S. Parmar and S. V. S. Rathore 2002. Corm production in gladiolus as affected by size of cormels

and GA3 application.In: Proceedings of the national symposium on Indian floriculture in the new

millennium.Lalbagh, Bangalore pp. 246-248.

Subedi, P. B. 2004. Growing gladiolus for beauty and business. In: Amatya, P. M., Setling, A., and Gaire, L. N.

(eds) Souvenir, Floriculture Trade Fair, 2004. Floriculture Associaton Nepal (FAN) Kathmandu, Nepal. pp.

13-16.

Ved, P., Jha, K. K., and Prakash, V. 1998.Effects of GA3 on the floral parameters of gladiolus cultivars.Journal of

Applied Biology.8, 24-28.

Yousif, S. S. and M. S. Al-Safar 2006.Effect of GA3 treatment and nitrogen on growth and development of

gladiolus corms.Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences9: 2516-2519.


46

Vol. 11, 2016

ABSTRACT

Seven promising genotypes of gladiolus viz., ‘ HRSDG-01’, ‘ HRSDG-02’, ‘ HRSDG-03’, ‘ HRSDG-04’, ‘ HRSDG-05’, ‘

HRSDG-06’and ‘ HRSDG-07’ were evaluated for their performances of yield contributing characters of corm and cormel. Of these

genotypes, ‘HRSDG-03’ and ‘HRSDG-07’ contributed to maximum pooled diameter of corm. Almost likewise, ‘HRSDG-03’ and

‘HRSDG-04’ were found to be promising ones for maximum pooled weight of individual corm. In respect of total pooled number of

corms and total pooled corm yield/500m2, three genotypes such as ‘HRSDG-04’, ‘HRSDG-05’ and ‘HRSDG-03’ were proven as

superior to the rest of four other genotypes. Three genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-5’, ‘HRSDG-07’ and ‘HRSDG-04’ contributed to

considerably high pooled diameter and weight of individual cormel. Total pooled number and yield of cormels/500m2 were noted to be

remarkably maximum in three genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-3’, ‘HRSDG-05’ and ‘HRSDG-04’. Total pooled number of daughter

corms/ mother corm was consequentially maximum in ‘HRSDG-04’ followed by ‘HRSDG-07’ and ‘HRSDG-02’. The pooled

number of cormels per mother corm was maximally high in ‘HRSDG-02’ followed by ‘HRSDG-03’ and ‘HRSDG-05’. In view of

overall performances, ‘HRSDG-04’ ,‘HRSDG-03’ and ‘HRSDG-5’ proved to be recommended for corm and cormel production

under cultivation of gladiolus.

Key Words: Corm, cormel, genotypes, gladiolus, cultivation.

INTRODUCTION

Gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflorus) a member of family iridaceae is one of the most important bulbous ornamental

and the leading cut flowers. It has occupied eighth position in international cut flower trade. It is universally

acclaimed prestigious cut flower (Ram et al. 2005).Gladiolus is very much liked for majestic spike with attractive,

elegant and delicate florets. These florets open in a sequence over long duration and hence can have a good

keeping quality of cut spike (Abdul et al. 2013). Gladiolus bulbs, in botanical terminology, are referred to as corms,

the main propagating material in gladiolus. A corm is a shortened and thickened section of the stem that appears at

the base of the plant. The shortened stem with buds systematically arranged under a paper-thin protective layer

and scale usually one bud sprouts near the top of the corm when planted (Bhujbal et al. 2014).The corm formation

starts with the initiation of the spike and completes when the spikes attain full bloom. After flowering

photosynthates are directed downwards corms and cormels, then, they continue to increase in size (Hartmann et

al. 1981).The ability to produce corms and cormels per plant determines its rate of multiplication and these

characters would be very effective in breeding program. There is a dearth of good varieties of gladiolus which are

good multiplier with respect to corm and cormel production under varying environments (Abdul et al.

2013).Daughter corm continues to enlarge after flowering but it does not flower in the same season (Hudson et al.

1981). The infrequent production of corms and cormels is a great hurdle in mass propagation and eminence cut

flower spikes of gladiolus. One mother corm generally produces one daughter corm of standard size on the top

and few cormels or cormlets on the base of respective old/ mother corm. These cormels or cormlets are auxiliary

buds on the corm (Singh and Dohare 1991; Remotti and Loffler 1995). Corms and cormels are the chief means of

gladiolus propagation. Cormels are usually graded in three sizes: larger than 1.0 cm diameter, medium 0.5 cm to

PERFORMANCE OF PROMISING GENOTYPES IN GLADIOLUS FOR CORM AND CORMEL PRODUCTION UNDER AGRO-CLIMATIC CONDITION OF DAILEKH

T. B. Poon1 , B. Chalise2 and OB. OLI3 1 Senior Scientist, National Citrus Research Program , Dhankuta

2 Senior Scientist, Horticulture Research Station, Jumla 3 Technical Officer, Horticulture Research Station, Dailekh

Email: [email protected]

47


less than 1.0 cm and small less than 0.5 cm ( Laskar et al. 1994). The objective of the research work was to

investigate the inherent capability of promising gladiolus genotypes for corm and cormels production.

METHODOLOGY

The experimental material used for the study consisted of seven promising gladiolus genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-01’,

‘HRSDG-02’, ‘HRSDG-03’, ‘HRSDG-04’, ‘HRSDG-05’, ‘HRSDG-06’, and ‘HRSDG-07’: they were evaluated in

the field of Horticulture Research Station (HRS), Dailekh under the experiment in RCBD design replicated three

times. In each replication, thirty five corms of each genotype were planted in the spacing of 47 cm between the

rows and 30 cm within the row each year. In the second fortnight of February, corms were planted in each plot

size of 7.852 m as per experimental design over two consecutive years (2013 and 2014). The recommended FYM

20 t/ha and fertilizer 60kg N, 80 kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O were incorporated into soil during the operation of

land preparatory tillage. Remaining 60 kg Nitrogen was applied into two split doses: 30 kg Nitrogen/ha at 3-5 leaf

stage and 30 kg Nitrogen/ha at 7-9 leaf stage. Uniform cultural operations like intercultural weeding, plant

protection measures, and remaining all practices were adopted to grow successful crop. Ten plants/genotype/

replication were labeled and used for recording various parameters of corms and cormels characters. Corm and

cormels were allowed to maturity and harvested only in 45 days later than spike harvest day when leaves turned

yellowing and withering coupled with turning of 25% cormel into brown color. Data were collected for the

performances of ten characters of corm and cormels such as corm diameter, individual corm weight, total number

of corms, corms yield, cormel diameter, individual cormel weight, total number of cormel, cormels yield, number

of daughter corms per mother corm and number of cormels per mother corm that keep significant values from the

view point of crop improvement were recorded in both years (2013 and 2014).The mean values of all the

characters were pooled and subjected to the statistical analysis of variance.

ARSDG-01 (American Beauty) ARSDG-02 (Interpid)


48

Vol. 11, 2016

ARSDG-03 (Ginger Red) ARSDG-04 (Unidentified genotype)

ARSDG-05 (Summer Sun Shine) ARSDG-06 (White Prosperity) ARSDG-07 (Pscittacinus Hybrid

49



Results in tables 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 illustrates the pooled values of the characters over two years in which the corm

diameter, individual corm weight, total number of corms, total yield of corms, cormel diameter, cormel weight,

total number of cormels, total cormel yield, number of daughter corms/mother corm and number of cormels/

mother corm parameters of gladiolus plants were significantly varied due to the effect of different promising

genotypes.

Corm diameter (cm)

Maximum pooled diameter (5.67 cm) of corm was in ‘HRSDG-03’ whereas minimum pooled diameter (4.61 cm)

of corm was exhibited by ‘HRSDG-05’; however, its diameter was at par with those of four genotypes

viz.,’HRSDG-01’ (4.66 cm), ’HRSDG-04’ (4.68 cm), ’HRSDG-02’( 4.74 cm) and ’HRSDG-06’(4.76 cm). As for

‘check/HRSDG-01’, its pooled corm diameter was noted to be statistically similar to that of ’HRSDG-07’ (4.83

cm) even so it produced considerably smaller pooled diameter (4.66 cm) than ’HRSDG-03’ (5.67 cm) in (Table 1).

Corm diameter needs to be more than 2.00 cm for commercial propagation as well as flower production as corm

with less than 2.00 cm gave rise to thin spikes coupled with more prone to lodging(Abdul et al. 2013). Corm

diameters of all seven genotypes were still far larger than 2.00 cm in the present context of study.

Individual corm weight (g)

The pooled weight (g) of individual corm was significantly variable between 29.78 g and 47.39 g in seven

genotypes under the experiment. ‘HRSDG-03’ recorded remarkably the maximum pooled weight (47.39 g)

followed by ‘HRSDG-04’ (35.31 g) and ‘HRSDG-02’ (34.91g). In contrast, ’HRSDG-05’ recorded minimally the

lowest pooled weight (29.78 g) inconsequentially followed by‘HRSDG-06’ (32.05 g) and ‘HRSDG-1’ (33.12

g).’Check/HRSDG-01’ produced significantly lower pooled weight (33.12 g) than ‘HRSDG-03’ (47.39 g).

According to the suggestion of North Gladiolus Council (Wilfret,1980),firstly the individual corm diameter (5.67

cm) of ‘HRSDG-03’ came under Jumbo category as Jumbo category involved more than 5.1 cm corm diameter.

Secondly the corm diameters of remaining six genotypes were in large category/No 1 grade (3.9 cm to 5.0

cm).Two treatments: removal of leaves and spike and retention of leaves and spike in ‘Peter Pears’ imparted the

maximum weight of single corm 70.14g and 68.58g respectively, then the same two treatments in ‘Trader horn’

with single corm 69.69g and 62.41g and finally ‘White Friendship’ with single corm 58.37 g and 51.60g were

recorded (Memon et al.2014). All of the weights of single corm of not only removal of leaves and spike but also of

retention of leaves and spikes were recorded relatively more than those weights of individual corms in any of

evaluated genotypes in the present study. Since characters of corm and cormel were recorded from the field of

flower production without following the technique needed for corm and cormel production in our present study

the results of individual corms were not as superior as those of the studies made by aforementioned authors. Their

studies were based on exploration of increasing multiplication rates of corms and cormels, and involved the

removal of leaves and flower spike to conserve the plant’s energy metabolites that enhanced the multiplication of

corms and cormels.


50

Vol. 11, 2016

Total number of corms/500m2’

The pooled number of corms produced in seven genotypes considerably varied from 2133.01 to 6834.57 with the

mean value of 3837.14. ‘HRSDG-04’ recorded remarkably the highest pooled number of corms (6834.57)

Differences in this regard was quite significant from those of the remaining six genotypes. On the contrary, the

pooled number of corms was minimally low in four genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-02’(2133.10),HRSDG-

06’(2524.79),HRSDG-07’(2644.52) and HRSDG-01’(3299.87).As comparing against ‘Check/ HRSDG-01’ in this

regard, three genotypes such as ‘HRSDG-04’(6834.57) , ‘HRSDG-05’ (4937.16) and ‘HRSDG-03’(4483.76) were

found better ones (Table 2). Chaudhary et al. (2011) evaluated twelve varieties of gladiolus under sub-humid

condition of Rajasthan: Their findings revealed that the number of corms/ 500 m2 of five varieties viz., ‘Peter

Pears’ as well as ‘Sancerre’(5963),’Spic-n-Span’(4301), ‘Dhanvantri’ (4203.5) and’TS-14’ (3812.5) were nearly in

tune with those of only three genotypes viz.,’HRSDG-04’(6843.57),’HRSDG-05’(4937.16) and ‘HRSDG-

03’(4483.76) in recent study, but the number of corms/500m2 in remaining seven varieties of their study revealed

relatively higher which ranged from 6940.5 (‘Urmil’) to 8993.0 (‘Priscilla’).

Total corm yield (kg)/ 500m2

Pooled corm yield was found considerably high in two genotypes viz.,’HRSDG-04’ (203.55 kg) and ‘HRSDG-

03’ (174.14 kg) whereas the lowest in ‘HRSDG-02’ (65.80 kg). Even so corm yield differences in five genotypes

such as ‘HRSDG-05’ (116.64 kg),’HRSDG-01’(92.07 kg), ‘HRSDG-07’(81.13 kg)‘HRSDG-02’ (65.80 kg) and

‘HRSDG-06’(64.99 kg) were at par. Check/’HRSDG-01’produced considerably lower pooled corm yield than

those of two genotypes viz.,’HRSDG-04’(203.55 kg) and ‘HRSDG-03’ (174.14 kg), but ‘check/HRSDG-01’ was at

par with those in four genotypes such as ‘HRSDG-05’, ‘HRSDG-07’, ‘HRSDG-02’and ‘HRSDG-06 (Table 2).

Sarkar et al. (2014) recorded corm yields ranging from 610.00kg to 874.50 kg/ 500 m2 which was much higher

Genotypes Corm diameter (cm) Individual corm weight (g)



Check/ HRSDG-01

4.49 4.82 4.66 30.00 36.23 33.12

HRSDG-02 4.84 4.63 4.74 35.67 34.14 34.91

HRSDG-03 5.50 5.84 5.67 41.00 53.77 47.39

HRSDG-04 4.40 4.95 4.68 30.67 39.94 35.31

HRSDG-05 4.53 4.69 4.61 26.67 32.89 29.78

HRSDG-06 4.83 4.68 4.76 30.67 33.43 32.05

HRSDG-07 4.70 4.96 4.83 31.00 38.71 34.86

GM 4.79 4.94 4.86 32.24 38.44 35.34

F-test NS ** * * ** **

LSD (0.01) - 0.35 0.172 3.412 8.02 5.716

CV% 8.87 4.01 6.44 18.140 11.72 14.93

Table 1: Performance of seven promising genotypes of gladiolus for corm diameter and individual corm

weight during two consecutive years 2012/013 and 2013/014 at HRS, Dailekh.


51


than the range of 65.00 to 203.55 kg/500m2 in the present study. In the context of situation for the objective of

flower production, the energy required for flower production may be less diverted towards corm and cormel

development by removing the spike (Mukhopadhay and Das 1978; Misra et al. 2003). It was presumably the reason

for low corm yield in the present study.

Cormel diameter (mm)

Pooled diameter of cormel varied from 5.84 mm to 7.62 mm in seven genotypes of gladiolus. Although ‘Check/

HRSDG-01’revealed the maximally high pooled cormel diameter (7.62 mm) it’s pooled value did not vary

consequentially from those of three other genotype viz.,’HRSDG-07’ (7.57 mm), ‘HRSDG-05’ (7.55 mm) and

’HRSDG-04’ (7.25 mm). On the contrary, cormel diameter was consequentially low in three genotypes

viz.‘HRSDG-06’ (5.84 mm), ‘HRSDG-02’ as well as ‘HRSDG-03’ (6.80 mm) in Table 3. Ahmad et al.(2002) noted

variably cormel diameter (mm) of ten gladiolus cultivars , out of them ,’ Red Beauty’ (18.00 mm) ‘Wine and

Roges’ (11.10 mm) and ‘ Oscar’ (10.00mm) produced larger cormel size than other cultivars. The diameter of

cormels in the present study pertained to small size (5.8 cm -7.6 mm) which seemed being significantly smaller

than those pertaining to medium size (10.0-15.0 mm) and big size cormel (15.0 mm- 20.0 mm) accordingly as

reported by Amin et al.(2013).

Individual cormel weight (mg)

Pooled weight of cormels in seven different genotypes was noted to be considerably variable between 226 mg

and 390 mg having the mean value of 287 mg. Two genotypes: ‘HRSDG-05’and ‘HRDG-07’ reflected

consequentially high pooled weight of cormel (390 mg and 331 mg respectively).’HRSDG-06’ recorded

contrastingly lowest pooled weight of cormel (226 mg), but its value was found to be inconsequential with those of

four other genotypes viz.,’HRSDG-02 (250 mg),’HRSDG-03’(250 mg),’HRSDG-01’ (276 mg) and ‘HRSDG-

Genotypes Total number of corms / Ropni(500 m2) Total corm yield in kg/Ropni (500 m2))



Check/ HRSDG-01

2268.52 4331.21 3299.87 69.49 114.65 92.07

HRSDG-02 2291.67 1974.52 2133.10 82.55 49.04 65.80

HRSDG-03 2515.28 6452.23 4483.76 101.14 247.13 174.14

HRSDG-04 6388.89 7280.25 6834.57 195.00 212.10 203.55

HRSDG-05 3441.20 6433.12 4937.16 98.24 135.03 116.64

HRSDG-06 2098.61 2950.96 2524.79 63.10 66.88 64.99

HRSDG-07 2083.30 3205.73 2644.52 63.52 98.73 81.13

GM 3012.49 4661.79 3837.14 96.15 129.94 113.05

F-test ** ** ** ** ** **

LSD (0.01) 679.680 2537.579 1608.629 57.08 82.165 69.623

CV% 49.57 30.60 40.085 46.98 35.75 41.365

Table 2: Performance of seven promising genotypes of gladiolus for total number of corms and total

corm weight during two consecutive years 2012/013 and 2013/014 at HRS, Dailekh.

* Significant **highly significant


52

Vol. 11, 2016

04’ (276 mg). Among evaluated genotypes in this regard, only one genotype ‘HRSDG-05’ (390 mg) proved to be

superior to ‘check/HRSDG-01(276 mg). Otherwise, leaving out ‘HRSDG-06’ (226 mg), rest of four other

genotypes viz.,’HRSDG-07’(331mg),’HRSDG-04’ (276 mg), ‘HRSDG-02’(250 mg), ‘HRSDG-03’(250 mg) were at

par with ‘Check/HRSDG-01’(276 mg) in Table 3. Ahmad et al. (2002) reported individual cormel weight of ten

cultivars (Wines and Roges, Wing’s Sensation, Red Beauty, Oscar, Praha, City Light, Green Wood Pecker, Blue

Isle, Priscilla and Victor Vorge). Of them, ‘Praha’, ‘Priscilla’ and ‘Victor Broge’ produced maximally high cormel

weight with 590 mg, 430 mg and 390 mg respectively. The individual cormel weight recorded in the recent study

was not as weighty as those of three cultivars (‘Praha’, ‘Priscilla’ and ‘Victor Broge’), but the individual cormel

weights of remaining seven cultivars were more or less similar to those of seven genotypes under our study.

Total number of cormels/500m2

The pooled number of cormels produced per 500 m2 by seven genotypes showed highly significant variation due

to the effect of different evaluated genotypes (Table 4). The result indicates that the maximum pooled number of

cormels (2, 27, 790. 50) was in genotype ‘HRSDG-03’, minimum pooled number of cormels (31,650.35) was in

genotypes ‘HRSDG-07’. The highest pooled number cormels (2, 27,790.50) was, however, at par with those of two

other genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-05’ (1,93.367.99) and ‘HRSDG-04’(1,90,805.96).The lowest pooled number of

cormels (31,650.35) in ‘HRSDG-07’was, on the other hand, insignificant from two other genotypes viz.,’Check/

HRSDG-01’(58,276.13) and ‘HRSDG-02’(46,256.30).’Check/ HRSDG-01’ was recorded to be poorer than

remaining three genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-03’ (2, 27,790.50), ‘HRSDG-05’ (1, 93,367.99) and ‘HRSDG-04’ (1,

90,805.96).

Total cormel yield (kg)/ 500m2

Seven genotypes of gladiolus had influenced the pooled yield of cormels. Mean values regarding different

Genotypes Cormel diameter (mm) individual cormel weight (mg)



Check/ HRSDG-01

7.43 7.80 7.62 270 282 276

HRSDG-02 6.60 7.00 6.80 240 260 250

HRSDG-03 6.90 6.70 6.80 250 250 250

HRSDG-04 7.20 7.30 7.25 270 285 276

HRSDG-05 7.60 7.50 7.55 380 400 390

HRSDG-06 5.77 5.90 5.84 220 235 226

HRSDG-07 7.43 7.70 7.57 320 342 331

GM 6.99 7.13 7.06 280 293 287

F-test ** ** ** ** ** **

LSD (0.01) 1.20 1.22 1.21 100 104 102

CV% 10.22 10.425 10.32 22.83 23.89 23.36

Table 3: Performance of seven promising genotypes of gladiolus for cormel diameter (mm) and

individual cormel weight (g) during two consecutive years 2012/013 and 2013/014 at HRS, Dailekh.


53


genotypes showed that maxium pooled cormel yield (78.94 kg) was noted in ‘HRSDG-03’ followed significantly by

‘HRSDG-05(66.82 kg), and ‘HRSDG-04’ (57.47 kg). ‘HRSDG-02’reorded the lowest pooled yield of cormels

(12.23 kg) which was found to be significantly different from those of remaining six genotypes. Besides ‘HRSDG-

02’, ‘Check/HRSDG-01’ (16.23 kg) was noted to be inferior to those of five other genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-

07’ (18.01 kg), ‘HRSDG-06’(18.58 kg), ‘HRSDG-04’(57.47 kg), ‘HRSDG-05’(66.82 kg) and ‘HRSDG-03’(78.94 kg)

in Table 4. In the recent study, only three genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-03’(78.39 kg), ‘HRSDG-05(66.82 kg) and

‘HRSDG-04’ (57.47 kg) have been in position to cope with standard cormels yields up to the expectation of

growers because eight gladiolus varieties: ’Chipper White’ (33.90 kg),Summer Sun Shine’(174.60 kg), ‘Canadian

Blood Red’ (105.40 kg),’Apple Blossom’ (88.45 kg), Summer Pearl (221.95 kg)’, ‘Puppy Tears’(125.45 kg), ‘Pacifica

White’(151.70 kg) and ‘American Beauty’(141.35 kg) tested by Shiramagond and Hanamashetti (1999) were in

confirmation with the cormels yields in the study.

Number of daughter corms/mother corm

The pooled number of daughter corms per mother corm was variable from 1.23 to 2.30 with the mean value of

1.56 under the experiment. The highest pooled daughter corms/mother corm was recorded in ‘HRSDG-04’ (2.30/

mother corm) followed inconsequentially by’’HRSDG-07’ (1.65/ mother com). ‘HRSDG-02’, on the contrary,

produced the lowest number of daughter corms (1.23/mother corm) which was , nevertheless, at par with those of

rest of five genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-07’(1.65/mother corm), ‘HRSDG-03’(1.60/mother corm), ‘HRSDG-

05’(1.52/mother corm), ‘HRSDG-06’(1.37/mother corm) and ‘Check/HRSDG-01’(1.29/ mother corm). ‘Check/

HRSDG-01’was proven as inferior to ‘HRSDG-04’ (2.30/mother corm) while ‘Check/HRSDG-01’was recoded to

be statistically analogous to the rest of five genotypes viz., ‘HRSDG-02’ (1.23/mother corm), ‘HRSDG-06’(1.37/

mother corm), ‘HRSDG-05’(1.52/mother corm'), ‘HRSDG-03’(1.60/mother corm) and ‘HRSDG-07’(1.65/

mother corm) in Table 5. Sudhakar et al. (2012) registered that the number of daughter corms/mother corm

Genotypes Total number of cormels/ Ropni (500 m2) Total cormel yield (kg)/Ropni(500 m2)



Check/ HRSDG-01

44259.26 72293 58276.13 12.08 20.38 16.23

HRSDG-02 50092.59 42420 46256.30 11.71 12.74 12.23

HRSDG-03 134243.98 321337 227790.49 34.95 122.93 78.94

HRSDG-04 93394.91 288217 190805.96 24.81 90.130 57.47

HRSDG-05 90493.98 296242 193367.99 25.55 108.09 66.82

HRSDG-06 68703.70 86815 77759.35 14.86 22.290 18.58

HRSDG-07 22453.70 40847 31650.35 7.36 28.660 18.011

GM 71948.88 164024 117986.44 18.76 57.960 38.36

F-test ** ** ** NS ** *

LSD (0.01) 9554.30 92167 50860.65 - 0.49 0.324

CV% 49.74 34.73 42.235 53.86 30.24 42.05

Table 4: Performance of seven promising genotypes of gladiolus for total number of cormels and total

cormel yield during two consecutive years 2012/013 and 2013/014 at HRS, Dailekh.



54

Vol. 11, 2016

ranged from 1.02 to 1.66 in ‘White Friendship’ under different treatments of growth regulators. On the other

hand, the highest number of daughter corms 2.26/mother corm in ‘Darshan’ and lowest number of daughter

corms 1.0/ mother corm in ‘Meridiana’ were reported by Naresh et al. (2015).As comparing to the findings of

former and latter authors, the number of daughter corms/mother corm were somewhat high in the present study.

Number of cormels / mother corm

The pooled number of cormels produced per mother corm by seven genotypes was recorded to have varied from

17.09 to 81.43 with the value of 46.01.The results indicates that maximum pooled number of cormels (81.43/

mother) was in ‘HRSDG-02’ which was statistically inconsequential with ‘HRSDG-03’ (77.70/ corm/mother

corm) and ‘HRSDG-05’ (59.41/mother corm). ‘HRSD-07’, in contrast, produced the lowest pooled number of

cormels (17.09/ mother corm) which was noted to have been at par with those of three genotypes viz., ‘Check/

HRSDG-01’ (21.19/ mother corm), ‘HRSDG-04’ (37.24/ mother corm) and ‘HRSDG-06’ (42.97/ mother corm).

Two genotypes viz.,’HRSDG-02’ (81.43/ mother corm) and ‘HRSDG-03’ (77.70/ mother corm) were superior to

‘Check/HRSDG-01’ (21.19/ mother corm). On the other hand, ‘Check/HRSDG-01’was noted to be at par with

those of ‘HRSDG-04’ (37.24/mother corm) and ‘HRSDG-06’ (42.97/ mother corm) in Table 5. Shaukat et al.

(2013) recorded the number of cormels/mother corms in five Gladiolus cultivars viz.,

‘Amsterdam’ (33.44),’Applause’(90.00),’Fidelio’ (55.11), ‘Peter Pears’(25.33) and ‘Priscilla (10.00) which revealed to

be more or less in tune with the pooled number of cormels /mother corm recorded in recent study.

Close observation of cormel characteristics showed variable response for the genotypes under study. Different

cultivars responded or reacted differently with given soil and climatic condition depending upon their genetic

composition. These were the reasons different results were presumably observed in context of the recent study.

Genotypes Number of daughter corms / mother corm Number of cormels/mother corm



Check/ HRSDG-01

1.00 1.58 1.29 16.00 26.37 21.19

HRSDG-02 1.30 1.16 1.23 88.00 74.86 81.43

HRSDG-03 1.00 2.20 1.60 46.00 109.40 77.70

HRSDG-04 2.08 2.53 2.30 18.00 56.48 37.24

HRSDG-05 1.07 1.97 1.52 28.00 90.81 59.41

HRSDG-06 1.14 1.61 1.37 38.00 47.94 42.97

HRSDG-07 1.60 1.70 1.65 12.00 22.18 17.09

GM 1.31 1.82 1.56 38.00 54.01 46.01

F-test * * * ** ** **

LSD (0.01) 0.56 0.78 0.67 23.00 32.79 27.89

CV% 20.43 24.22 22.33 24.00 34.13 29.07

Table 5: Performance of seven promising genotypes of gladiolus for Number of daughter corms /

mother corm and number of cormels/mother corm during two consecutive years 2012/013 and 2013/014

at HRS, Dailekh.


55


Conclusion

The present study concludes that three genotypes viz. ‘HRSDG-04’, ‘HRSDG-03’ and ‘HRSDG-05’ are the most

outstanding and suitable for the sake of production of corm and cormel ( propagating materials) as well as varietal

improvement work under the agro-climatic conditions of mid-hills of Dailekh and similar agro-climatic condition

of mid-hills across the country. These genotypes have possessed the best in terms of most parameters of gladiolus

genotypes such as corm size, corm weight, number of corms /unit area, corm yield /unit area, number of daughter

corms/mother corm, cormel size, cormel weight, number of cormels/unit area, cormel yield /unit area and

number of cormels /mother corm. In order to standardize conventional methods of propagation for maximization

of propagules, the nature of similar verification trial has to be repeated further inclusive of the same genotypes

adopting the sole techniques required for corm and cormel production.

References

Abdul, K., M.A.Khan, S.UR-Rehman and A. Afzal.2013.Different Corm Sizes Affect Performances of Gladiolus

grandiflorus Cvs. Red Majesty and Early Yellow. Advances in Zoology and Botany 1(4):86-91.

Abdul, M.J., Z.Akbar, N. Kosar and Z.A. Khan.2002. Introduction and Evaluation of Exotic Gladiolus (Gladiolus

grandiflorus) Cultivars. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences 1(5):560-562.

Ahmad, M.J., Z. Akbar, N. Kesar and Z.A. Khan.2002.Introduction and Evaluation of Exotic Gladiolus (Gladiolus

grandiflorus L.) Cultivars. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences 1(5):560-562.

Amin, N.U., A.M. Khattak, I. Ahmad, N. Ara, A. Alan, M. Ali and I.Ali.2013. Corm and Cormel Size of Gladiolus

Greatly Influenced Growth and Development of Subsequent Corm Production. Pakistan Journal of

Botany 45(4):1407-1409.

Bhujbal, G.B., N.G. Chauhan and S.S. Mehtre.2014. Importance of Growth Regulators and Cold Storage

Treatments for Breaking of gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflorus L.) Corm Dormancy. The Bioscan 9(2):501-

505.

Chaudhary, M., S.K. Mood, A.K. Kumari and B.S. Beniwal.2011.Evaluation of Gladiolus (Gladiolus x hybridus

Hort.) Varieties for Cut Flower Production under Sub-humid Conditions of Rajashan. Crop Research 41(1,

2 and 3):123-126.

Hartmann.T., W.J. Flocker, and A.M. Kofrank.1981. Ornamental Grown from Bulbs, Corms, Tubers and

Rhizomes. In “Plant Science, Growth, Development and Utilization of Cultivated Plants. Pp. 429-453.

Hudson, T.H., J.F. William and M.K. Anton. 1981. Plant Sciences. Eggle Wood Cliffs. New Jersey, 07632, U.S.A.

Pp.676-678.

Laskar, M.A. and B.K. Jana.1994. Effect of Planting Time and Corm Size on Plant Growth, Flowering and Corm

Production of Gladiolus. Indian Agriculturst 38(2):89-92.Enhancement of corm and cormel production in

gladiolus (Gladiolus spp.).New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Sciences 37(4): 319-325.

Memon, N., M. Quasim, M.J. Jaskani, R. Ahmad and I. Ahmad.2014.Enhancement of Corm and Cormel

Production in Gladiolus (Gladiolus spp.). New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science 37:319-

325.

Misra, R.L. 1994.Effect of Leaf and Spike Clipping on Corm and Cormel Yield of Gladiolus.In: Floriculture –

technology, trades and trends in India (Eds: Praksh, J., Bhandary, KR).Oxford & IB Publishing Company,

Pp.55-58.


56

Vol. 11, 2016

Misra, R.L., B. Singh and S.K. Palai.2003. Gladiolus. In: Commercial Flowers in India: (Eds): Bose, T.K.,L.P.

Yadav, P. Pal, P.Das, V.A. Parthasarthy. Naya Udyog, Kolkata.660 P.

Mukhopadhay, A. and P.Das.1978. Effect of Removal of Flower and Foliage on the Yield of Gladiolus Corms and

Cormels. Orissa Journal of Horticulture 6:1-5.

Naresh, S., A.V.D. Dorajee Rao, V.V. Bhaskar, K.U. Krishna and M. P. Rao.2015. Evaluation of Gladiolus

(Gladiolus hybrid L.) Hybrids under Coastal Andhrapradesh Conditions. Plant Archives 15 (1):451-454.

Ram, R.B., K.S. Tomar and S.K. Datta.2005. Performances of Certain gladiolus cultivars under Sodic Conditions.

Journal of Ornamental Horticulture 8:77-78.

Remotti, P.C. and H.J.M. Loffler.1995. Callus Induction and Plant Regeneration from Gladiolus. Plant Cell Tissue

Organ Culture 42(2): 171-178.

Sarkar, M.A.H., M.I. Hossain, A.F.M.J. Uddin, M.A.N. Uddin and M.D. Sarkar.2014.Vegetative, Floral and Yield

Attributes of Gladiolus in Response to Gibberellic Acid and Corm Size. Scientia Agricuturae 7(3): 142-146.

Shaukat, S.K., S.Z.A. Shah and S. W. Shaukat. 2013. Performance of Gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflora L.) Cultivars

under the Climatic Conditions of Bagh Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Journal of Central European

Agriculture 14(2):636-645.

Shiramagond,M.S. and S.I.Hanamashetti.1999.Evaluation of Varieties in Gladiolus under Ghataprapha Command

Areas. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Science 12(1-4):159-163.

Singh, A. P. and S.R. Dohare. 1994. Maximization of Corm and Cormel Production in Gladiolus. In: Floriculture –

Technlogy Trades and Trends: (Eds): J. Prakash and K.R. Bhandary. Oxford & IBH Pub.Co.Pvt. India,

205-208.

Sudhakar, M. and S.Ramesh Kumar.2012. Effect of Growth, Flowering and Corm Production of Gladiolus

(Gladiolus grandiflorus L.) cv. White Friendship. Indian Journal of Plant Science ISSN: 3819-3824.

Wilfret, G.J. 1980. Gladiolus. In: Introduction to Floriculture (Ed.): Larson, R.A. New York, Academic Press Inc.

Pp. 166-181.

57


ABSTRACT

After harvesting, apple fruits experience a variety of loading conditions that potentially lead to mechanical damage

and bruising, which reduce the quality and shelf life of the products. Studies were carried out at Horticulture

Research Station, Rajikot, Jumla for three consecutive years (2012-2014) to evaluate the effect of different

cushioning materials for packaging and transportation of fruits of three cultivars of apple from orchard to

collection centre, thereafter on storage. Fruits were harvested on 3rd week of September; healthy fruits of almost

uniform size and shape were selected for the study. About 25 kg fruits were hold in conical bamboo baskets using

different cushioning materials; transported to collection centre by porters on their back. Data on number of

damaged fruits was recorded one day after transportation. Again, undamaged healthy 20 fruits from the same

experiment were selected and stored in plastic crates under room condition for 3 months (11.80C and 65% RH).

The result revealed that during transportation minimum number of bruised fruits was recorded in Red delicious

(13.3%). With regard to cushioning materials, minimum number of bruised fruits (11.3%) was observed in bamboo

basket without grass liner. After three months of storage, maximum spoilage was observed in Golden delicious

(16.8%) while minimum in Red delicious (10.1%). With regard to cushioning material, minimum spoilage (7.2%)

was observed in bamboo basket with grass liner. Highest physiological weight loss in storage was observed in

Golden delicious (17.2%) and lowest in Red delicious (11.4%). Consumers overall acceptability was higher in Royal

delicious at maturity stage while higher in Red delicious after storage. Therefore, grass and woolen shawl were

identified as most effective cushioning materials during apple transportation from orchard to collection centre

under Jumla condition of Nepal.

Key Words: Bruising, Spoilage, PWL, TSS, Firmness, TA, Starch index, Hedonic rating, shrivel

INTRODUCTION

Apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) is an economically important fruit crop of the temperate zones. It has been

cultivated for thousands of years in Europe and Asia. There are more than 7500 cultivars of apple and it is one of

the most grown fruit in all over the world (Martinelli et. al. 2008). Consumption of apple has shown better health

to prevent a variety of chronic diseases and lung cancer, asthma, diabetes and ischemic heart disease (Hansen et. al.

2009). It is due to the large content of structural cell walls and polysaccharides along with the various phyto-

chemical antioxidants (Device et. al. 2010). Apple is a leading deciduous fruit grown successfully in rain shadow or

low rainfall high hill areas from east to far west of Nepal. Red delicious, Royal delicious and Golden delicious are

the leading commercial cultivars grown by the farmers. In Nepal, apple can be grown in 54 districts; however, only

12 districts grow apple commercially of which Jumla ranks the number one in terms of area and production

(Subedi et. al. 2012). Apple farming is the boon of the farmers of Jumla because of its economical, social, and

environmental advantages. Apple growers have not been receiving anticipated level of income because of

traditional system of postharvest handlling. In Nepal, the productive area, production and productivity of apple in

F. Y. 2013/2014 was 5141ha, 35920.7tons and 6.9tons/ha respectively. Nepal imports 56,447 tons of apple

EVALUATION OF CUSHIONING MATERIALS FOR TRANSPORTATION OF APPLE CULTIVARS FROM ORCHARD TO COLLECTION CENTRE

G. D. Subedi1, D. M. Gautam3, D. R. Baral3, G. B. K. C.3, K. P. Paudyal1, R. K. Giri2 1Nepal Agricultural Research Council, HRD, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal

2Nepal Agricultural Research Council, HRS, Rajikot, Jumla, Nepal 3Tribhuvan University, IAAS, Kritipur, Kathmandu, Nepal

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]


58

Vol. 11, 2016

annually valued at Rs 1.92 billion (ABPSD, 2014). In Nepal, large amount of fruit losses occurs after harvest and

minimizing this loss could save over 25% of produce (Gurung, 1998). Gautam et. al. (2004) reported that 58.2%

apple fruits were damaged during harvesting, handling, transportation and distribution due to inadequate post

harvest technology. All the apple production area lies in higher hills, where usually the fruits are harvested from the

orchard and transported to farmhouse for sorting, grading and packaging. Conical shaped bamboo baskets (Doko)

are commonly used containers to carry apple fruits for transportation to collection centers by porters on their back

in Nepal. Fruits bruise easily due to compression, impact and vibration forces during transportation that

potentially lead to bruising damage. Rough surface of the bamboo basket causes bruising and scaring on the

surface of fruit. Further, the sharp edge of the basket and its conical shape causes both bruising and compression

damage to the fruits. Moreover, the conical shape of bamboo basket results compression damage, which lies

towards the lower side of the basket. The damage may not be apparent and visible to necked eyes immediately

after transport; however effects are apparent during storage. The storability of apple is the reflection of the impact

of container and cushioning material during transportation. Therefore, this study was carried out to find the

effectiveness of different cushioning material for minimization of fruit damage during transportation from orchard

to collection centre on standard apple cultivars.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Studies were carried out for three successive years (2012-2014) at Horticulture Research Station, Rajikot, Jumla,

Nepal to investigate the effect of different cushioning materials on bruising damage of fruits during transportation

from orchard to collection centre and thereafter on storage. Fruits of Red delicious, Royal delicious and Golden

delicious were harvested on 3rd week of September from the Mother Stock Maintenance Block of Gairagaun,

Jumla (3 hours walking distance to the collection centre). Fruits were harvested from all sides of the tree and

healthy fruits of almost uniform size, color and shape were selected for the study. Fruits were thoroughly cleaned

with Muslin cloth after harvesting. Study was designed as factorial RCBD (3 cultivars, 5 cushioning materials) with

four replications. About 25 kg fruits were weighted and packed in conical shaped bamboo baskets with green

grass, woolen shawl, news paper, plastic sheet and without liner. Baskets were transported to collection centre by

porters on their back. Data on number of damaged fruits due to bruising was recorded one day after

transportation, as the damage may not be seen immediately after transport. Again, undamaged 20 fruits from each

replicate were selected and stored under room condition for 3 months (11.80C and 65% RH) to find out effect of

cushioning materials and variation in cultivars. Observations were made on physiological weight loss (PWL) and

spoilage after storage. Consumer’s acceptability was recorded by a panel of five judges on the basis of Hedonic

ratting (1 to 9 scales in which 9 stands for like extremely and 1 stands for dislike extremely) (Juyun Lim, 2011).

Firmness of fruit was measured with hand Penetrometer (FT-327, Italy) having plunger diameter of 11 mm. TSS

was recorded with hand Refractometer (Erma, Japan) calibrated at 20°C. Titratable acidity was determined by

titrating a 5 ml juice with 0.1 N NaOH using Phenolphthalein as an indicator (AOAC, 1990). Starch Iodine test

was carried out to determine the conversion pattern of starch into sugars (M. S. Reid et. al. 1982). Iodine solution

was prepared by dissolving 10 grams of iodine crystals and 25 grams of Potassium Iodide in 1 liter of water. Fruits

(N=10) were cut at right angles to the core, approximately halfway from stem to calyx end; Iodine solution was

applied to cut surface, drained away any excess and rated fruit staining after 2 minutes by using 0 to 6 scales (0

stands for full starch and 6 stands for free of starch). Observations were made for various physiochemical

characteristics and quality attributes. Data were analyzed statistically using GenStat software version 10.3 (VSN

International Ltd. Rothamsted Experimental Station, 2011).

59



Number of Bruised Fruits (%)

Number of bruised fruits after transportation was highly significant among apple cultivars with and without

cushioning materials. Maximum number of bruised fruits was observed on Golden delicious (20.3%) followed by

Royal delicious (17.3%) while minimum (13.3%) on Red delicious (Table 1). Likewise, maximum number of

bruised fruits (24.0%) was observed on bamboo basket without liner followed by plastic liner (19.0%) while

minimum (11.3%) on grass liner (Table 2). Interaction effect of cushioning materials with cultivars on brushing

was lowest on grass cushion followed by woolen shawl while highest on ordinary bamboo basket without cushion

(Table 3). Different cultivars of apple may have differential tolerance to bruising and compression damages based

on the nature of fruits such as skin thickness and texture. Apples bruise easily due to compression, impact and

vibration forces (Gautam, 2004). Compression damage may occur in lower depth of the basket as a result of load

of upper fruits, while impact damage may occur due to rough handling on the surface of fruit. Vibration forces

usually occur during transportation, are difficult to avoid. These damages could be minimized if common sense is

used for understanding of appropriate transportation system, packaging design and post harvest handling. This

study also found the highest bruising damage on Golden delicious cultivar similar to the study conducted by Timm

et. al. (1989). The highest bruising damage on bamboo basket without liner obtained from this study is also

supported by the finding by Gautam et. al. (2004) and Shrestha (1996).

Physiological Weight Loss (%)

Physiological Weight Loss (PWL) during storage was highly significant among apple cultivars (Table 1). Maximum

PWL was observed on Golden delicious (17.2%) followed by Royal delicious (14.3%) while minimum on Red

delicious (11.4%) after storage. Maximum PWL on Golden delicious might be due to thin peel (60μm) resulting

more water loss due to higher evapo-transpiration and respiration (I. Homutová et. al. 2004). Chaudhary et. al.

(2004) reported that apple fruits stored for six month under normal room condition observed lowest PWL in

paper cushion on wooden boxes (47.6%) while maximum on floor storage (88%). Water loss among apple

cultivars during storage varied resulting in significantly different weight loss even under similar storage conditions

(Khan et. al. 2005). Saleh et. al. (2009) reported that fruits of Golden delicious, and Gala stored at 90% RH and 0º

C for 180 days exhibited significant differences in physiological and anatomical parameters. Physical properties of

fruit may also have significant influence on storage performance because it influences water loss, gas exchange and

subsequent storage life (Meisami et. al. 2009). Differences in storage performance may be due to ethylene

production, responsible for the changes in texture, firmness and fruit softening (Khan et. al. 2005).

Spoilage (%)

Spoilage loss during storage was highly significant among apple cultivars with and without cushioning materials

(Table 1). After three months of storage, maximum spoilage was observed on Golden delicious (16.8%) followed

by Royal delicious (13.1%) while minimum (10.1%) on Red delicious. Likewise, maximum spoilage (24.3%) was

observed in fruits transported on ordinary bamboo basket without liner followed by plastic liner (14.4%) while

minimum (7.2%) on grass liner (Table 2). Interaction effect of cushioning materials with cultivar on spoilage

during storage was lowest on Grass cushion followed by woolen shawl while highest on ordinary bamboo basket

without cushion (Table 3). The scratches or minor wounds may not be apparently visible right after transportation

however it has significant influence during storage. The result indicates that different cultivars of apple have

differential tolerance to bruising and compression damages based on the nature of fruits such as skin thickness and

texture. Higher spoilage damage on Golden delicious might be due presence of thin peel thickness and soft

texture, probability of damage to internal tissue by compression, impact and vibration forces is high during


60

Vol. 11, 2016

transportation, resulting more spoilage loss during storage. Paudyal et. al. (2016) reported that maximum spoilage

(32.5%) was observed on control while minimum (17.5%) on paper wrapped apple fruits after 60 days of storage.

Sensory evaluation

At maturity stage, overall acceptability was higher on Royal delicious (8.8) followed by Red delicious (8.7) while

lower on Golden delicious (7.9). Red delicious maintained higher sensory score (4.8) while lower on Royal

delicious & Golden delicious (4.4) after storage (Fig. 1E). Retention of better firmness, aroma, taste and crispiness

was higher on Golden delicious after storage, however, showed unacceptable appearance due to more shriveled

texture. Mann et. al. (2005) reported that the sensory attributes that fruit texture include firmness, crispness,

mealiness and juiciness.

Fruit Firmness

At maturity stage, a significantly higher fruit firmness was recorded on Golden delicious (9.1kg/cm2) followed by

Red delicious (8.1kg/cm2) while lower (7.2kg/cm2) on Royal delicious (Fig. 2A). Firmness of apple fruits

decreased gradually after storage Highest firmness was recorded on Golden delicious (5.9kg/cm2) followed by Red

delicious (4.8kg/cm2) while lowest on Royal delicious (3.8kg/cm2). This evidence indicates that Golden delicious

still has retained turgidity of the cells as compared to other cultivars. The softening of flesh during storage could

be due to the degradation of soluble pectin by high activity of endo-poly-galacturonase enzyme in fruits (Mann et.

al. 1990). Apple fruit texture and flavor are important traits that guide consumer preference (Daillant- Spinnler et.

al. 1996). Apples that have crisp, juicy texture and prolong postharvest life are highly favored by the consumers

(Jaeger et. al. 1998).

Juice content (%)

At maturity stage, a slightly variation on juice content was noticed with respect to apple cultivars. Highest juice

content Golden delicious (73.9%) followed by Red delicious (70.1%) while lower (70.0%) on Royal delicious (Fig.

2B). Juice content of apples decreased after storage. After three months of storage, the juice content was 41% in

Golden delicious followed by Red delicious (35.0%) and lowest in Royal delicious (33.5%). The loss of juice

percent during storage was higher on Royal delicious (57.4%) followed by Red delicious (52.1%) while lower on

Golden delicious (44.5%). More juice loss percent on Royal delicious might be due to over ripening resulting

mealiness and softening of fruits.

Total Soluble Solids (0Brix)

At maturity stage, highest TSS was noticed in Golden delicious (12.7) followed by Royal delicious (10.7) and lowest

(10.5) in Red delicious (Fig. 2C). TSS of apples increased during storage. Highest TSS was noticed on Golden

delicious (14.6) followed by Royal delicious (14.3) and lowest (13.7) in Red delicious. TSS of apple is a major

quality parameter which is correlated with texture and composition. Increase in TSS could be attributed to

breakdown of starch into sugars or hydrolysis of cell wall polysaccharides (Weibel et. al. 2004).

Titrable Acidity (%)

At maturity stage, highest Titrable Acidity (TA) was recorded in Golden delicious (0.32%) followed by Red

delicious (0.24%) and lowest (0.23%) in Royal delicious (Fig. 2D). The level of TA decreased during storage.

Highest acidity was recorded on Golden delicious (0.23%) followed by Red delicious (0.19%) while lowest on

Royal delicious (0.17%) after storage. Reduction of TA during storage might be due to conversion of organic acid

into reducing sugars during ripening of fruit.

61


TSS:TA ratio

At maturity stage, highest TSS:TA ratio was recorded in Royal delicious (47.6%) followed by Red delicious (43.8%)

and lower (39.6%) in Golden delicious (Fig 2.E). The level of TSS:TA ratio increased after storage. Higher TSS:TA

ratio was recorded on Royal delicious (86.4) followed by Red delicious (73.8) while lower (63.6) on Golden

delicious. This might be due to conversion of acid into sugars. Excessive increase in TSS:TA ratio in Royal

delicious caused imbalance resulting poor sensory rating due to development of slight bitterness and mealiness.

Mahajan (1994) reported that many biochemical changes take place during storage which disturbs the TSS:TA ratio

ultimately rendering the fruit unacceptable.

Starch index

At maturity stage, higher starch index was recorded on Royal delicious (4.9) followed by Red delicious (4.3) while

lower (3.9) on Golden delicious (Fig. 2F). The level of starch gradually decreased after storage. Higher starch index

was recorded on Royal & Red delicious (6.0) while lower on Golden delicious (5.6). This might be due to

conversion of starch into reducing sugars during ripening of fruits. Saleh et. al. (2009) reported that fruits stored at

90% RH and 0ºC for 6 months exhibited significant differences in physiological and anatomical parameters may be

due to ethylene production, responsible for the changes in texture, firmness and fruit softening.

CONCLUSION

Among three cultivars evaluated, Red delicious cultivar fruits had minimum level of damage during transportation,

less physiological weight loss, lesser spoilage, prolonged shelf life and higher sensory rating during storage which

was followed by Royal delicious. Fruits of Golden delicious were less preferred by the consumers because of

sensitivity to damage and higher loss during transportation and storage. For transportation of fruits from field to

collection center in conical bamboo basket lining with grass or woolen shawl was found better due to reduced

scratching loss during transportation.

Cultivars Bruised fruits (%) Spoilage (%) PWL (%)

Red Delicious 13.3 10.1 11.4

Royal Delicious 17.3 13.1 14.3

Golden Delicious 20.3 16.8 17.2

F - Value *** *** ***

LSD (P< 0.05) 0.80 0.89 0.66

Table 1: Response of apple cultivars on average brushing and spoilage damage during transportation

and storage at HRS, Rajikot, Jumla for 3 consecutive years (2012-2014)

Cushioning materials Bruised fruits (%) Spoilage (%) PWL (%)

Sole (Control) 24.0 24.3 14.4

Shawl 13.7 9.1 14.3

Paper 18.0 11.8 14.4

Grass 11.3 7.2 14.2

Plastic 19.0 14.4 14.3

F - Value *** *** *

LSD (P< 0.05) 1.03 1.15 0.86

Table 2: Effect of cushioning materials on average brushing and spoilage damage of apple at HRS,

Rajikot, Jumla for 3 consecutive years (2012-2014)


62

Vol. 11, 2016

Bruised fruits (%) Spoilage (%)

Cultivars Cushioning materials

Sole Shawl Paper Grass Plastic Sole Shawl Paper Grass Plastic

Red delicious 18 11 14 10 16 19 6 9 5 12

Royal delicious 24 14 20 10 20 24 9 11 7 14

Golden delicious 30 17 20 13 22 30 12 15 10 17

F Value *** ***

LSD (P< 0.05) 1.8 2.0

CV (%) 7.5 10.5

Table 3: Interaction effect of cushioning materials with apple cultivars on brushing and spoilage damage

at HRS, Rajikot, Jumla for 3 consecutive years (2012-2014)

C

Figure 1: Hedonic ratting of apple cultivars after harvesting and storage for 90 days under normal room

condition (11.80C and 65% RH) at HRS, Rajikot, Jumla for two consecutive years (2013-2014)

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

Red Delicious Royal Delicious Golden Delicious

Ap

pe

ara

nce

(1

-9

)

Cultivars

15 Sep.

15 Dec.

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0


Ta

ste

(1

-9

)

Cultivars

15 Sep.

15 Dec.

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0


Cris

pin

ess (

1-9

)

Cultivars

15 Sep.

15 Dec.

8.7 8.87.9

4.8 4.4 4.4

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0


Ov

era

ll P

re

fe

re

nce

(1

-9

)

Cultivars

15 Sep.

15 Dec.

0.0

1.0

2.03.0

4.05.0

6.0

7.08.0

9.010.0


Aro

ma

(1

-9)

Cultivars

15 Sep.

15 Dec.

E

D

C

B

A

63


C

Figure 2: Quality parameters of apple cultivars after harvesting and storage for 90 days under normal

room condition (11.80C and 65% RH) at HRS, Rajikot, Jumla for Two consecutive years (2013-2014)

C

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0


Fir

mn

ess (

kg

/cm

2)

Cultivar

15 Sep.

15 Dec.

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40


TA

(%

)

Cultivar

15 Sep.

15 Dec.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80


Ju

ice

(%

)

Cultivars

15 Sep.

15 Dec.

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0


TS

S/

TA

Cultivar

15 Sep.

15 Dec.

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

14.0

16.0


TS

S (

Brix

)

Cultivar

15 Sep.

15 Dec.

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0


Sta

rch

in

de

x (

0-6

)

Cultivars

15 Sep.

15 Dec.

F

E

D

C

B

A


64

Vol. 11, 2016

REFERENCES

ABPSD (2014). Statistical Information on Nepalese Agriculture 2013/2014. Ministry of Agriculture Development,

Agri-Business Promotion and Statistics Division (ABPSD), Statistics Section, Singha Durbar, Kathmandu,

Nepal.

AOAC (1990). Official Methods of Analysis. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, INC. USA.

Chaudhary, B. N. Y. R. Pandey, B. B. Mahat and Y. P. Yadav (2004). Assessment of storage losses of apples under

normal room condition of Jumla. In: Proceeding of the Fourth National Workshop on Horticulture in

Kathmandu, 2-4. March, 2004. Nepal Agricultural Research Council, NARI/HRD, Khumaltar. pp. 26-28.

Daillant-Spinnler, B., MacFie, H. J. H., Beyts, P., & Hedderley, D. (1996). Relationship between perceived sensory

properties and major preference directions of 12 varieties of apples from the southern hemisphere. Food

Quality and Preference, 7 (2), 113–126.

Devic, E., S. Guyot., J. D. Daudin and C. Bonazzi (2010). Kinetics of polyphenol losses during soaking and drying

of cider apples. Food and Bioprocess Technology 3: 867-877.

Gautam, D. M., H. N. Bhandari, P. P. Subedi, M. D. Sharma, S. M. Shrestha, S. B. Gurung, G. R. Bhattarai, Y. D.

G C, S. Bhattrai, K. R. Aryal (2002). Participatory Rural Appraisal on post-harvest and marketing practices

of four major horticultural commodities- apple, citrus, tomato and cauliflower in Nepal. HARP Team,

IAAS, Chitwan, Nepal.

Gautam, D.M., P. Gautam and C.R. Gurung (2004). Postharvest handling and transportation of apples in the hills

of Nepal. Fourth National Conference on Science and Technology. NAST, Lalitpur, Nepal.

Gurung, H. P. (1998). Improvement of post-harvest handling of major horticultural crops. In: Proceeding of the

national seminar on fruit and vegetable marketing in Nepal held during September 15 and 16, 1998. FAO,

Kathmandu, Nepal.

I. Homutova & J. Blažek (2006). Differences in fruit skin thickness between selected apple cultivars assessed by

histological and sensory methods. Hort. Science (Prague), 33 (3):08-113.

Jaeger, S., Andani, Z., Wakeling, I. and Macfie, H. J. H. (1998). Consumer preferences for fresh and aged apples: A

cross-cultural comparison. Food Quality and Preference, 9(5):355–366.

Juyun Lim (2011). Hedonic scaling: A review of methods and theory. Food Quality and Preference 22: 733-747.

www.elsevier.com/locate/foodqual

Khan, M.A., and I. Ahmad. 2005. Morphological studies on physical changes in apple fruit after storage at room

temperature. Journal of Agriculture and Social Science. 1 (2): 102–104.

Mahajan (1994). Biochemical and enzymatic changes in apple during cold storage. India. J. of Food Sci. & Technol.

31:142-152.

Martinelli F, Busconi M, Camangi F, Fogher C, et al. (2008). Ancient Pomoideae (Malus domestica Borkh and

Pyrus communis L.) cultivars in “Appenino Toscano” (Tuscany, Italy): molecular (SSR) and morphological

characterization. Caryologia 61: 320-331.

Meisami E., S. Rafiee, A. Keyhani and A. Tabatabaeefar. 2009. Some physical properties of apple cv. ‘Golab’.

Agricultural Engineering International: Ejournal. Manuscript 11: 1124.

M. S. Reid, C. A. S. Padfield, C. B. Watkins and J. E. Harman (1982). Starch Iodine Pattern as a Maturity Index for

65


Granny Smith apples. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 25: 229-237.

Paudel Shankar, D D Dhakal, D M Gautam, R R Paudyal (2016). Assessment of production, postharvest handling

and packaging methods for transportation of apple in mustang district of Nepal. M. Sc. Thesis Submitted

to IAAS, TU Nepal.

Saleh, A.M., Ghafir, O. Suliman, Gadalla, N. Benissa, Murajei and M.F. El-Nady (2009). Physiological and

anatomical comparison between four different apple cultivars under cold storage conditions. Acta Biol. 53

(1):21-26.

Shrestha, K. B. (1996). Appropriate postharvest technology of fruits in Nepal. Uday Research and Development

Services Pvt. Ltd. Kathmandu, Nepal.

Subedi, G. D., D. M. Gautam, D. R. Baral, G. K C. and K. P. Paudyal (2012). Market assessment survey of apple

grown in Jumla. Nepal Horticulture Society, 9: 91-98.

Timm, E. J., G. K. Brown, and P. R. Armstrong. 1996. Apple damage in bulk bins during semi-trailer transport.

Applied Engineering in Agriculture 12(3): 369–377.

Weibel, F., F. Widmer and A. Husistein (2004). Comparison of production systems: integrated and organic apple

production. Part III: Inner quality: composition and sensory. Obst und Weinbau. 140: 10-13.


66

Vol. 11, 2016

ABSTRACT

Coffee sub-sector has potential to be an important exportable commodities from Nepal while viewing the production and export figure

from last twenty years. Despite such scope the coffee industry at present is threatened by some emerging pest and disease problem.

Further this industry is searching for suitable technologies related to organic production and post-harvest management. In this review

paper, research and development related issues are critically examined and way forwards have been presented.

INTRODUCTION

Coffee is relatively new crop in Nepal and mostly cultivated by small growers; however it holds enormous market

potential. Ministry of Agriculture Development (MoAD, 2014) reported that 229 ton coffee was produced in

Nepal from 1911 ha with more than 70% of this exported in the year 2013/14 with involvement of 27000 small

farmers (NTCDB, 2014). However, 67 tons coffee was imported in the same year. There is huge international and

internal demand of Nepali coffee and also enormous potentiality of area expansion. Currently, coffee is grown in

43 districts of Nepal out of which 23 districts are commercially producing coffee beans (NTCDB, 2014). Nepalese

coffee enters into international market as speciality coffee and there are 11 registered processing and marketing

facilities operated by co-operatives and independent merchants (KC et.al.2016).

Production and Marketing scenario

In Nepal, specialty coffee is cultivated in steep, marginal and shady land at the altitude range of 800-1600 m. Since

the production cost is found to be comparatively less and income per tree ranges from $ 1- 6 per annum (AED,

2014), it is considered an attractive cash crop for small and poor farmers of mid hills. There has been significant

increase in specialty coffee export from negligible amount in 1994/95 to Rs. 9,93,04000 in 2014/15 (Fig.1). This

may be attributed to the higher benefit cost ratio of coffee production (2.71) as reported by Pandit et al. (2015) and

2-3 times more yield than any cash crops (Dhakal, 2004). Further, a study by Sharma et. al. (2015) revealed that the

share of household income of Lalitpur and Glumi district coffee producers is about 55% from their farm activity

which implies that the food security will also be adversely affected if proper attention is not provided to manage

production and management problems of coffee sub-sector. This could be evident from the constant increase in

area under coffee production but decline in productivity over past 10 years (Fig. 1).

Production technologies

Nepalese coffee is considered organic by default and there are a few organic certified production pockets (Tiwari,

2010). Two certifying agencies are involved in the certification process at present (NASA and One Cert). The

industry is desperately seeking organic package of production. Though recommendation have been made on dose

of organic fertilizer by Horticulture Research Station (HRS), Pokhara, using FYM, poultry litter and mustard oil

cake (250 g/tree/year) (HRS, 2014), there are availability of various organic manure in market by a number of

source and these need to be tested for their reliability as well as suitability for coffee production. Beside these few

attempts, the nutrition management of coffee is largely ignored from both research and commercial perspective.

Coffee is shade loving plant and shade management is an important issue. In HRS, Pokhara coffee is grown under

ANALYSIS OF NEPALESE COFFEE INDUSTRY: PRODUCTION AND POST-HARVEST ISSUES

U.K Acharya1 and Umed Pun2 1Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Singhdurbar Plaza, Kathmandu, Nepal

2Himalayan Flora Enterprises Private Limited, Hattiban, Lalitpur

67


the shade of litchi while in Coffee Research Program, Gulmi the recently established coffee plantation are under

temporary shade of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan; an annual crop). There is program of studying effect of various

shade species on coffee production under way by the Coffee Research Program, Gulmi (CRP, 2015).

Government of Nepal has enacted National Coffee Policy (2003) to commercialize coffee farming with special

focus on human resource development and mechanization; however, it lacks policy on organic agriculture pocket

development and area expansion (Tiwari, 2010). Currently, coffee is cultivated in 43 districts of Nepal with ample

production only from 22 districts (NTCDB, 2014). There is scope of increasing area bringing community forest

under coffee cultivation. However, the Forest utilization policy is posing hindrance on use of perennial agriculture

crops under community forest. Further to improve area and other issues of coffee sub-sector, NTCDB has

recently tabled a ‘Five year’s coffee development Strategy (2016-20)’(goo.gl/tQ60Mv). However, there is

prediction of area reduction by 72% due to climate change by 2050 (Ranjitkar et al., 2016). Therefore, care should

be taken while expanding are under coffee cultivation as there is recommendation of growing coffee up to the

elevation of 1350m as opposed to present recommendation of up to 1100 m. Further, to expand area we need

cultivars suitable for diverse ecological zone within country. At present two genotypes of Arabica coffee are grown

Figure 1: Area and production of coffee (up) and import and export (down) figure in last twenty years.

The production figure is on right side of y-axis (Source: NTCDB and MoAD, 2015)


68

Vol. 11, 2016

in Nepal (Bourbon and Typica). Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC) has established two research farms

with coffee orchards: National Coffee Research Program, Gulmi and Horticulture Research Station, Pokhara

where 23 accessions of Arabica coffee are under evaluation stage. In early evaluation, genotypes ‘Tekisia’,

‘Selection-10’, ‘Yellow Cattura’ and locally collected one ‘Arghakhachi local’ are performing very well in western

mid-hills condition (KC et al. 2016). The promising cultivars will be on farmer’s field in near future. However, with

increasing threat of new diseases and persistent old insects like white stem borer, care should be given on

production of healthy sapling from certified nurseries as well as mother stock with strict quarantine in place while

moving sapling from infected area to clean one.

Pest and Disease problems

There are a number of pests and diseases which affect coffee plantation but only two severe and economically

important problem have been reviewed in this paper. There is threat of White Stem Borer (WSB), an important

pest and Coffee Leaf Rust (CLR) a disease posing hurdle on increasing productivity as well as growth of coffee

production area in Nepal.The present projection of loss caused by only coffee leaf rust is about 50% which could

reduce the present production by half and so the revenue (PACT, 2014). The compounding effect of loss will be

exorbitantly high if the loss from white stem borer and poor processing is added to the coffee subsector. Nepal

will lose its international market for organic and fair trade coffee within few years if the present threats of coffee

plantation are not mitigated with proper organic management practices. The traditional Coffee producing

countries in South America has been largely affected by these two problems resulting termination of Coffee

farming (Kubota, 2013). In many countries in that region, farmers have shifted to Cocao farming due to the above

issues in coffee which has also been attributed to global warming (Kubota, 2013).

White stem borer

Among 70 genotypes of coffee found worldwide, two genotypes Bourborn and Typica of Arabica genotypes are

commercially grown in Nepal (Bajracharyaet.al, 2015) and both are highly susceptible to coffee leaf rust and WSB

(SCC, ND; http://goo.gl/UuTVZ9). A study by Entomology Research Division found that coffee white stem

borer is number one threat causing yield loss up to 70% (ED, 2007). Further there are three species of this pest

attacking coffee namely ;Monochamus leuconotus, Xylotrechus quadripes, and Chlorophorus annulatus. Among

them X. quadripes is the most prevalent in Nepalese coffee plantation. A pest surveillance study by Khadge et. al.

(2005) and ED (2008) found 10-80% infestation in plantation of Syanja, Gulmi, Palpa and Kavrepalanchowk

districts. Despite such economic importance of this pest no scientific research has been carried out so far on

management of this perst. However, National Tea and Coffee Development Board (NTCDB) and Coffee

Promotion Program, HELVETAS (SDC) have tried sticky trap and sanitation measure to control it but outcome

of this action was not documented properly. There are reports of successful use of male sex pheromone against

M.leuconotus and X.quadripes but have not been tested in Nepalese context. With banning of chemical pesticides

namely, dieldrin and aldrin, considering persistence in environment and affecting non-targeted organisms, the

control of WSB is becoming harder even in in-organic production system. A study on development of

environmentally friendly, non-toxic, and cheap techniques to control WSB recommended following ways as

integrated control measure. The measures are: maintaining optimum shade, tracing infested plants before flight

periods each year, collar pruning (infested plants are collar pruned), uprooting (if the borer has entered the root),

and burning pruned material, removing loose scaly bark of the main stem and thick primaries using coconut husk

but avoiding damage to the stem, spraying /swabbing the main stem and thick primaries during flight period with

10% lime and a wetting agent (Rajbhandari. 2013, http://goo.gl/eWscUo). There is also recommendation of cross

-vane trap with NRI (Natural Research Institute) and PCI (Pest Control India) lure to attract female of X.

quadripes and kill inside a trap (CABI, 2008; http://goo.gl/pUz6ZB) from a WSB management study in India,

69


Zimbabwe and Malawi. A study on selection of natural enemies which prey on WSB has been carried out in India

(Sitharam, ND; http://goo.gl/RPn8j6) and found few promising insects and chasing this option could be another

alternative in managing WSB in organic coffee production of Nepal. The other critical parameter is soil moisture.

The Coffee farms needs to have irrigation support so that moisture is available not only for the plant growth but

also to keep the soil underneath the plant wet to reduce WSB infestation. Irrigation in conjunction with growing

Coffee under shade will largely help to avoid severe WSB infestation.

Coffee Leaf Rust

The Coffee Leaf rust, caused by Hemillia vastratix, outbreak in Nepal is recent development and has affected at

least four districts: Lalitpur, Syanja, Kavre and Kaski (http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/8623). There are 45 races

of CLR reported affecting Arabica coffee worldwide and only few of them have capability to create devastating

situation to coffee plantation of any country (Kubota, 2013). Unfortunately, systematic study on races affecting

Nepali coffee plantation is lacking. A study on this is very imperative to track down the disease and develop

integrated management approach of CLR in Nepalese context. American Phyto-pathological Society reported that

coffee being perennial crop harbours resting structure of pathogen during off-season in few infected leaves

(Arneson, 2000). In following year with onset of monsoon the inoculum serves as source of infection and

infection occurs with favourable humid and warm climate during and after monsoon. Any measure to reduce the

source of inoculum by spraying prophylactic spray of fungicide before onset of rainy season and after rainy season

could reduce the spread of this disease. However, Nepalese coffee produced as organic is bound to apply organic

measure to control this malady and there is no option for using chemical pesticide. The use of Copper Sulphate is

another better alternative when applied early and post-monsoon season, however; care should be given while it is

used as it is considered organic measure in one country but in-organic in another country. Further, there is report

of new bio pesticide called triadimefon effective in controlling CLR and which need to be tested in Nepali context.

Additionally, there are reports on effectiveness of bio control agents ((Bacillus lentimorbus/ B. cereus and

Verticilliumlecanii) which need to be isolated from farmers field, further multiplied in the lab and tested on

farmers field. Furthermore, there are few varieties (Catimore and Ketistic) which were found rust tolerant at HRS,

Malepatan and these need to be distributed to farmers. There are many reports on availability of tolerant varieties

in India (Chandragiri, Selection 5A and Selection 6), Brazil and other Central American countries (Batian 1-3,

Columbia and Castillo) (CRI, 2016 and Bazak, A, 2014) and introduction and screening of such varieties on disease

tolerance to Nepalese CLR races and adaptability into Nepali soil are one of effective measures available at present.

However, care should be taken not to import coffee resistant varieties from African countries as it will introduce

another malady of coffee, the coffee berry rust. Coffee farming under shade, type of shade trees need to be

studied with irrigation support will likely also help in reducing infection of CLR.

Post-harvest technologies

High volume of Nepalese coffee enters into overseas market as green beans and due to involvement of

intermediaries Nepalese farmers are not getting handsome price of the produce (Paudyal, 2012). In the contrary,

Nepal also import good amount of instant coffee (Fig. 1) as Nepalese prefer instant over filter coffee (Karki and

Regmi, 2016). In some instances, there arise issues of non-compliance of Nepalese coffee due to pesticide residue

(Koirala and Tamrakar, 2012) or other physical impurities due to lack of technical skill on post-harvest handling

and processing knowledge of coffee beans (KC et. al. 2016). The knowledge on good practice of handling cherries

to producing final product within the country could boost up the income to small holders and also add value to

the coffee subsector. Recently, Food Research Division under Nepal Agricultural Research Council has developed

good agriculture practice (GAP) manual for coffee production (FRD, 2015). Nepal Agricultural Research Council

still lacks a modest coffee quality testing laboratories and the research work on cup quality assessment of coffee


70

Vol. 11, 2016

grown under various agro ecological and production domain is still in an infant stage. The only quality testing

laboratory under Department of Food Testing and Quality Control Centre (DFTQC) at Babar Mahal, Kathmandu

is heavily loaded with quality checking of various commodities as this is the only government regulatory body to

check compliance of various products in the market.

Coffee pulper

Fresh cherry can be processed by two methods: dry and wet processing. In dry processing, whole berries are dried

to 10-12% moisture content and the dried skin, pulp and mucilage is hulled, which produces 'fuller' flavor coffee

(KC et al.2016). In wet processing, the outer layers (exocarp and mesocarp) are removed by pulping, fermenting

and then drying (from 50-55% to 12% moisture content), thus obtained green bean is regarded as higher quality

and more valued product due to the most desirable taste characteristics comprising of fine acidity, lighter body and

cleaner in cup. However, there is a chance of parchment and beans damage during pulping which may cause

serious quality loss as beans are more exposed to the environment and, therefore, prone to deterioration during

drying and storage.

To enhance the quality of coffee for international export, wet processing technology was recently introduced in

Nepal. Pulping is one of the most important steps of wet processing and hence, more than 350 coffee pulping

centres were established. Hence, different types of coffee pulpers viz. wooden roller, metallic roller, metal disc and

drum types were introduced in Nepal.

To cater the needs of small scale as well as medium scale pulping, Agriculture Engineering Division (AED),

NARC has designed, fabricated and tested different type of pulpers. A team of scientist, engineers & technicians of

this division, Genuine Engineering Workshop and General Mechanical Works contributed in fabrication of these

prototypes (AED, 2014). Three types of pulpers have been recommende by AED. Among them, Roller Type

Hand Operated (RTHP) Coffee Pulper is designed to address the problems of poor bean recovery from wooden

and metallic roller pulper for small pulping centers. This pulper is light in weight (25kg with stand) and cost

around NRs. 7500.00. After several modifications, the RTHP pulper was comparatively tested with the wooden

roller pulper in field condition. The operating capacity of this pulper is 60kg/ hr with pulping and cleaning

efficiency above 99 and 96 percent, respectively. Similarly, the broken parchment and parchment loss is less than

0.33 and 0.44 percent respectively. The capacity of the modified roller pulper is found to be increased by 76

percent than the wooden pulper. Similarly, pulping and cleaning efficiency is found to be increased by 2 and 6

percent in modified roller pulper. Further, the broken percentage of parchment and loss of parchment along with

pulp is found to be reduced by 62 and 75 percent in this type of pulper.

The second type of pulper, Cycle coffee pulper (CCP), is designed for medium scale pulping centers without

electricity facility. It consists of double roller connected by a coupling and is operated using pedal power. The

pulper is ergonomically designed so that it is easy to operate and the seat is adjustable as per operator’s body size &

preference. The capacity of the CCP is 100-120 kg per hour. The weight of the pulper is 50 kg per unit. This

pulper is equipped with high precision roller resulting better performance in terms of cleaning and pulping

efficiency. Compared with hand operated roller pulper, it requires 50 % less manpower for its operation. It is not

yet manufactured in commercial scale.

The third deign is electrically operated pulper, which is similar to that of hand operated roller pulper but it is with

robust frame fitted with an electric motor. The capacity of the electrically operated roller pulper is at the range of

120-150 kg/ hr. The pulping and cleaning efficiency is similar to that of hand operated roller pulper. The weight of

pulper with stand but without electric motor is 28 kg and its cost is NRs. 9000 per unit.

71


Coffee dryer

The harvesting time of coffee in Nepal coincides with winter season with less intense sun rays to dry coffee bean

naturally The tunnel type solar dryer is fabricated and tested to solve such issues. The capacity of such dryer of size

5 x 2.4 m is to dry 180 kg green stuff per cycle. It was tested for drying various horticultural products, where 2-3

days are sufficient for complete drying. This dryer need to be tested drying coffee bean. AED has also developed

large scale solar tunnel dryer and its performance was tested for different agro products such as mushroom,

squash, cumin, radish and potato at Khumaltar, Lalitpur condition. Further, it has been modified to lower the cost

of manufacturing and named as Low-Cost-Solar-Tunnel (LCST) dryer using locally available materials in rural

farmers such as Bamboo, wood, stone etc. and disseminated in various parts of mid-western hills and high hills to

dry different horticultural commodities. The LCST dryer also shows promising result for drying coffee seed from

experience of AED researcher and need to be verified on field condition.

CONCLUSION

Government research body (NARC) should focus on development of package of practice for organic coffee

production (for e.g. testing of shade trees for different growing areas and organic fertilizers and pesticides) and

strengthening its laboratory facilities for quality analysis of various constituents of coffee. Further, introduction

and evaluation of CLR and WSB resistant coffee cultivars from abroad should be initiated immediately to deal with

these two devastating diseases. While introducing new coffee cultivars, care should be taken not to introduce

cultivars from African countries as germplasms from these countries are prone to coffee berry rust and Nepal is till

now free from this disease. Coffee promotion body of GoN such as NTCDB and DADOs should focus on

production and promotion of healthy coffee saplings using certified pest free nurseries (for e.g. subsidy for coffee

plants should be only given where there is shade in proposed plantation area) Additionally, these nurseries should

be only allowed to produce plants of designated varieties recommended to specific areas. Further government

authorities should focus on quarantine regulation in place while transporting saplings from CLR and WSB infected

to clean areas. Irrigation programs needs to be launched for good and healthy growth of organic coffee production

pockets by concerned bodies. Private sector has to be stimulated to develop instant coffee processing facilities

within country to reduce the volume of coffee import and increase export quantities. Another alternative to this

could be training and establishment of small scale processing facilities near the production site which adds value to

local coffee sector.

REFERENCES

AED. 2014. Annual Report. Agricultural Engineering Division, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Lalitpur

Nepal.

Arneson, P.A. 2000. Coffee rust. The Plant Health Instructor. DOI: 10.1094/PHI-I-2000-0718-02 (Website

retrieved on 21th October 2016)

ARS, 2014. Annual Report, Agricultural Research Station, Malepatan, Pokhara. Nepal Agricultural

Research Council, Kaski, Nepal.

Bajracharya, A.S.R., Giri Y.P., Bista, S. and Mainali, R.P. 2015. Coffee promotion strategies focusing on white stem

borer management in Nepal. Entomology Division, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Khumaltar,

Lalitpur.

Bazak, A. 2014. In Colombia, coffee scientists urge: Viva la resistencia!. Science News, Sept 18, 2014 (http://

goo.gl/A7Cqu9, website retrieved on 21th October 2016)

CABI. 2008. Final Technical Report: Integrated coffee borer management in small holder coffee farmers in India,


72

Vol. 11, 2016

Malawi and Zimbabwe (http://goo.gl/pUz6ZB; website retrieved on 21th October 2016)

CRP. 2015. Annual Report (2014/15). Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Coffee Research Program, Baletaksar,

Gulmi.

CRI. 2016. Coffee Research Institute, Kenya Agriculture and Livestock Research Organization (http://

www.kalro.org/coffee/?q=node/25, website retrieved on 21th October 2016).

Dhakal, B.R. 2004. Coffee Manual. National Tea and Coffee Development Board, New Baneshwor, Kathmandu,

Nepal.

ED, 2007. A Review on White Stem Borer: Problems in coffee cultivation in the context of Nepal. Entomology

Division, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Khumaltar, Lalitpur.

ED. 2008. A review on white stem borer of coffee in Nepal. A report submitted to WINROCK International-

SIMI Nepal. Entomology Division, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal.

FRD. 2015. Annual Report (2014/15). Food Research Division, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Khumaltar,

Lalitpur, Nepal.

KC, R.B.; Shrestha, B.K. and Dhimal, S. 2016. Coffee as a niche crops for mid hills of Nepal, In: Six decades of

Horticulture Development in Nepal, NHS publication. pp. 186-209.

Karki, Y.K. and Regmi, P. 2016.Trends of coffee cultivation and consumers behaviour on coffee consumption in

Nepal. International Journal of Agriculture Innovation and Research. 6. pp1106-1109.

Khadge, B.R., Dahal, D.P., Giri, Y.P and Aral, S. 2004. Disease and insect pest of coffee in Nepal. A report

submitted to Coffee Promotion Project (CoPP), Helvitas-Nepal. National Agriculture Research Institute,

Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal.

Koirala, P and Tamrakar S.P. 2012. Common pest and pesticides used in high value crops: A case study on some

selected districts of Nepal. Journal of Food Science and Technology Nepal, 6 pp. 64-69

Kubota, L. 2013. Some insights on coffee Leaf Rust (Hemileiavastatrix). The speciality coffee chronicles (http://

goo.gl/tg5ijk ; website retrieved on 21th October 2016)

NTCDB. 2014. Coffee database in Nepal. National Tea and Coffee Development Board, Kathmandu, Nepal.

PACT. 2014. Value chain development for organic coffee. Project for Agriculture Commercialization and Trade.

Ministry of Agriculture Development, Government of Nepal. pp.8

Pandit, J., Dutta, J.P. Regmi P.P. and Shakya,S.M.2015. Production and marketing of organic coffee in Nepal.

Journal of Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences 33-34: pp.91-100.

Paudyal, K. 2012. Present status of coffee production in Nepal: Opportunity and Challenges, In: Proceeding of

Workshop on Coffee Sub Sector, PACT, Nepal

Rajbhandari, R.D. 2013. White stem borer management for coffee (Fact sheet for farmers), Plantwise.org. (http://

goo.gl/eWscUo; website retrieved on 21th October 2016)

Ranjitkar, S.Sukhaju, N.M., Merz, J., Kindt, R., Xu, J., Martin, M.A., Ali, M.,Zomer, R.J. 2016.Suitability analysis

and projected climate change impact on banana and coffee production zones in Nepal . PLOS One, pp 1-

18.

SSC. ND. Exploring Distinctive Characteristics & Virtues of Coffee Varieties: The Bourbon & Pacamara Case,

73


Salvador Coffee Council (http://goo.gl/UuTVZ9; website retrieved on 21th October 2016)

Sharma, G.P., Pandit, R., White B. and Polyakov, M. 2015. The income diversification strategies of smallholder

coffee producers in Nepal, Working Paper 1508, School of Agricultural and Resource Economics,

University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia.

Sitharam, H.G. ND. Presentation of launching workshop ICO-CFC-CABI Project: Integrated coffee borer

management in small holder coffee farmers in India, Malawi and Zimbabwe, Central Coffee Research

Institute, Karnataka, India. (http://goo.gl/RPn8j6; website retrieved on 21th October 2016

Tiwari, K.P. 2010. Agricultural policy review for coffee production in Nepal. The Journal of Agriculture and

Environment, 11.pp.138-147


74

Vol. 11, 2016

AGRICULTURAL INSURANCE ISSUES AND FACTORS AFFECTING ITS ADOPTION: A CASE OF BANANA INSURANCE IN NEPAL

Yuga N. Ghimire, Krishna P. Timsina, Ghanshyam Kandel, Deepa Devkota, Dinesh B. Thapamagar, Sudeep Gautam and Bimala Sharma

Socio-Economics and Agricultural Research Policy Division (SARPOD), Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal

ABSTRACT

Nepalese agriculture is highly dependent on weather conditions; therefore, managing the agricultural risk associated with the climate

change is becoming a key challenge to the country. This study was carried out in 2015 and 2016 to assess key issues, challenges and

practice of banana insurance in Chitwan district of the country. Census survey was applied for selecting the banana insurer households

whereas simple random sampling was employed for selecting non-insurer farmers for collecting the data. A sample size consisting of 60

households (30 insurers and 30 non-insurers) were used for this study. Collected data were further validated through the focused group

discussions and key informants survey. Windstorms was found as the major risk associated with banana production. Besides insurance,

banana farmers used different indigenous risk management strategies such as staking, thinning, adjustment in planting time to avoid

peak storm time, use of wind break plantation, earthing-up and use of wind resistant varieties. Lack of land entitlement of tenant

farmers, inadequate monitoring and the presence of moral hazards in both supply and demand side were important issues to be resolved.

The econometric analysis revealed that farmers awareness on claim settlement procedure (p=0.007), and group based approach of

insurance intervention (p=0.033) were significantly contributing to the adoption of the insurance scheme. Therefore, improvement of

current claim settlement procedure including awareness raising through farmers institutions are more likely to enhance adoption of

existing agriculture insurance schemes among banana farmers.

Key words: climate change, agricultural risk, farmers group, insurance, awareness

BACKGROUND

An agricultural system in Nepal is highly vulnerable to any change in climate (GoN, 2004). Short-duration extreme

weather events (such as hail, windstorm, or heavy frost) can cause devastating direct damage to crops in the fields

(Bryla-Tressler, 2011). Droughts, floods, storms, high humidity, high temperature and inundation are major threats

to agriculture. Given the low development of the country with subsistence based, rain-fed dominant farming

system, complex topography, and higher vulnerability of agriculture to climate change, managing agricultural risk

associated with climate change has become a major challenge and priority for the country (Singh, 2011; MoE,

2010; World Bank, 2009).

Agricultural insurance is widely recognized as one of the key options to manage such climate and other risks to

farm level production, infrastructure and income (Smit and Skinner, 2002; Warner et. al., 2013). Agricultural

insurance schemes help to reduce the risks and vulnerabilities of poor rural smallholders and open their access to a

range of financial services for improving their livelihoods. Crop insurance helps farmers to remain creditworthy

even in years where there occur loss of major crop and to avoid falling into the poverty trap. More importantly, it

may enable them to pursue riskier, but potentially much more profitable farming activities which usually center on

the use of credit to purchase new production enhancing technology (IFAD & WFP, 2010; Ghimire 2013).

Agriculture and livestock insurance have gained importance in recent years in Nepal due to abrupt changes in

climatic conditions resulting in large scale damage to the production system. The Ministry of Agricultural

Development introduced a subsidy policy on the premium paid for crop and livestock insurance in June 2013. The

government has made remarkable investment in the form of subsidy support on insurance premium paid by the

farmers which was 50 percent in 2013/14 and later increased to 75 percent since 2014/15, and human resources

75


for facilitation of agricultural insurance services to the farmers (Ghimire et al., 2016a). The current agricultural

insurance scheme covers many agricultural commodities such as paddy, vegetables, fruits, potato, livestock and

poultry and many risks including climate change induced events, (flood, drought, landslide, windstorm, hail, snow,

frost), disease, pests, fire, lightning, earthquake, and other emergency accidents that are likely to cause damage on

agricultural production.

The Government of Nepal (through the Insurance Board) in January 2013 introduced crop and livestock insurance

directives. The directive has made it mandatory to non-life insurance companies to offer agricultural insurance.

Insurance companies are also encouraged to submit their schemes for approval by the Insurance Board. Due to

this provision, seventeen out of out of 19 non-life insurance companies have offered agricultural insurance services

(Ghimire et al., 2016a). Apart from this, farmers’ Cooperatives and groups, and Credit Security program of the

Agricultural Development Bank have also been implementing agricultural insurance schemes in various parts of

the country with different modalities. Prior to these recent initiatives on agricultural insurance, insurance schemes

particularly in livestock were also in operation as pilot projects in Nepal through the Small Farmer Cooperative

Limited (SFCL) and the Community Livestock Development Programme (CLDP), under the technical and

financial assistance of international development agencies.

Although agricultural insurance in Nepal came into effect formally since last few years, its scaling-up across regions

and crops has been a challenge. The crop insurance program has been spreading slowly. Government of Nepal

(GoN) has also made insurance of crops mandatory to provide grant in government support projects and

programs. youth self-employment program. It is getting popular in different crops such as mushroom, cabbage,

tomato, cauliflower, cucumber, banana, potato and rice. However, the coverage is still low. Banana farming is

spreading in recent years in Nepal. It is one of the highly susceptible crop in Nepal to extreme environmental

hazards mainly windstorm. Other risk factors for the crop include disease and pests. To prevent such losses,

banana farmers are more attracted to insurance compared to other crop farmers. Therefore, banana insurance

provides ideal case for in-depth understanding of underlying issues, limiting factors and existing practices of risk

management strategies at the farm level. The output of the study will be helpful to devise appropriate agricultural

insurance strategies and governance system helpful for its scaling-up.

METHODOLOGY

Banana insurance in Chitwan district of the country has been taken purposively for this study as the district is one

of the main banana growing areas. The study employed combination of different tools/methods which includes

the Desk Review, Focus Group Discussion (FGD), Household Survey and Stakeholder’s Panel Workshop with

experts relevant to agricultural insurance program implementation in Nepal. The stakeholder interaction workshop

was carried out with the participation of researchers, extension officials, insurance companies, cooperatives and

farmers engaged in insurance schemes as well as farmers who were not involved in agricultural insurance. The

main objective of stakeholder workshop was to elicit expert knowledge and experiences of different stakeholders

on implementation of agricultural insurance and validate the field empirical findings.

Similarly, focused group discussion was conducted involving 12 farmers (8 insurers and 4 non insurers) with the

help of checklist to assess their views on agriculture insurance. A household level survey was conducted to study

farmers’ response to insurance schemes, indigenous risk minimizing tools/techniques/methods and determine

factors affecting adoption of agricultural insurance among banana growers. There were many banana growers in

Chitwan, but agricultural insurance was adopted by only 30 farmers at the time of this survey. Therefore, all the

adopters were taken, along with 30 non insurer banana growing households randomly selected from the adjoining

village which resulted in the sample of 60 growers. The data collected were analyzed using qualitative and empirical


76

Vol. 11, 2016

methods.

Econometric analysis: Binary Logistic Regression

For binary dependent variable, a logistic regression has been used (Gujarati, 2004). In order to estimate the

probability of a farmer having Insurance in banana crop, a logistic regression was used. It is a multivariate

statistical tool with the help of which dichotomous dependent variables can be predicted from the dependent

variables (Agresti and Finlay, 1986; Gujarati, 1999). It is based on the cumulative logistic probability function.

For a single independent variable Xi, the probability Pi of an event occurring can be written as:

Pi = (Y= i/Xi) = b0 + b1X1 + m ……….. (i)

Pi = 1/1+ e- (b0 + b1X1) …………………. (ii)

Where, b0 and b1 are coefficients to be estimated from the data, Xi is independent variable, Y is dependent

variable, and e is the base of the natural logarithms.

Equation (ii) denotes the cumulative logistic distribution function for a single variable. If there is more than one

independent variable the model could be written as

Pi = 1/(1+ e-Zi)…………………(iii)

Where, Zi is the linear combination of independent variables

Zi = b0 + b1 X1 + b2X2+. ……………+ bnXn …………(iv)

Here the equation (iii) represents what is known as the cumulative logistic distribution function for n number of

independent variables. If Pi is the probability of an event occurring, then the probability of an event not occurring

is given by 1-Pi. Therefore,

1-Pi = 1/(1+ eZi) …………….(v)

Therefore we can write,

Pi/(1-Pi) = (1+eZi)/(1+e-Zi) = eZi …………………..(vi)

If we take the natural log of the odds equation (vi), the following result is obtained which can be written as:

Li = ln (Pi/(1-Pi)) = Zi …………….. (vii)

= b1+b2 Xi

where L is the log of the odds ratio or logit.

The logistic regression model was run considering the dependent variable as adoption of agriculture insurance in

Banana crop (‘Yes’ or ‘No’) against various explanatory variables to predict the probability of adoption on

Agriculture Insurance. Here the Adoption of Agriculture Insurance in Banana crop was the dichotomous

dependent variable. The explanatory variables tested in the model were perceived claim settlement procedure (1

easy, 2 difficult); Knowledge of Insurance from Group/Cooperative (1 for yes, 0 otherwise); Banana cultivated

Area (Kattha); Total land (Kattha); education of the household head (1 for higher secondary and above, 0

otherwise); Economically active population (number); Knowledge about subsidy given on insurance premium by

government (1 for yes, 0 otherwise).

77



Current status of banana insurance in Chitwan

Banana is being grown since time immemorial in home yards for home consumption purpose (Gautam and

Dhakal, 1994). Now farmers started to cultivate it in commercial scale. According to Banana Farms Promotion

and Development Center, the Chitwan district is the leading bananas producing district earning NRs 150 million

before 2010/11. Banana production in the district increased by a whopping 566 percent over the past decade

(Hamal, 2014). In the year 2014/15, 1320 hectare of land has been used in commercial banana farming by 525

households in the district. During the survey period, only 30 farmers were involved in Agricultural insurance

program covering 79 hectares of land. This number now has increased to 180 with value of NRs 14.5 crore (NRs

14.5 million) in the year 2016. Prudential Insurance, Nepal Insurance and Shikhar Insurance were the major

insurance providers in the district covering 60%, 35% and 5% of insurance market (Personal Communication with

Mr. Bishnu Hari Pant, Chairman of Banana Producers Association of Chitwan district, August 2016).

Major issues associated with implementation of agricultural insurance scheme

Banana farming was exposed to various risks in Chitwan district. Windstorms was reported as the major risk by

more than 90 percent of the farmers both insurer and non-insurer in Chitwan district. Disease and insects rank

second and third important sources of risk respectively (Figure 1). Word Bank (2009) reported heavy losses of

banana due to wind in Chitwan and Nawalparasai district of Nepal. Majority of the banana growers in the study

area had also experienced huge crop losses from the windstorms in the past and were more attracted towards

current agricultural insurance schemes for preventing such losses. However, there was a problem for having

insurance on crops grown in the leased land because insurance company demands land entitlement certificate

(Lalpurja). Having inability to provide such documents, many farmers were not able to insure the crops despite

their willingness. Similarly, the provisions like a mandatory requirement of a recommendation from VDC secretary

for making claims on the losses is tedious to the farmers. Cases of incomplete claim settlements were found which

affected farmers’ decision to ensure their crops (Ghimire et al., 2016b). As a rational behavior, the farmers having

newly established banana orchard (one to two years old) were not interested for purchasing insurance policy due to

their perceived low minimum crop losses during the early years of crop plantation as compared to later productive

stages.

Similarly, a standard plant density of 1400 plant per bigha was fixed in the study area in order to find the number

of plant loss. Farmers generally tried to plant more dense and claim for number of damaged plants maintaining the

standard density. Insurance companies had also the tendency of reporting less number of damaged plants

(Ghimire et al., 2016b). Thus moral hazards were observed form both sides. Therefore, there is a need of

developing controlling mechanism for such moral hazards. The current insurance scheme for crops is based on

cost of crop production, which is mostly developed through DADO and with limited or no participation of

farmers and insurance companies. The cost of production calculated during 2012/13 was still in operation though

there was occurrence of many changes in price of the inputs, land rent and other cost items. Therefore, farmers

expressed a need of updating it with participation of the concerned stakeholders (farmers, insurance companies,

DADO and technical experts). Similarly, provision requiring land owner certificates for crop insurance also needs

to be revised so that crops grown in the leased land could also be insured.


78

Vol. 11, 2016

Risk reduction and management strategies adopted by farmers in banana

Farmers in the study area were using different indigenous techniques for risk minimization from the climatic

events such as growing of healthy saplings, variety change (shift to Malbhog from Green Banana eg. Harisal,

JhapaliHariyo to William hybrid, G-9), use of bamboo staking (Teka), row planting to protect from wind, clean

cultivation (removal of dead leaves, unwanted suckers), use of pesticides and insecticides and planting time

adjustment to avoid storms (Ghimire et al., 2016b). Adoption of banana insurance was slowly gaining pace in the

study area for minimizing the risks in banana farming. Besides insurance, use of pesticides/insecticides and staking

were the important tools used for risk minimization by the farmers. The practices like adoption of earthing-up in

banana crop were found higher in non-insurer farmers (43.34 percent) as compared to insurer farmers (23.3

percent) to protect bananas from the risk of wind. However, adoption of orchard management was higher in

insures as compared to non-insurers. Similarly, variety change was one of the options for climatic risk

minimization and adopted by more than 50 percent of both insurer and non-insurer farmers. Farmers were slowly

replacing the green variety with malbhog variety (eg. Harisal, Jhapali Hariyo to William hybrid, G-9) because of

more susceptibility of the green varieties to wind. Similarly the insured farmers were found planting the wind

breaks (perennial trees) and adjusting the planting time to escape fruiting time from March-April (Falgun/Chaitra)

at which there is high chances of windstrom occurrence leading to heavy damage to banana crop (Table 1). Higher

percentage of insured farmers were found having better knowledge and access to technology than non-insurer

farmers. Therefore, these farmers were found practicing orchard management, planting wind breaks and adjusting

planting times as compared non-insurers.

Sources of information

Table 2 shows the sources of information for the farmers about the agricultural insurance. Among different

sources available, farmers group (banana production groups) was found to be the major source of information for

majority (96.7 percent) of the insurer farmers and non-insurer (63.3 percent) farmers. District Agriculture

Development Office (DADO) remained as another major source of information for insurer farmers, whereas, for

non-insurer farmers, radio, TV were major source than DADO for the agriculture insurance related information.

This may be due to regular contact of insurer farmers with the DADO office and its staff. Only 20 percent of the

total farmers obtained agricultural insurance related information through the insurance agents indicating a need of

active involvement of such agents further for information dissemination.

Figure 1: Type of risks to banana farmers in Chitwan district

(Source: Field survey, 2015)

79


Factor affecting adoption of Agriculture insurance in Banana

Logistic regression model was used to analyze the effect of different explanatory variables on adoption of

agricultural insurance in banana farming. Adoption of Agriculture Insurance in Banana crop was taken as the

dichotomous dependent variable. The explanatory variables tested in the model were perceived claim settlement

procedure (1 for easy, 2 for difficult); Knowledge of insurance from Group/Cooperative (1 for yes, 0 otherwise);

banana cultivated area (Kattha); Total land (Kattha); education of the household head (1 for higher secondary and

above, 0 otherwise); Economically active population (number); Knowledge about subsidy given on insurance

premium by government (1 for yes, 0 otherwise). R Square value shows about 46% variance covered by this

model. Among the different explanatory variables, farmers knowledge on claim settlement procedure (p=0.007),

and insurance scheme from groups and cooperative (p=0.033) were found to be the key factors for significantly

contributing the adoption of the insurance. The odds ratio indicated that it is about 94 percent likely to have

reduced adoption of agriculture insurance in banana if the farmers do not get information from organized

institutions such as group and cooperatives compared to those who were getting information from such

institutions. Similarly, it is more than 700 percent likely to have increased adoption of agricultural insurance in

Banana if farmers feel easier claim settlement procedure and build their faith on insurance company compared

farmers those who were finding difficulties in claim settlement procedure.

Different risk reduction strategies

Banana insurer(n=30) Banana non-insurer(n=30)

Frequency Percentages Frequency Percentages

Crop insurance 30 100 0 0

Use of pesticides/insectides 30 100 27 90

Staking 21 70 20 66.67

Orchard management 26 86.7 12 40

Use of compost/fertilizers 9 30 15 50

Earthing-up 7 23.3 13 43.34

Variety change 18 60 15 50

Planting wind breaks(Perennials trees) 5

16.7 NA NA

Adjustment in planting times 11 36.7 NA NA

Table 1: Different risk reduction strategies used

Table 2: Different sources of information on insurance

Sources of information for crop insurance


Frequency Percentages Frequency Percentages

Insurance agents 6 20 3 10

DADO 12 40 9 30

Newspaper 7 23.3 8 26.67

Radio 6 20 10 33.33

TV 6 20 12 40

Farmers group 29 96.7 19 63.34




80

Vol. 11, 2016

Suggestion for improving the agricultural insurance

Various suggestions were received from both banana insurer and non-insurer farmers for improving the current

agricultural insurance scheme (Table 3). More than 70 percent farmers (both insurer and non-insurer) suggested a

need of making claim settlement procedure easy and quick than the existing. The result is also correlated with the

study of Abdulmalik et al. (2013) in Nigeria which showed that the major challenge faced by farmers in the course

of their participation in agricultural insurance was delay in indemnity payment. Only 20 percent insurer farmers

suggested increasing the indemnity level, which shows that farmers were satisfied with the current level of

indemnity. About 53 percent of insurer farmers and 46.67 per cent of non -insurer farmers suggested a need of

organizing awareness raising programs on agricultural insurance to the farmers. About 34 percent of both insurer

and non-insurer suggested for making documentation process easy because farmers feel tedious to fulfill all the

documentation process in the existing scheme. Among insurers about 34 percent farmers suggested to design

insurance products so that it covers more risk under the scheme.

Note: *** Significant at 0.01, and ** significant at 0.05 ; S.E= Standard Errors

Table 3: Binary Logistic regression estimates predicting the effect of different explanatory variables on

adoption of insurance scheme in Banana

Explanatory Variables Odds Ratio

S.E P-value

Perceived claim settlement procedure (1 easy, 2 difficulties) 8.017 .776 .007***

Knowledge of Insurance from Group/Cooperative (If yes 1, 0 otherwise)

.058 1.335 .033**

Banana cultivated Area (Kattha) 1.001 .002 .623

Total land (Kattha) 1.003 .012 .794

Education of the household head ( 1 higher secondary and above, 0 otherwise)

1.054 .839 .950

Economically active population (no) 1.306 .291 .359

Knowledge about subsidy given to premium by government (if yes 1, 0 otherwise)

.000 10541 .998

Constant .186 1.442 .244

Log likelihood 46.26

Cox & Snell R Square .459

Different suggestion given


Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Reduce premium 4 13.3 8 26.67

Quick settlement of the claims 26 86.7 22 73.33

Insurance service at door step 12 40 15 50

Raise the indemnity level 6 20 3 10

Awareness program should be launched 16 53.3 14 46.67

Should improve the implementation mechanism 13 43.3 5 16.67

Documentation process should be easy 10 33.3 10 33.34

Cover more risk under schemes 10 33.3 NA NA

Table 4: Suggestion for improving the agricultural insurance scheme


81


CONCLUSION

Agricultural insurance is being practiced in Nepal largely through the governmental subsidy support and in

partnership with the private sector (insurance companies) since last few years. Agricultural insurance being recently

introduced, is growing but in a slow pace in Nepal. Banana farmers in Chitwan district are also increasingly

attracted and adopting current insurance schemes to prevent the huge crop losses from the various risks. More

than 90 percent farmer's major risk was found to be wind storms that was more likely to cause heavy damage to

their crops during the month of Feb/Mar-June/July. Disease and pest are also other important risks after

windstorm. Farmer's network was the major information source for banana insurance for the farmers. Banana

Entrepreneur Association was the key institution of farmer playing key role in organizing farmers for banana

farming and also involving them in crop insurance schemes. Farmer's knowledge on claim settlement procedure

and insurance schemes were found to be the key factors for significantly contributing the adoption of the

insurance scheme in banana crop. Therefore, it is suggested to develop easy and quick claim settlement procedures

and implement awareness raising programs through institutional sources for enhancing making more interactive

sharing on agricultural insurance and increasing its adoption among the farmers in Nepal. Some of the issues such

as requirement of land entitlement certificate for crop insurance; and, slow and incomplete (in some cases) claim

settlements for the crop losses were found to be the key factors for having limited participation of farmers on

banana insurance and it needs to be improved for ensuring more participation of farmers on existing insurance

scheme. Furthermore, it is found that newly established banana orchard (one to two years old) were not interested

for purchasing insurance policy due to their belief that there would be minimum crop losses during the early years

of crop plantation as compared to later productive years. However this factor was not considered due to

unavailability of household level data during econometric analysis, so it is suggested to include this factor in future

study. The current insurance schemes for crops are based on its cost of production which was not updated since

its implementation. Therefore, there is a need of updating the cost of crop production calculation with changing

time and participation of the concerned stakeholders.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We highly acknowledge World Bank for the financial support for this research through the project “Pilot Program

for Climate Resilience (PPCR)-Component D: Agricultural Management Information System”. We are also

grateful to the Project Director, Mr. Shib Nandan Prasad Sah and NARC Component Coordinator, Dr. Ananda

Kumar Gautam for their support in program planning. Researchers in Socioeconomics and Agricultural Research

Policy (SARPOD) under Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) are also thankful for their active

participation in collecting, compiling and processing information. The contents are the responsibility of the

authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank and Nepal Agricultural Research Council

(NARC).

REFERENCES

Abdulmalik R.O., Oyinbo, O. and Sami, R.A. 2013. Determinants of Crop Farmers Participation in Agricultural

Insurance in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, Nigeria. Greener Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 3

(1):021-026, http://dx.doi.org/10.15580/GJAS.2013.1.111212255

Agresti, A., and Finlay, B. 1986.Statistical Methods for the Social Sciences (Second Edition).Dallen Publishing

Company, San Francisco. pp. 481-503.

Bryla-Tressler, D. 2011. Weather index insurance for agriculture: Guidance for development

practitioners. Agriculture and Rural Development Discussion Paper, 50.


82

Vol. 11, 2016

Gauchan, D. 2014. Importance of Agricultural Insurance in Agricultural Development in Nepal: Proposed

Research Activities and Issues. A Paper presented in Regional Stakeholder Consultation Meeting on

“Agriculture Insurance and Agro-Advisory Bulletin (PPCR/BRCH)”, July 6, 2014, NWRP, Bhairahawa.

Nepal.

Gautam, D. M. and D. D. Dhakal. 1994. Fruit and industrial crops (Nepali). Pabitra tatha Rupa Publication,

Chitwan. Pp. 324

Ghimire, R. 2013. Crops and Livestock Insurance Practices in Nepal. Journal of Business and Social Sciences, 1(1).

Ghimire, Y.N., Timsina, K.P., and Gauchan, D. 2016a. Risk Management in Agriculture: Global Experience and

Lessons for Nepal. Government of Nepal, Nepal Agricultural research Council (NARC), Socioeconomics

and Agricultural Policy Research Division, Lalitpur, Nepal.

Ghimire, Y.N., Timsina, K.P., and Gauchan, D. 2016b. Agricultural Insurance in Nepal: Case of Banana Insurance

and Livestock Insurance. Government of Nepal, Nepal Agricultural research Council (NARC),

Socioeconomics and Agricultural Policy Research Division, Lalitpur, Nepal.

GoN. 2004. Initial national communication to the Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework

Convention on climate change. Ministry of Population and Environment, Government of Nepal.

Gujarati, D. 1999. Essentials of Econometrics (Second Edition).Irwin/McGraw-Hill.A Division of the McGraw-

Hill Companies.pp. 449.

Gujarati, D.N. 2004. Basic Econometrics (Fourth Edition). Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7

West Patel Nagar, New Delhi. pp. 559 – 605.

Hamal, C. 2014. Chitwan leads the way in agriculture development. http://www.myrepublica.com/portal/

index.php?action=news_details&news_id=88394#sthash.5KRQFyL2.dpuf

Kumar, D. B. R. 2013. Crop Insurance–Tribulations and Prospects of Farmers with Reference to Nuzvid, Krishna

District. International Journal of Marketing, Financial Services & Management Research.

Singh, F. 2011. Country report: Nepal. Workshop on climate change and its impact on agriculture. Seoul, Republic

of Korea, 13-16 December 2011.

Smit, B. and M.W. Skinner. 2002. Adaptation options in agriculture to climate change: A typology. Mitigation and

adaptation strategies for global change 7: 85–114, 2002.

Warner, K., Yuzva, K., Zissener, M., Gille, S., Voss, J. and Wanczeck, S. 2013. Innovative insurance solutions for

climate change: How to integrate climate risk insurance into a comprehensive climate risk management

approach. Report No. 12. Bonn: United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human Security

(UNU-EHS).

World Bank. (2009). Feasibility study for agricultural insurance in Nepal. Finance and Private Sector Development

Unit, South Asia Region Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery.

83


nepalese horticulture (1) (1).pdfnepalese horticulture is the outcome of researchers, reviews,...

Documents