neal emerald

7/27/2019 Neal Emerald

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Consumerism, Nature, and the Human Spirit

By

Neal D. Emera ld

A major paper submi t t ed to the f acu l ty of the Vi rg in ia Poly technic Ins t i tu teand Sta te Univer s i ty in par t i a l fu l f i l lment of the r equi rements for the

degr ee o f

Mas ter of Natura l Resources

David L .Trauger , Chai rmanGera ld H. CrossBre t t A. Wr ight

Steve L . McMul l in

Date of Defense : November 2 , 2004Fal l s Church , Vi rg in ia

Keywords : Consumer i sm, Sus ta inabi l i ty , Human Spi r i t , Spi r i tua l i ty , Se l f -Actua l i za t ion


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Consumeri sm, Nature , and the Human Spir i t

By

Neal D. Emera ld

ABSTRACT

Adver t i s ing and market ing have shaped the behavior and psychologica l

prof i l e of the Amer ican con sumer . Consumer i sm i s a t the c rux of a number

of impor tant i s sues a f fec t ing the na t ion and the wor ld c rea t ion and

maintenance of the f a l se se l f , sp i r i tua l empt iness , de tachment f rom nature ,

and sus ta inabi l i ty . Cur rent l eve l s of consumpt ion are ecologica l ly

des t ruc t ive and unsus ta inable . Unders t anding the psychologica l and

spi r i tua l e f f ec t s of consumer i sm may be im por tant to r ever se the t r end of

increas ing consumpt ion . Oppor tuni t i es for ecosophica l development a re

key to promot ing the behaviora l changes necessary to r ees tabl i sh our

connect ion wi th na ture and address the problems of consumer i sm and

sus ta inabi l i ty .

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT i i

TABLE OF CONTENTS i i i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

INTRODUCTION 1

CONSUMERISM 4His tor i ca l Background of Market ing and Adver t i s ing 4

Adver t i s ing: Crea t ing Consumer i sm 6Adver t i s ing and Consumer i sm in the Modern Era 14Ef fec t s of Consumer i sm 19Spi r i tua l i ty and Sus ta inabi l i ty 24

SPIRITUAL VALUES 27Recrea t ion and Ecosophy 29Car ing For Spi r i tua l Values 34

BEHAVIORAL CHANGE 36

DISCUSSION 37

CONCLUSION 47

REFERENCES 49

VITA 58

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I r ecognize the fo l lowing indiv idual s who provided inspi ra t ion , guidance ,

encouragement , and as s i s t ance in the development of my paper : David L .

Trauger , Fred er i ck Deneke , Gera ld H. Cross , Bre t t A. Wr ight , S teve L .

McMul l in , Herber t Schroeder , J ay McDanie l , and James L . McMahan, J r .

iv


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INTRODUCTION

With the r i se of consumer i sm, our g lobal soc ie ty h as become

increas ingly focused on consuming goods and serv ices , as a means to f ee l

good about our se lves and to dr ive the economies of the wor ld (McKibben,

1989; Suzuki , 1997; ) . Consumer i sm af fec t s the indiv idual in a number of

ways . Consumer i sm af fec t s the psychologica l hea l th of the indiv idual

through eros ion of the t ru e se l f and replac ing i t wi th a f a l se se l f , and the

spi r i tua l hea l th of the indiv idual by eroding our sp i r i tua l connect ions wi th

nature and replac ing i t wi th consumpt ion of goods and serv ices .

The problem of con sumer i sm ra i ses a number of ques t ions . How do

the concept s of consumer i sm and narc i s s i sm af fec t humans? Speci f i ca l ly ,

how do these con cept s cont r ibute to a de tachment f rom nature an d loss of

sp i r i tua l r enewal? Ul t imate ly what a re the r ami f i ca t ions for humans

psychologica l ly , ecologica l ly , and sp i r i tua l ly? Consumer i sm i s

ecologica l ly unsus ta inable and threa tens to des t roy the benef i c i a l

connect ion be tween na ture and the human sp i r i t (Ber ry , 1995; Suzuki ,

1997; McDanie l , 2000) .

The connect ions be tween na ture and the human sp i r i t a re not wel l

under s tood (Mannel l , 1996; Dr iver & Azjen , 1996) . Researcher s a re only

j u s t begi nn ing t o examine t hi s void in ou r knowledge base . Socio log i s t s,

psychologi s t s , and anthropologi s t s a re s t a r t ing to conduct much needed

research in an a t t empt to de termine how these concept s inf luence human

behavior and the impl ica t ions for the eco- spi r i tua l hea l th of soc ie ty


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(Mannel l , 1996 ; Dr iver & Azjen , 1996) . As the t r end cont inues wi th more

and more people moving to urban areas (Brown, 2001, p . 189) , the

potent i a l for de tachment f rom nature and subsequent ly , a growing l ack of

ecologica l awareness threa tens our psychologica l wel l be ing (Or r , 1994, p .

131-151) . David Suzuki (1997) comments on th i s : Ecopsychologi s t s a rgue

tha t the damage we do to o ur se lves and our sur rounding s i s caused by our

separa t ion f rom nature (p . 179) .

In order to more c lose ly def ine the i s sue , i t i s impor tant to c l e ar ly

def ine consum er i sm and narc i s s i sm. Consumer i sm i s def ined as : The

theory that a progress ively greater consumpt ion of goods i s economical ly

benef icial ; At tachment to mater ial i s t ic values or pos sess io ns

(Dic t ionary .com, 2000a) . Narc i s s i sm i s def ined as : A psychologica l

condi t ion character ized by sel f - preoccupat ion, lack of empathy, and

unconscious def ici t s in sel f -es teem. Erot ic pleasure der ived f rom

contemplat ion or admirat ion of one 's own body or sel f , especial ly as a

f ixat ion on or a regress ion to an infant i le s tage of development

(Dict ionary.com, 2000b) .

Psychologi s t Phi l ip Cushman (1990) descr ibed the l inkages be tween

narc i s s i sm and consumer i sm. He descr ibed recent h i s tor i ca l f ac tor s such as

urbaniza t ion , indus t r i a l i za t ion , and secular i za t ion as having developed an

Amer ican se l f tha t bear s the dua l t r ademarks of narc i s s i sm: appear ing

mas ter fu l and bounded on the out s ide , ye t empty undernea th . Cushman

def ines th i s empt iness as the se l f exper i en c ing a s igni f i cant l ack of

communi ty , t r ad i t ion , and shared meaning . Thi s soc ie ta l change beginning


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in the 16 t h century , i s a r esu l t of the t r ans i t ion f rom a r e l ig ious to a

sc ient i f i c based cul ture , f rom an agr i cu l tura lbased economy to an

indus t r i a l -based economy, f rom a rura l se t t ing to an urban se t t ing , and

f rom a focus on communi ty va l ues to the indiv idual (p . 600) .

Dur ing the pos t -Wor ld War I I e ra , many peo ple moved to l a rge c i t i es

to pur sue work , many in f ac tor i es and indus t r i es , which in a number of

ways r educed the i r qual i ty of l i f e . Indus t r i a l r e l i ance on sk i l l ed l abor and

craf t smen was ebbing wi th the po pular i ty of as sembly l ine s ty le f ac tor i es .

Companies could p ay the i r worker s l es s as a r esu l t . Wi th the t r end towards

migra t ion to c i t i es , people began to lose contac t wi th the i r cu l tura l root s :

e thnic t r ad i t ions , f ami ly t i es , and sp i r i tua l foundat ions , as they adapted to

the urban envi ronment . These changes cont r ibuted to an empt iness in the

se l f (Cushman, 1990, p . 600) .

Cushman argues tha t the P os t -Wor ld War I I s e l f yearns to acqui re and

consume as an unconsc ious way of compensa t ing for what has been los t : I t

i s empty (Cushman, 1990, p . 600) . Whi le th i s change in envi rons and

consumer behavior began to acce lera te and t ake hold in the pos t -Wor ld War

I I e ra , i t s or ig ins go back severa l deca des .

I t i s impor tant to note tha t the poin t of th i s paper i s not to l abe l a l l

consumer i sm as bad or ev i l . But r a ther to g e t people to th ink about

consumer i sm, i t s e f f ec t s on our g lobal soc ie ty , and to examine the r easons

we choose to consume product s and resources . Proponent s of consumer i sm

bel i eve tha t the c rea t ion of new goods and serv ices l i f t people f rom


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drudgery , g ive people a sense of meaning and purpose in l i f e , and has the

potent i a l to uni t e people a l l over the wor ld in a common consumer cul ture

(McDanie l , 2000, p . 145) .

Thi s paper wi l l examine the h i s tor i ca l foundat ion of consumer i sm and

explore the psychologica l and sp i r i tua l impl ica t ions of consumer i sm wi th

regard to human wel l be ing . From there , a d i scuss ion of why sp i r i tua l

va lues and connect ion to na ture i s impor tant to the indiv idual and soc ie ty ,

as wel l as r ecommendat ions for change .

CONSUMERISM

Histor ica l Background of Market ing and Advert i s ing

The root s of modern consumer i sm l i e in the 18 t h century . Before the

18 t h century , severa l f ac tor s he ld con sumer i sm a t bay , pr imar i ly , the

dominant va lue sys tem of organized re l ig ion . Severa l major r e l ig ions ,

inc luding Chr i s t i an i ty and Buddhi sm, urged the i r fo l lowers to focus on

spi r i tua l goal s r a ther than the acqui s i t ion of mater i a l goods which

in ter fered wi th the goal of a t t a in ing sa lva t ion . Confuciani sm, the l eading

bel i e f sys tem of the upper c l as s in China , a l so r e j e c ted consumer i sm

(Stearns , 2001, p 3-5) .

Wi th the d i scovery of product s such as sugar , a var i e ty of sp ices ,

co lor fu l dyes , and the ava i l ab i l i ty of product s such as h igh fashion

clo th ing , there was a c l ear increase in demand for these non-essent i a l

product s . Whi le dem and for these product s increased , for the mos t par t , i t


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was s t i l l on ly the weal th ier c l as s of indiv idua l s tha t could af ford these

product s (S tearns , 2001, p . 15-23) .

Dur ing the t ime per iod spanning 1800 1920, a number of impor tant

event s in the development of consumer i sm occur red . In 1830, the f i r s t

depar tment s tore opened in Par i s . By 1850, l a rge depar tment s tores had

spread to o ther major c i t i es in Wes tern Europe a nd the Uni t ed Sta tes .

Addi t ional ly , mai l order ca ta logs began to appear and the f i r s t adver t i s ing

agencies were born . A wide var i e ty of impor t s and consumer goods became

avai l ab le (S tearns , 2001, p. 45-47) . These developments , combined wi th a

number of chang es in the psychologica l prof i l e of soc ie ty , s e t the s t age for

the explos ion of consumer i sm tha t would l a t e r begin in the 1920s .

Kanner and Gomes (1995) s t a t ed tha t : I t i s f a r f rom c lear tha t

consumer i sm occurs na tura l ly or spontaneous ly in humans (p . 81) .

Chr i s topher Lasch , in The Cul ture of Narciss ism , no ted tha t indus t r i a l

l eader s in the Uni t ed Sta te s dur ing the 1920s unders tood tha t the des i r e for

non-essent i a l product s was so anemic tha t i t r equi red cont inual promot ion

and r e i n f o r cemen t :

The Amer ican economy, having reached the poin t where i t s

t echnology was capable of sa t i s fy ing bas ic mater i a l needs , now

rel i ed on the crea t ion of new consumer demands on

convinc ing people to buy goods for which they are unaware of

any need unt i l t he need i s forc ib ly brought to the i r a t t en t ion by

the mass media (Lasch , 1979, p . 72) .


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Advert i s ing: Creat ing Consumeri sm

I t i s unknown whether consum er i sm occurs na tura l ly in humans or

has been ar t i f i c i a l ly induced. There i s cons iderable documenta t ion which

shows tha t the media and adver t i s ing indus t ry have worked hard over many

decades to convince the publ i c of many needs of which they were

previous ly unaware , through a cons tant bar rage of commercia l s to r e inforce

those needs .

Crea t ing f a l se needs was not an easy t ask . Benjamin Hunnicut t

descr ibed the s i tua t ion in the fo l lowing t e rms :

Consumpt ion was not guaranteed , but i t could be promoted . I t

would be the hard work of inves tor s , market ing exper t s ,

adver t i ser s , and bus iness l eader s , as wel l as the spending

examples se t by the r i ch tha t would promote consumpt ion .the

bus iness communi ty broke i t s long concent ra t ion on product ion ,

in t roduced the age of mass consumpt ion , founded a new age of

progress in an abundant soc ie ty , and gave l i f e to the

adver t i s ing indus t ry (Hunnicut t , 1988, p . 42-43) .

However , members of the bus iness communi ty were not the only ones

respons ib le for promot ing consumpt ion . In 1929, Pres ident Herber t

Hoover s Commit tee on Recen t Economic Changes publ i shed informat ion

which showed how the U.S. Government was involved in he lp ing the

bus iness communi ty perpe tua te demand for non-essent i a l product s :

economis t s have long dec lared tha t consumpt ion , the sa t i s f ac t ion of


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wants , would expand wi th l i t t l e ev idence of sa t i a t ion i f we could so adjus t

our economic processes to make dormant demands ef fec t ive . Speci f i ca l ly ,

the commi t t ee r epor ted:

we now demand a broad l i s t of goods and serv ices which

come under the ca tegory of opt ional purchases . .

economical ly we have a boundless f i e ld before us ; tha t there

are new want s which wi l l make way endless ly for newer want s ,

as f as t as they are sa t i s f i ed . By adver t i s ing and o ther

promot ional devices , by sc ient i f i c f ac t f inding , by carefu l ly

predeveloped consumpt ion , a measurable pul l on product ion has

been crea ted which re l eases capi t a l o therwise t i ed up in

immobi le goods . Our s i tua t ion i s for tunate , our momentum i s

remarkable (Commi t t ee on Recent Economic Changes , 1921 p .

13 - 17) .

His tor i an W.W. Ros tow (1991) cor robora tes th i s when he noted:

in the 1920s , the Amer ican economy s tar t ed to depend for the f i r s t t ime

more on increased consumpt ion for growth than on the r e l a t ive ly s imple

mat ter of increas ing product ion (p . 44) . Chr i s topher Lasch (1979) noted a

s t a t ement made by former Pres ident Calv in Cool idge who s t a t ed :

Adver t i s ing i s the method by which the des i r e i s c rea ted for be t t e r

th ings(p . 72) .


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Bet t e r th ings does not equate to product s r egarded as necess i t i es .

Ins tead , Bet t e r th ings are about soc ie ta l s t a tus and fashion s t a t ements .

Lasch (1979) descr ibed th i s when he dec lared:

The a t t empt to c iv i l i ze the masses has now given r i se to a

soc ie ty dominated by appearances the soc ie ty of the

spectac le . In the per iod of pr imi t ive accumula t ion , capi t a l i sm

subordina ted be ing to having , the use va lue of commodi t i es to

the i r exchange va lue . Now i t subordina tes possess ion i t se l f to

appea r ance and meas ur es exchange va l ue a s a commodi t y s

capaci ty to confer pres t ige the i l lus ion of prosper i ty and

pres t ige (p . 72) .

In o ther words , the va lue of produ ct s and goods or ig ina l ly was

measured by the use of the product to achieve some goal . Dur ing the per iod

ofp r imi t i ve accumula ti on, [ i t a l i cs added] an indiv idual s wor th was judged

by soc ie ty by o ther m et r i cs , such as the indiv idual s r e l ig ious f a i th and

involvement wi th f ami ly and communi ty . Wi th the t r ans i t ion to consumer -

based met r i cs of va lue , mer e ly owning or possess ing a product i s a l l t ha t i s

r equi red to judge the indiv idual s va lue or p lace in soc ie ty .

Lasch (1979) descr ibed the in tent of the adver t i s ing indus t ry :

In a s impler t ime, adver t i s ing mere ly ca l l ed a t t en t ion to the

product and exto l l ed i t s advantages . Now i t manufac tures a

product of i t s own: the consumer , e t e rna l ly unsa t i s f i ed ,

r es t l es s , and bored . Adver t i s ing serves not so much to adver t i se


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product s as to promote consumpt ion as a way of l i f e . I t

manipula tes the masses in to an insa t i ab le appet i t e not only for

goods but for new exper iences and per sonal fu l f i l lment , i t

p romotes consumpt ion as the answer to the age o ld problems of

lonel iness , i l l ness , wear iness , and l ack of sexual sa t i s f ac t ion

(p . 72) .

Lasch (1979) comple ted th i s thought by equat ing th i s mode of

r ampant consumer i sm as keeping up wi th the Joneses :

the propaganda of consumpt ion turns a l i ena t ion i t se l f in to a

commodi ty . I t addresses i t s e l f to the sp i r i tua l desola t ion of

modern l i f e and proposes consumpt ion as the cure . Do you look

dowdy next to your ne ighbors? Do you own a car infer ior to

the i r s? Are your ch i ldren as hea l thy? As popular? Doing as

wel l in school? Adver t i s ing ins t i tu t ional i zes envy and a t t endant

anxie t i es (p . 73) .

Another e f fec t of th i s t r ans i t ion was tha t consumers b egan to lose

s ight of where the i r product s or ig ina ted . In ear l i e r t imes , the consumer

could see where the product or ig ina ted in i t s r aw or base form and see and

apprec ia te where i t came f rom. Wi th improvements in t r anspor ta t ion ,

r a i l roads , and sh ippin g , r aw mater i a l s could be brought to a f ac tory ,

processed , and then de l ivered r ight to the r e t a i l e r s shop or the consumer s

doors tep . The d i s t ance increased be tween consumer and the sources of the

product s they bought . The per son who purchased beef s t eak f rom the loca l


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grocer or a k i t chen chai r a t the downtown depar tment s tore had l i t t l e

connect io n to the cow or the t r ee f rom which the f in i shed product had

or ig ina ted . Nature was be ing rapid ly consumed, but as packaged consumer

product s na ture s bounty has los t much of the r everence i t has once

enjoyed as the source of l i f e (Kl ine , 2000, p . 39) .

As Amer ican soc ie ty changed gear s and sh i f t ed f rom a cul ture

where bas ic needs and serv ices had been met , to a cu l ture where needs and

serv ices can nev er be met , i t i s wor th not ing tha t i t would have been a lmos t

imposs ib le for anyone a t the t ime to r ecognize the s igni f i cance and sca le of

the problems th i s would crea te or to s top th i s process . Indus t ry was

l i t e ra l ly sa i l ing in to water s never before explored . The Amer ican economy

mindse t was f i rmly rooted in concept s of the Amer ican Judeo-Chr i s t i an

t radi t ion of dominion over the r esources of the ear th , mani fes t des t iny ,

Over the Next Ridge Syndrome, and the be l i e f tha t the na tura l r esources

of the count ry were inexhaus t ib le (Nash , 1982; Kl ine , 2000) .

Whi le the or ig ins of mass consumer i sm were rooted in th e ear ly par t

of the century , i t was not unt i l t he po s t -Wor ld War I I e ra tha t consumer i sm

began to f ind a f i rm foothold in our c u l ture . The year s l eading up to Wor ld

War I I were d i f f i cu l t economic t imes for the count ry . Th e Grea t Depress ion

put the develo pment of consumer i sm on hold for a shor t per iod of t ime.

However , the economic engines r equi red to suppor t the war e f for t were jus t

what the bus iness communi ty needed in order to r e igni t e the economy.

At tempts to mask consumpt ion in pa t r io t i c t e rms pos i t ioned consumer i sm


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as a c i t i zen s c iv ic duty . L izabeth Cohen observed: Mass consumpt ion in

pos twar Amer ica would not be a per sonal indulgence , but r a ther a c iv ic

respons ib i l i ty des igned to provide fu l l employment and improved l iv ing

s tandards for the r es t of the na t ion (Cohen, 2003, p .113) .

Dur ing and af t e r Wor ld War I I , worker s moved to urb an areas to

pursue work . They exper i enced a los s of f ami ly , communi ty , and t r ad i t ions ,

r esu l t ing in an empty se l f . The response was a se l f tha t : seeks the

exper ience of be ing cont inual ly f i l l ed up by consuming goods , ca lor i es ,

exper i ences , pol i t i c i ans , romant i c par tner s , and empath ic therapi s t s in an

a t t empt to combat the growing a l i ena t ion and f r agmenta t ion of i t s e ra

(Cushman, 1990, p . 600) .

The p lan to increase consumpt ion and fue l the engines of the

economy, executed by the bus iness communi ty in par tner sh ip wi th the

government , was wi ld ly success fu l when measured in s t r i c t economic

terms . However , the negat ive ef fec t s of consumer i sm on the psychology

and sp i r i tua l aspec t s of the se l f , as wel l as the ecologica l impact s of

na tura l r esources be ing consumed a t a prodig ious r a t e , t e l l a d i f f e rent

s tory .

There were f ew voices to opp ose th i s t r end , and a t the t ime, such

phi losophies were not widely known or accepted . Wr i t e r s such as Emerson

and Thoreau advocated the concept s of t r anscendenta l i sm seeking so lace

and ref reshment through contac t wi th na ture and u l t imate ly God; in Na ture ,

Emerson commented extens ive ly on how the v i sua l e l ements of na ture were


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ref reshing to the sp i r i t o f man. But u lt imate ly , i t was the deeper , unseen

spi r i tua l aspec t s of na ture , and through na ture as Gods c rea t ion , tha t

a l lowed one to connect wi th God and ref reshed mans sp i r i t . He noted:

Nature i s made to conspi re wi th sp i r i t t o emancip a te us (Emerson, 1994,

p . 24) .

In Walden , Thoreau re j ec ted mater i a l i sm and the shackles of

c iv i l i za t ion whi le ex to l l ing the sp i r i tua l v i r tues of exper i enc ing na ture .

He had th i s to say about mat er i a l i sm:

The na t ion i t se l f , wi th a l l o f i t s so ca l l ed in terna l

improvements , which , by the way, a re a l l ex terna l and

super f i c i a l , i s jus t such an unwie ldy and overgrown

es tabl i shment , c lu t t e red wi th furn i ture and t r ipped up by i t s

own t r aps , ru ined by luxury and heedless expense (Thoreau ,

1991, p . 75) .

Thoreau l ived in the woods a t Walden for jus t over two year s , h i s

explora t ion of na ture and t r anscendenta l i sm led to a number of

observa t ions about the sp i r i tua l aspec t of na ture :

I was suddenly sens ib le of such sweet and benef i cent soc ie ty in

Na t u r e , i n t he ve r y pa t t e r i ng o f t he d r ops , and i n eve r y s ound

and s ight a round my house , an inf in i t e and unaccountable

f r i endl iness a l l a t once l ike an a tmosphere sus ta in ing me, as

made the f anc ied advantages of the human ne ighborhood

ins igni f i cant.Every l i t t l e p ine needle expanded and swel l ed


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wi th sympathy and bef r i ended me. I was so d i s t inc t ly made

aware of the presence of something k indred to me, even in

scenes which we are accus tomed to ca l l wi ld and dreary

(Thoreau , 1991, p . 107) .

Whi le Emerson and Thoreau v iewed na ture through the l ens of

t r anscenden ta l i sm, Leopold approached the i s sue f rom a d i f f e rent angle .

Leopold wa s not a r e l ig ious man and d id not approach t he i s sue s t r i c t ly

f rom a sp i r i tua l s t andpoin t , bu t f rom an in te l l ec tua l s t andpoin t . Hi s wr i t ing

indica ted a deep reverence for na ture . When asked by h i s daughter Es te l l a

i f he be l i eved in God, h e r ep l i ed tha t he be l i eved ther e was a mys t i ca l

supreme power tha t gui ded the Univer seIt was more akin to the l aws of

na ture (Meine , 1988, p . 506) . He commented on the impor tance of

main ta in ing the b io t i c in tegr i ty of ecosys tems (Leopold , 1953, p . 212-213) ,

as wel l as the need for contac t wi th na ture as a means of g iv ing def in i t ion

and meaning to l i f e (Leopold , 1949, p . 188) .

Leopold made the poin t tha t an ecologica l consc ience made i t

poss ib le for the development of an e th ica l a t t i tude toward na ture . Thi s

redef ines the ro le of man f rom havin g dominion over na ture , to a ro le

where man i s par t of the ecosys tem an d recognizes the impor tan ce of a l l o f

the o ther p ieces of the ecosys tem. He makes th i s c l ear when he s t a t es : I t

i s inconceivab le to me tha t an e th ica l r e l a t ion to l and can ex i s t wi thout

love , r espec t , and admi ra t ion for l and , and a h igh regard for i t s va lue

(Leopold , 1949, p . 223) . Whi le Leopold r ecognized the proper ro le of man


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in h i s envi ronment , he was l es s opt imis t i c about the t ime i t would t ake for

such cul tura l and behaviora l norms to be achieved. In the es say , The

E co logi ca l Consc ience , he s t a t ed :

I have no i l lus ions about the speed or accuracy wi th which an

ecologica l consc ience can become funct ional . I t has r equi red 19

centur i es to def ine decent man- to-man conduct and the process

i s only ha l f done; i t may t ake as long to evolve a code of

decency for man- to- l and conduct (Leopold , 1991, p . 345) .

Advert i s ing and Consumeri sm in the Modern Era

Sigurd Olsen (1982) , who served on a panel d i scuss ing the topic

Urban Growth and Natura l Resources , a t a conference sponsored by

R esources For The F uture, made some poignant observa t ions about

consumer i sm:

Ask the average c i ty dwel l e r what he th inks i s the idea l l i f e ,

and what might cont r ibute to h i s grea ter happiness , and he wi l l

no doubt th ink of poss ib ly another car , a b igger TV screen , a

longer vaca t ion , and l es s t r a f f i c to contend wi th . Ask h im i f the

Amer ican dream means the d i sappearance of l i t t l e towns wi th

shady s t r ee t s , open count rys ides , to be r ep laced by grea ter and

grea ter indus t r i a l i za t ion wi th smoke s t acks ins t ead of t r ees ,

pol lu ted a i r ins t ead of the smel l s of f i e lds and woods , gadget s

and l abor saving devices r ep lac ing s impl ic i ty , wi th the f ee l ing

of the out -of -doors in h i s da i ly l i f e becoming more and more a


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memory, and he wi l l shrug h i s shoulder s and wonder i f you are

s l ight ly insane . Ins tead of the o ld mus ic h i s forebear s l i s t ened

to , and the rhythms of na ture and seasons which regula ted the i r

l ives , he has l i s t ened so long to the drums of the Chambers of

Commerce tha t the Amer ican dream has become synonymous

wi th the goal of unl imi ted explo i t a t ion and economic growth

(p . 95) .

According to B usiness Week, The average U.S. adul t i s bombarded

wi th 3 ,000 adver t i s ing messages a day (Landler , Konrad , Schi l l e r , &

Ther r i en , 1991) . To cul t iva te consumer needs , adver t i ser s need to c rea te a

fa l se image of the idea l consum er . The end resul t c rea tes not only an

impulse to buy, but a consumer f a l se se l f (Kanner & Gomes , 1995, p .

82) .

Kanner and Gomes (1995) of fer the fo l lowing observa t ion:

Adver t i sements do not s imply exaggera te or d i s tor t the t ru th ,

they l i e . No one s success in bus iness , a th le t i cs , or love ever

depended on the i r toothpas te . Modern market ing t echniques

re ly on the s t r a t egy tha t Joseph Goebbel s , Nazi Germanys

mini s t e r of propaganda , ca l l ed The Big Lie . Repeat any

fa l sehood f r equent ly enough, and no mat t e r how absurd i t i s ,

people wi l l be l i eve i t . Pro jec t the image of the to ta l ly happy

consumer in count l es s commercia l s , and the f a l se consumer se l f


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becomes fu l ly in terna l i zed as an imposs ib le goal to which

Amer icans spontaneous ly asp i re (p . 83) .

They then comp are th i s to narc i s s i sm:

the consumer se l f i s f a l se because i t a r i ses f rom a merc i l es s

d i s tor t ion of au thent i c human needs and des i r es . From our

unders t anding of narc i s s i sm we know tha t a f a l se se l f i s formed

when a ch i ld a t t ends to ex terna l demands and rewards in order

to obta in parenta l approval and love . When these ex terna l

pressures conf l i c t wi th the ch i ld s own fee l ings , these f ee l ings

are ignored , unt i l t he ch i ld comes to be l i eve tha t the parent s

wishes a re her or h i s own. In a s imi lar f ash ion , Amer ican

chi ldren come to in terna l i ze the messages they see in the media

and in soc ie ty a t l a rge . They l earn to subs t i tu te what they are

to ld to want mounds of mater i a l possess ions for what they

t ru ly want (Kanner & Gomes , 199 5, p . 83) .

Corpora t ions have worked hard to c rea te a f asc ina t ion wi th

acqui s i t ion of the l a t es t and grea tes t commodi t i es . In 1990, 12 ,055 new

product s were in t roduced to Amer ican drugs tores and supermarket s a lone , a

ra te of th i r ty- three per day , many of them indi s t ingui shable f rom one

another except for packaging . The ecologica l impact s of manufac tur ing ,

t r anspor t ing , market ing , packaging , and s tor ing so many i t ems i s incredib ly

high (Kanner & Gomes , 1995, p . 84) .


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Modern adver t i s ing promotes an a lmos t re l ig ious be l i e f among

Amer icans and those who subscr ibe to the New Age/Aquar ian Conspi racy

paradigm descr ibed in Deep Eco logy (DeVal l & Sess ions , 1985, p . 5) .

Adherent s to th i s paradigm bel i eve tha t r ap id advancements in t echnology

wi l l a l low us to address any envi ron menta l i s sue . As a r esu l t , consumpt ion

i s never a problem. Adver t i s ing c la ims tha t there i s a product to so lve

each of l i f e s problems . By impl ica t ion , mater i a l so lu t ions can supplant

soc ia l , psychologica l , and sp i r i tua l ones , and the cumula t ive output of

mul t ina t ional corpora t ions r epresent s the p innacle of a l l human

accompl i shment (Kanner & Gomes , 1995, p . 84) .

In h i s book, How Much i s Enough , Alan Durning (1992) descr ibes

te l ev i s ion adver t i s ing :

The bar rage of sa les sp ie l s i s so in tense in the consumer

socie ty tha t people ac tua l ly r emember f ew ads . Yet

commercia l s have an ef fec t nonethe les s . Even i f they fa i l t o

se l l a par t i cu lar product , t hey se l l consumer i sm i t se l f by

cease les s ly r e i t e ra t ing the idea tha t there i s a product to so lve

each of l i f e s problems , indeed tha t ex i s t ence would be

sa t i s fy ing and comple te i f only we had bought the r ight th ings .

Adver t i ser s thus cu l t iva te needs by h i t ch ing the i r wares to the

inf in i t e yearn ings of the hum an soul (p . 119) .

The pro l i f e ra t ion of per sonal computer s , communica t ion devices , and

al l sor t s of mul t imedia , fur ther compl ica te the subjec t by adding many new


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product s and serv ices to be des i r ed and purchased . The pace of

t echnologica l advancement r equi res a never ending cycle of keeping up

wi th the Joneses , which fur ther exacerba tes the cyc le of consumer i sm.

The cos t of a t t empt ing to main ta in such a pace of acqui s i t ion i s unheal thy ,

economical ly and psychologica l ly . The San Franc isco Chron ic le publ i shed

an ar t i c l e which descr ibed the growing number of Amer icans who earn over

$100,000 annual ly but cannot make ends meet . By making ends meet , t hey

refer to main ta in ing a s t anda rd of l iv ing tha t the r es t of the wor ld def ines

as luxur ious . Many in the s ix f igure bracke t spend a l l o f the i r income each

month . These Amer ica ns , whose earn ings are in the top 4 percent of the

count ry , i l l us t r a t e how deeply ent renched i s the consumer f a l se se l f (Gl ink ,

1993, p . 5) . The adver t i s ing indus t ry has c rea ted needs so compel l ing tha t

the weal th ies t indiv id ual s in the mos t a f f luent count ry in the wor ld

cont inual ly scramble to increase the i r ab i l i ty to consume product s and

serv ices .

In th i s rush- to- r i ches consumer menta l i ty , people a re not achieving a

higher l eve l of happiness indeed , the oppos i t e i s happening . In the

ar t i c l e , A re We Happy Yet? , Durning (1995) makes the poin t :

Psychologica l ev idence shows tha t the r e l a t ionship be tween

happiness and per sonal consumpt ion i s weak. Worse two

pr imary sources of human fu l f i l lment soc ia l r e l a t ions and

le i sure appear to have wi thered or s t agnated in the rush to

r i ches . Thus many in the consumer soc ie ty have a sense tha t


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the i r wor ld of p lenty i s somehow hol low tha t , hoodwinked by

a consumer i s t cu l ture , they have been f ru i t l es s ly a t t empt ing to

sa t i s fy wi th mater i a l th ings what a re es sent i a l ly soc ia l ,

psychologica l , and sp i r i tua l needs (p . 69) .

Effect s of Consumeri sm

I t i s wel l documented tha t the deple t i on of r esources and

envi ronmenta l degradat ion i s d i r ec t ly r e l a t ed to consumpt ion of goods and

serv ices (Brown, 2001; Brower & Leon, 1999; Gardner & Stern , 2002) .

Indeed, the Uni t ed Sta tes l eads the wor ld in amount of mater i a l s consumed

per capi t a (Gardner , Assadour ian , & Sar in , 2004, p . 6-9) .

In Ecopsychology , Kanner and Gome s (1995) of fer a s t a r t l ing v iew of

human behavior . The authors as ser t tha t unbr id led consumer i sm i s the

cause of our envi ronmenta l woes . In the beginning of the chapter , t he

authors r ecount an event f rom the 1992 g lobal envi ronmenta l summi t he ld

in Rio de Janei ro , Braz i l :

Representa t ives f rom severa l th i rd wor ld count r i es approached

Pres ident George Bush to ask h im to cons ider r educing the

consumpt ion habi t s of the Uni t ed Sta tes . They contend tha t a

major cause of the cur rent ecologica l c r i s i s was the enormous

demand for consumer goods emanat ing f rom the Uni ted Sta tes

and o ther indus t r i a l i zed na t ions . Moreover , i t s eemed unfa i r to

them tha t they should be asked to manage the i r na tura l

r esources in a more sus ta inable manner of t en to the de t r iment


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of the shor t - t e rm in teres t s of the i r economy whi le r e l a t ive ly

minor concess ions were be ing asked of the r i cher indus t r i a l i zed

nat ions . Bushs r ep ly was t e r se and to the poin t : The Amer ican

way of l i f e i s not up for negot i a t ion (p . 77-78) .

Thi s idea of the Amer ican way of l i f e i s one in which we co nsume far

more na tura l r esources p er capi t a than any o ther na t ion in the wor ld

(Gardner , Assadour ian , & Sar in , 2004, p . 6-9) . Thi s shows no s ign of

aba t ing . Amer icans , caught up in the cyc le of acqui s i t ion of mater i a l

goods , want more and mo re , and there i s no end in s ight . Author Paul

Wachte l (1989) mak es the fo l lowing as sessment : The idea of more , of

ever increas ing weal th , has become the center of our ident i ty and our

secur i ty , and we are c aught by i t as the addic t i s by h i s drugs(p . 71) .

F i r s t wor ld consumer habi t s a re one of the two mos t ser ious

envi ronmenta l i s sues in the wor ld today. Alan Durning (1992) s t a t es :

Only popula t ion growth r iva l s consumpt ion as a cause of

ecologica l dec l ine , and a t l eas t popula t ion growth i s now

viewed as a problem by many governments and c i t i zens of the

wor ld . Consumpt ion , in cont ras t , i s a lmos t univer sa l ly seen as a

good indeed , increas ingly i t i s the pr imary goal of na t ional

economic pol i cy (p . 21) .

Thi s c l ear ly i l lus t r a t es , the degree to which consumer i sm i s deeply

ingra ined in to our cu l ture . As the popula t ion cont inues to grow, under the

cur rent consumer mindse t , consumpt ion , and i t s de le t er ious e f fec t on our


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natura l r esources wi l l cont inue to increase (Brown, 2001; Brower & Leon,

1999; Gardner & Stern , 2002) . Popula t ion growth and consumpt ion are

di rec t ly l inked . The l a rger the popula t ion , the more people there wi l l be

consuming product s .

Ecologi s t David Or r and theolog ian Jay McDanie l r e fer to the wr i t ing

of Ernes t Becker , who charac ter i zed consumer i sm as : Modern man i s

dr inking and dr ugging h imsel f out of awareness , or he spends h i s t ime

shopping , which i s the same th ing (Becker , 1973, p . 284) .

McDanie l t akes th i s fur ther and redef ines the process of

consumer i sm:

As a r e l ig ion , consumer i sm i s even more power fu l than

sc ient i sm, and i t s inf luence holds sway in many c i r c l es tha t a re

antagoni s t i c or indi f f erent to sc ience . We might charac ter i ze

the r e l ig ion as fo l lows . I t s god i s economic growth for i t s own

sake; i t s pr i es t s a re the publ i c pol i cy makers who provide

access to growth; i t s evangel i s t s a re the adver t i ser s who

di sp lay the product s of growth and t ry to convince us tha t we

cannot be happy wi thout them; and i t s church i s the shopping

mal l . I t s pr imary creeds are b igger i s be t t e r and more i s

be t t e r and fas ter i s be t t e r and you can have i t a l l . I t s

doct r ine of c rea t ion i s tha t the ear th i s r ea l es t a t e to be bought

and so ld in the marketp lace . I t s doct r ine of human exi s t ence i s

tha t we are sk in-encapsula ted egos , cu t of f f rom the wor ld by


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the boundar ies of our sk in . And i t s doct r ine of sa lva t ion i s tha t

we are saved or made whole not by grace through fa i th as

Chr i s t i ans c l a im or by wisdom through l e t t ing go as Buddhi s t s

c la im, but by appearance , a f f luence , and marketable

achievement (McDanie l , 2002, p . 1462-1463) .

The ef fec t s of a l l o f th i s a re tha t indiv idual s a re cau ght in a cyc le of

acqui s i t ion , l eading to the c rea t ion and maintenance of a f a l se- se l f , and a

cont inuance of economic pol i c i es tha t fur ther deple t ion of our na tura l

r esources and the spread of pol lu t ion , and u l t imate ly , an eros ion of our

spi r i tua l connect ions wi th na ture .

Whenever the i s sue of consumer i sm i s d i scussed , invar i ab ly the

di scuss ion dr i f t s to the idea tha t indiv idual s and soc ie ty wi l l have to lower

i t s s t andard of l iv ing tha t we wi l l have to make man y sacr i f i ces to do

wi thout . The pro blem here i s tha t the people a re judging the i r s t andard of

l iv ing based on the precept s of consumer i sm. Paul Wachte l (1989) says i t

bes t :

The image of be l t t i gh tening i s one tha t i s sues f rom wi th in our

present se t of as sumpt ions ; i t equates conserva t ion , r ecycl ing ,

and fewer gadget s wi th having l es s . A psychologica l ly

or i en ted not ion of s t andard of l iv ing has qui t e d i f f e rent

impl ica t ions . I t sugges t s tha t a l t e r ing our present way of l i f e

does not r ea l ly mean se t t l ing for l es s . I t encourages us to th ink


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not of what we are g iv ing up but of new oppor tuni t i es a long a

di f f erent d imens ion , which may be more sa t i s fy ing (p . 143) .

I f consumer i sm i s cont ras t ed wi th the precept s of Deep E cology,

v iewed as two oppos ing paradigms res id ing a t oppos i t e ends of a spec t rum,

the cha l l eng e then i s to ge t indiv idual s to begin to t ake a f ew s t eps down

the spec t rum in the d i r ec t ion of Deep Ecology. Those tha t have a l t e red

the i r behavior , consumed l es s , and explored sp i r i tua l ly more fu l f i l l ing

aspect s of l i f e and exi s t enc e , r epor t tha t the i r l i f e i s more sa t i s fy ing and

rewarding , than a l i f e measured by how many mater i a l goods one owns

(Gi lman, 1990) .

Global ly , consumpt ion i s d i r ec t ly l inked to popula t ion growth . As

more and more peop le a re born , the need for r esources to sup por t these

indiv idual s increases , and the market for those who manufac ture , market ,

and se l l p roduct s and serv ices cont inues to increase . In the 2004 edit ion of

t he State o f the World , publ i shed by The Wor ldWatch Ins t i tu te , the au thors

note : The Uni ted Nat ions Popula t ion Divi s ion pro jec t s tha t the wor ld

popula t ion wi l l i ncrease 41 percent by 2050, to 8 .9 b i l l ion people

(Gardner , Assadour ian , & Sar in , 2004, p . 5) .

Because of increases in popula t ion , ga ins tha t we may have made in

reducing consumpt ion wi l l be nul l i f i ed due to increased demand for na tura l

r esources . I t i s even more impor tant tha t we f ind ways to a l t e r the way we

conduct our se lves a t a g lobal l eve l . The t r ans i t ion to an ecologica l ly


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sus ta inable model wi l l be one of the mos t d i f f i cu l t cha l l enges humani ty has

f aced .

Spir i tual i ty and Susta inabi l i ty

Tradi t ional ly , the i s sue of sp i r i tua l i ty and sus ta inabi l i ty have been

debated by pol i t i c i ans , psychologi s t s , ph i losophers , and sc ient i s t s (Gore ,

1992; Kanner and Gomes , 1995; Naess , 1989; Or r , 2002) . Because of the

envi ronmenta l l inkages , envi ronmenta l profess ional s have been drawn in to

the d i scuss ion . The wi ld l i f e management profess ion i s beginning to

examine the l inkages be tween consumer i sm, envi ronment , and sp i r i tua l i ty .

In a r ecent paper presented to The Wi ld l i f e Socie ty , en t i t l ed : The

R ela ti onsh ip o f Economic Growth to Wild l i f e Conserva t ion , t he au thors

s t a t e : A smal l but growing voluntary s impl ic i ty movement , compr i sed of

secular and re l ig ious groups who oppose Amer ican- s ty le consumpt ion

pat t e rns for envi ronmenta l , soc ia l jus t i ce , qua l i ty of l i f e , and sp i r i tua l

r easons may be a f i r s t s t ep toward rever s ing pa t t e rn s of increas ing

consumpt ion(Trauger e t a l . , 2003, p . 5) . Thi s i s synonymous wi th

concept s such as Deep Ecology, and o ther branches of growing ecologica l

awareness which are def ined by ecocent r i c e th ics and va lues .

Spi r i tua l i ty , or l ack thereof , i s the key . As a concept , sp i r i tua l i ty

provides the foundat ion for dec i s ions on how we conduct our l ives . I t

a f f ec t s the choices we make in a l l f ace t s of l i f e , i nc luding dec i s ions we

make on consuming product s and resources . Cur rent r a t es of consumpt ion

are u l t imate ly unsus ta inable , both sp i r i tua l ly and ecologica l ly (Ber ry ,


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1995; Suzuki , 1997; McDanie l , 2000) . Spi r i tua l ly , where does th i s l eave

us? Many people in urban areas a re caught up in a cont inual cyc le of

consumer i sm. They are so engaged in making money and then spending i t

tha t o ther cons idera t ions a re secondary . They do not under s t and or

apprec ia te the na tura l wor ld or the i s sues f ac ing i t . Contac t wi th na ture

fades . Thi s de tachment i s dangerous both ecologica l ly and sp i r i tua l ly . We

are near ing a poin t in the h i s tory of the p lanet where we may exceed the

resources of the p lanet and p lunge in to a per iod of ecologica l ca tas t rophe ,

the ex tent of which we cannot even begin to f a thom.

David Or r (2002) a l ludes to th i s poss ib i l i ty in h i s a r t i c l e , The Four

Chal lenges o f Sus ta inab i l i t y , he main ta ins tha t we wi l l eventua l ly

t r ans i t ion to a sus ta inable soc ie ty , th e ques t ion i s whether we wi l l do so

gracefu l ly and in a cont ro l l ed manner , or due to an ecologica l event

resul t ing f rom unsus ta inable consumpt ion . Or r r e fer s to sp i r i tua l empt iness

t o descr ibe one of the r easons w e may fa i l t o gracefu l ly make th i s

t r ans i t ion . He descr ibes th i s sp i r i tua l empt iness as a condi t ion brought on

by a bar rage of event s tha t threa ten to overwhelm us , and the numbing

ef fec t tha t cumula t ive ly a l l o f th i s has on the human psyche . Or r descr ibes

a to ta l of four cha l l enges r e l a t ed to sus ta inabi l i ty , the four th one i s the one

he ca l l s the mos t d i f f i cu l t cha l l en ge of a l l . He descr ibes the need to

unders t and and address d ivergent problems , which he equates to a h igher

l eve l of sp i r i tua l awareness . Or r a rgues tha t the hear t of th i s h igher l eve l

of awareness i s one tha t hono rs mys tery , sc i ence , l i f e , and dea th (p . 145 9) .


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Orr i s saying tha t t r ad i t ional sc i en t i f i c and eco nomic methods are

insuf f i c i en t to meet the cha l l e nges of address ing the i s sues of

sus ta inabi l i ty . What i s needed i s an approach tha t uses a combinat ion of

sc ience and t r ad i t ional met r i cs , but i s grea t ly expanded to inc lude a

number of qual i t a t ive component s , wi th an emphas i s on sp i r i tua l

awareness .

Lynn Whi te (1967) had s imi lar ideas when he s t a t ed :

What we do about ecology depends on our ideas of the man-

nature r e l a t ionship . More sc ience and more t echnology are not

going to ge t us out of the present ecologic c r i s i s unt i l we f ind a

new re l ig ion , or r e th ink our o ld on e (p . 1206) .

Whi le Or r and Whi te approached th e i s sue f rom one of r e l ig ion and

spi r i tua l i ty , conserva t ion b io logi s t Br ian Czech advocated a s t eady s t a t e

economy in which we t r ans form the unsus ta inable na ture of our economic

sys tem to an ecologica l ly sus ta inable model . Czech argues tha t meaningful

s t eady s t a t e pol i c i es wi l l r equi re bro ad publ i c suppor t and sugges t s tha t a

socia l , psychologica l program wi l l he lp to t r ans form publ i c opin ion

(Czech, 2000, p .179) . Trauger e t a l . (2003) expanded on th i s fur ther f rom

the s t andpoin t of es t ab l i shment of a more s t ab le , sus ta inable economy.

Speci f i ca l ly , they s t a t ed :

Because the publ i c va lues wi ld l i f e , t h i s i s an achievable goal i f

t he publ i c fu l ly under s t ands the fundamenta l conf l i c t be tween

economic growth and wi ld l i f e conserva t ion . Real i s t i ca l ly , the


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publ i c va lues human wel fare more than wi ld l i f e conserva t ion .

Rela t ing the s t eady s t a t e economy to increased human wel fare

i s the key to soc ie ta l acceptance and wi ld l i f e conserva t ion (p .

18) .

Thi s wi l l be d i f f i cu l t t o achieve g iven the c ur rent norms by which

socie ty and our economic model a re based , and by which consumers

measure the i r l ives . But we mus t a t t empt to do so - i f we are to ge t to th i s

s t eady s t a t e economy, the change wi l l be due to changes in indiv idual

as sumpt ions tha t a re der ived f ro m changes in behavior tha t f low f rom the

development of a more sp i r i tua l approach to l i f e . Ul t imate ly , th i s means we

mus t a l l consume l es s and be cog nizant of what we consume, why we

consume, and the r esu l t an t impact s on the g lobal ecosys tem.

I f we are to avoid th i s ecologica l ca tas t rophe , we mus t work to move

the g lobal soc ie ty a s a whole in a d i r ec t ion which a l lows for the

explora t ion of sp i r i tua l va lu es , and a l l o f the r esu l t an t sp i r i tua l and

ecologica l benef i t s der ived there in .

SPIRITUAL VALUES

The process of r es tor ing the indiv idual has r ece ived many l abe l s :

r es tor ing the se l f , r e f reshing the soul , r enew ing the human sp i r i t . I t i s

impor tant to under s t and these l abe l s a re d i f f e rent names for the same

concept ; they are d i f f e rent ways of saying the same th ing .

Humans have a need to f ee l nur tured and fu l f i l l ed through an

unders t anding of the i r cont r ibut ion to soc ie ty and/or a sense of communi ty


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and be longing (Cushman, 1990, p . 600) . Heal thy long- term processes for

nur tur ing these va lues a re es sent i a l . Thoreau (1991) sensed mankinds need

when he sa id :

We can never have enough of na ture . We mus t be r e f reshed by

the s ight of inexhaus t ib le v igor , vas t and t i t an ic f ea tures . the

wi lderness wi th i t s l iv ing and decaying t r ees , the thunder

c loud, and the r a in which l as t s three weeks and produces

f reshe t s . We need to wi tness our own l imi t s t r ansgressed , and

some l i f e pas tur ing f r ee ly where we never wander (p . 255) .

El sner , Lewis , Snel l , & Spi t zer (1996) def ine the impor tance of

r enewal of the human sp i r i t :

renewal of the human sp i r i t i s impor tant for the indiv idual to

enjoy a fu l l l i f e and to be a product ive member of soc ie ty , for

the members of a f ami ly to r ega in the i r v igor , mot iva t ion and

in teres t s in the f ami ly uni t , and for members of the communi ty

and the na t ion to main ta in a long- term product ive ro le as

economic agent s and as soc ia l ly r espons ib le c i t i zens (p . 11) .

Humans can f ind the r i ch , r ewarding , and endur ing fu l f i l lment of the

se l f through explora t ion of na ture . Thi s process inc ludes an awareness and

unders t anding o f the concept s of consumer i sm and how th i s a f fec t s us as

indiv idual s . Rel i e f can be found in the pur sui t of connect iv i ty wi th na ture

as the so lu t ion to the problems of the f a l se se l f .


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Recreat ion and Ecosophy

Spi r i tua l ly and envi ronmenta l ly , soc ie ty would benef i t t r emendous ly

f rom development and in tegra t ion of an Ecosophy i n to our be l i e f sys tem.

E cosophy , i s a t e rm which denotes a much broader und er s t anding of

ecologica l concept s , i nc luding e th ics , norms , ru les , and prac t i ces , toward

nature , in to one s co l l ec t ive consc ience . Many outdoor r ecrea t ion ac t iv i t i es

are appropr ia t e mechani sms for f ac i l i t a t ing ecosophica l explora t ion .

The t e r m ecosophy was in t roduced by Arne Nae ss in 1973 a t an

ecophi losophy t a lk g iven a t a conference in Eas tern Europe on the fu ture of

r esearch . He coined the word f rom two ancient Greek root s , ecos - meaning

home p l ace , and soph ia - meaning wisdom. Naess used th e t e rm to r e fer to

any ar t i cu la ted phi losophy of l i f e in harmony wi th ecocent r i c va lues

(Naess , 1995, p . 155) . Pur suing an ecosophy i s searching for ecologica l ly

wise and harmonious l iv ing . There a re mul t i tudes of d iver se ecosophies

(Drengson, 1997) . The t e rm Deep E co logy was a l so coined by Naess in an

ar t i c l e en t i t l ed : The Shal low and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology

Movements (Naess , 1995, p . 151-155) . In th i s a r t i c l e , Naess a r t i cu la ted the

deep, sp i r i tua l approach to na ture conta ined in the wr i t ings of

conserva t ioni s t s such as Aldo Leopold and Rachel Carson. Ecosophy i s a t

t imes used in terchangeably wi th the t e rm Deep Ecology. Naess ca l l s h i s

own per sonal phi losophy - E cosophy T. I t i s based on the norm, Sel f -

r ea l i za t ion for a l l be ings (Drengson, 2001) . What Naess i s advocat ing

through se l f - r ea l i za t ion i s , carefu l in t rospec t ion in to the na ture of one s


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se l f , and more spec i f i ca l ly , what he r e fer s to as the ecological se l f . Th i s

provides the oppor tuni ty to explore and develop one s own ecosophy.

Sharon Montes (1996) , makes an observa t ion tha t d i r ec t ly l inks

spi r i tua l i ty to hea l th and incorpora tes the idea of an ecosophy as a cent ra l

t heme:

. . . r e l a t ive ly l i t t l e sc i en t i f i c r esearch re l a t es sp i r i tua l i ty to

hea l th , l eaving room for specula t ion about those r e l a t ionships .

F i r s t , i t makes sense to me tha t a per son who has a se t of core

values tha t go beyond ego gra t i f i ca t ion and whose l i f e i s

d i r ec ted l a rge ly by those va lues wi l l a l so by def in i t ion have a

menta l ly and phys ica l ly hea l thy l i f es ty le as connoted by words

tha t a re key to these sys tems of be l i e f such as inner peace ,

ba lance , r espec t for a l l forms of l i f e , and l iv ing in harmony (p .

114) .

Outdoor r ecrea t ion i s an impor tant mechani sm for developing an

unders t anding and respec t of hea l thy ecosys tems . Mos t outdoor r ecrea t ion

re l i es on unpol lu ted , funct ioning ecosys tems . To pursue these ac t iv i t i es

a l lows one to begin the journey of se l f -d i scovery and ecologica l awareness .

I n Deep Eco logy , Bi l l Deval l and Wi l l i am Sess ions (1985) under scor e the

impor tance of outdoor r ecrea t ion in developing a sense of p lace :

Some of the ac t iv i t i es which are espec ia l ly usefu l , i nc lude in

our es t imat ion , i f done wi th the p roper at t i tude [ i t a l i cs added] ,

inc lude f i sh ing , hunt ing , sur f ing , sun ba th ing , kayaking ,


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canoeing , sa i l ing , mounta in c l imbing, hang g l id ing , sk i ing ,

running , b icyc l ing , and b i rd watching . There i s a very l a rge

body o f l i t e r a t u r e comi ng f r om peop l e who have pa r t i c i pa t ed i n

some of these ac t iv i t i es , espec ia l ly , mounta in c l imbing and

f i sh ing , which a t t es t to the poss ib i l i t i es for developing a sense

of p lace and in tu i t ive under s t anding of the connect ions be tween

humans and nonhumans together wi th a r espec t for the pr inc ip le

of b iocent r i c equal i ty (p . 188) .

Goodale and God bey (1996) fur ther th i s idea in the i r promot ion of

l e i sure as the mechani sm for na ture-based exper i ences and va lues tha t

l end deep and endur ing psychologica l es sence to human l i f e :

includes mora l and e th ica l aspec t s of r esources , h igher

aspec t s of mind, ascendancy of h igher emot ions , r e f inement of

thought and fee l ing , sense of p lace , cogni t ive and emot ional

responses , apprec ia t ion of l i f e forms , r ecogni t ion of in t r ins i c

va lues , in t rospec t ion , devot ion , r everence , r espec t , wonder ,

awe, mys tery , and inspi ra t ion . Al l of th i s l anguage appear s in

di scuss ions of l e i sure s ince l e i sure i s an idea l , ex i s t en t i a l ,

t r anscendent , and rooted in phi losophy and re l ig ion (p . 97) .

I t i s impor tant to emphas ize tha t mere ly par t i c ip a t ing in these

ac t iv i t i es does not equal development of an ecosophy. Ef for t s need to be

made to s t r es s the impor tance of each indiv idual s unique sp i r i tua l

explora t ion coupled wi th these ac t iv i t i es . Envi ronmenta l l i t e ra ture f rom a


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var ie ty of notable wr i t e r s inc luding Emerson, Thoreau , Marsh , Mui r ,

Leopold , and o ther s i s an exce l l en t p lace to s t a r t t he in te l l ec tua l

explora t ion of the sp i r i tua l aspec t s of ecosophica l development . The deep ,

sp i r i tua l ideas a r t i cu la ted by these and o ther au thors should crea te

oppor tuni t i es for ques t ioning and in t rospect ion , as s i s t ing the indiv idual in

ecosophica l development .

Explora t ion of na ture-based ar t , poe t ry , and mus ic a l so provide

oppor tuni t i es for the indiv idual to explore in th i s journey of se l f -

r ea l i za t ion . Ar t , poe t ry , and mus ic have ways of connect ing one to na ture

in in tangib le ways tha t provoke in tense emot ion and joy . Emerson (1994)

penned a number of poems explor ing the connect ions be tween na ture and

God (p . 1) and d i scussed a t l engt h the impor tance of poet s and poet ry in

pra i se of the na tura l wor ld (p . 161-1 77) . Ear ly Amer ican ar t i s t s f rom the

Hudson River School such as Thomas Cole and Freder i c Edwin Church

embraced the t r anscendenta l idea l s a r t i cu la ted by Emerson, Thoreau , and

other s and the i r pa in t ing s were inspi red by those idea l s . Ar t i s t s such as

Thomas Moran and Alber t Bier s t ad t c rea ted such moving and inspi r ing

pain t ings of the l andscapes of Yel lows tone and Yosemi te tha t people were

moved to pro tec t them (Nash , 1982, p . 78-83) . More r ecent a r t i s t s , such as

na ture photographer Ansel Adams , embrace the t r anscendenta l i s t

phi losophy of Emerson and Thoreau and a t t empt to communica te th i s

through the i r a r t (Dayton Ar t Ins t i tu t e , 1999) . Exper ienc ing and fee l ing


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such ar t can be a p leasurable and va luable exper i ence in the journey of

ecosophica l development .

I t i s i n t e r e s t i ng t o no t e t ha t back i n t he 1920s , t he concep t o f

r ecrea t ion , more commonly refer red to as l e i sure , a t the t ime, was a l so

looked upon as a means for fur ther ing consumer i sm. Pres ident Hoover s

Commit tee on Recent Economic Changes presented the fo l lowing summary:

I t was dur ing the per iod covered by the survey ( the 1920s ) tha t

the concept ion of l e i sure as consumable began to be r ea l i zed

upon in bus iness in a prac t i ca l way and on a broad sca le . I t

began to be r ecognized , not only tha t l e i sure i s consumable but

tha t people cannot consume l e i sure wi thout consuming goods

and serv ices (Commi t t ee on Recent Economic Changes , 1921,

p . xvi ) .

Thi s i s s t i l l t rue today. There i s a p le thora of produc t s for the

consumer pur suing outdoor r ecrea t ion ac t iv i t i es . Indeed , r ecrea t ion

act iv i t i es such as backpacking , rock c l imbing, f i sh ing , and hunt ing present

the consumer wi th an en dless a r ray of gadget s and gear choice s . I t i s then

impor tant to insure we c lose ly examine our r ecrea t ional ac t iv i t i es and

at t endant ge ar needs in order to insure we are not par t of the problem.

Every t ime a new piece of gear i s in t roduced or improved, do we rea l ly

need to purch ase th i s? The i s sue i s the quant i ty of each i t em. Does the

hunter r ea l ly nee d or use the 35 r i f l es and shotguns in h i s gun cabine t?

Does the angler r ea l ly need or use the 20 rods in h i s co l l ec t ion? What a re


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the ecologica l impact s of manufac tur ing and consuming more r ecrea t ional

equipment than we need? These are ques t ions the r ecrea t ioni s t should

cons ider . Aldo Leopold r ecognized the dangers of consumer i sm when he

dec l a r ed :

I have the impress ion tha t the Amer ican Spor t sman i s puzz led;

he doesn t under s t and what i s happening to h im. Bigger and

bet t e r gadget s a re good for indus t ry , so why not for outdoor

recrea t ion? I t has not dawned on h im tha t outdoor r ecrea t ions

are es sent i a l ly pr imi t ive , a t av i s t i c ; tha t the i r va lue i s a

cont ras t -va lue ; tha t excess ive mechaniza t ion des t roys cont ras t s

by moving the f ac tory to the woods or the marsh (Leopold ,

1949, p . 181) .

Caring For Spir i tual Values

For many year s , publ i c l and managers have unders tood tha t people

vi s i t parks and fores t s in order to ge t c lose to na ture and to r en ew

themselves . The ques t ion then becomes , what does th i s mean wi th r egard to

management of l and and recrea t ion oppor tuni t i es so tha t these sp i r i tua l

needs can be r ea l i zed?

Some might as sume tha t managing resources in order to f ac i l i t a t e the

renewal of the human sp i r i t appl i es only to wi lderness and o ther pr i s t ine

envi ronments . However , because of the t r emendous growth of

urban/ suburban areas , many people r ece ive the i r sp i r i tua l r enewal f rom

nature-based areas such as t r a i l s , parks , in t e rpre t ive /envi ronmenta l


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educat ion areas , and recrea t ion f ac i l i t i es (El sner e t a l . , 1996, p . 11) . In

The Signi f icance of Urban Trees and Forests: Toward A Deeper

Unders tand ing o f Va lues , t he au thors note : Our r esear ch sugges t s th i s a rea

[Mor ton Arbore tum, Li s l e , I l l ino i s ] i s capable of provid ing many of the

exper iences people of t en as soc ia te wi th wi lderness (Dwyer , Schroeder , &

Gobs ter , 1991, p . 18) .

I n Spir i t o f the Fores t : In tegra t ing Sp ir i tua l Va lues in to Natura l

R esource Management and R esearch, Schroeder (1996) def ines sp i r i tua l

va lues as : refer s to the exper i en ce of be ing re l a t ed to an o ther tha t i s

l a rger or grea ter than on ese l f and tha t g ives meaning to one s l i f e a t a

deeper than in te l l ec tua l l eve l(p . 295) . I t i s wor th not ing tha t Schroeder s

def in i t ion does not a t t empt to inc lude a methodology for measur ing

spi r i tua l va lues . The in tangib i l i ty and inf in i t e var i a t ion of what cons t i tu tes

sp i r i tua l va lues i s beyond ou r cur rent scope or capabi l i ty to quan t i fy or

qual i fy .

Mos t r e l ig ions ident i fy th i s other as a superna tura l de i ty or God.

However , for many, other i s a na tura l en t i ty such as a t r ee , the ear th ,

wi lderness , or the univer se . Some psychologi s t s now bel i eve tha t human

beings have a bas ic need for th i s k ind of exper i ence . Spi r i tua l i ty , in one

form or another , app ear s to be a na tura l funct ion of the human mind and

plays an impor tant ro le in psychologica l hea l th and wel l be ing (Schroeder ,

1996, p . 295) .


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Famed conserva t ion b io logi s t Edward O. Wi l son be l i eves tha t we

have an innate connect ion wi th na ture tha t he ca l l s Biophi l ia. He def ines

Biophi l i a as the t ende ncy to want to focus on l i f e and l i f e - l ike processes .

Wi l son draws a d i r ec t ion connect ion be tween na ture and the human sp i r i t :

I wi l l make the case tha t to explore and af f i l i a t e wi th l i f e i s a

deep and compl ica ted process in menta l development . To an

extent s t i l l underva lued in phi losophy and re l ig ion , our

exi s t ence depends on th i s propens i ty , our sp i r i t i s woven f rom

i t , hope r i ses f rom i t cur rent s (Wi l son , 1984, p . 1) .

BEHAVIORAL CHANGE

Behaviora l change i s a s low process , par t i cu lar ly a t the soc ie ta l

l eve l . A be t t e r under s t anding of human behavior can a id in our s t ruggle to

address these i s sues . Howev er , whi l e i t i s impor tant to def ine and

unders t and th ese problems in a sc ient i f i c context , we mus t not l imi t our

abi l i ty to so lve these problems through a r ig id , s c i ence- i s - the-only-answer

approach . As David Or r (2002) descr ibes , human problems such as those

posed by the t r ans i t ion to sus ta inabi l i ty a re not so lved by ra t ional means

a lone . divergent problems can be r eso lved only by h igher methods of

wisdom, love , compass ion , under s t anding , and empathy (p . 1459) .

Much ear l i e r , Leopold (1949) a r t i cu la ted s imi lar a rguments in h i s

d i scuss ion of The Land Pyramid, he s t a t es :

An e th ic to supplement and guide the economic r e l a t ion to l and

presupposes the ex i s t ence of some menta l image of l and as a


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bio t i c mechani sm. We can be e th ica l only in r e l a t ion to

something we can see , f ee l , under s t and , love , or o therwise have

fa i th in (p . 214) .

Gardner and Assadour ian (2004) out l ine what they be l i eve i s

r equi red to r ever se consumpt ion and ecologica l dec l ine , as wel l as the

problems Kl ine descr ibed ear l i e r r egard ing the los s of connectedness to

where product s or ig ina te :

People in a wel l be ing soc ie ty would a l so develop c lose

re la t ionships wi th the na tura l envi ronment . They would

recognize the t r ees in the i r parks and the f lowers in the i r yards

as eas i ly as they ident i fy corpora te logos . They would

unders t and the envi ronmenta l foundat ions of the i r economic

ac t iv i ty : where the i r water comes f rom, where the i r garbage

goes , and whether coa l , nuc lear , or r enewable energy runs the

power p lant tha t genera tes the i r e l ec t r i c i ty . They would l ike ly

enjoy developing pro jec t s a t home tha t he lp them to l ive more

in t imate ly wi th na ture a r a in ca tching c i s t e rn , for example or

a compos t b in or vegetable garden . In shor t , t hey would l earn

to love na ture and to b ecome advocates for i t (p . 178) .

DISCUSSION

We mus t a t t empt to change our g lobal soc ie ty . Behaviora l change can

take long per iods of t ime to mani f es t . I f we do not achieve the change s

necessary to address the cha l l enges of sp i r i tua l i ty and sus ta inabi l i ty and


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move the human r ace forward gracefu l ly - i t may very wel l be dec ided

for us , in what wi l l be in a l l l i ke l ihood, an ext re mely unpleasant per iod of

human cul ture and evolu t ion . I t i s no longer acceptable to conduct bus iness

as usual (Brown, 2003, p . 19) . Long s t anding precept s need to be carefu l ly

scru t in ized and se t as ide i f they are bar r i e r s to soc ie ta l change .

There i s no s ingle r emedy for the sp i r i tua l i l l s brought on by

consumer i sm and the r esu l t ing de tachment f rom nature . A broad range of

so lu t ions should be implemented to ensure maximum benef i t t o the g lobal

soc ie ty s co l l ec t ive sp i r i tua l s t a t e and the ecologica l hea l th of the p lanet .

The chal l enges before us a re formidable . Given the cur rent s t ruc ture

of our economic and pol i t i ca l ins t i tu t ions , overcoming the iner t i a of these

es tabl i shments i s c r i t i ca l i f we are to move forward . I t a l l begins wi th the

bel i e f s of the indiv idual . We mus t f ind ways to enable indiv idual s to

explore the i r sp i r i tua l i ty and develop an ecosophy through a wide var i e ty

of mechani sms .

In order to begin the hea l ing process , idea l ly , behaviora l and

l i f es ty le changes mus t be cent ra l to the hea l ing process . Proponent s of the

Deep Ecology paradigm have many th ings to say in r egard to th i s process

in t e rms of how one can l ive an ecologica l ly harmonious l i f e .

Wi th th i s ecocent r i c approach in mind, the goal of behaviora l and

l i f es ty le change should have a t i t s core , two essent i a l objec t ives :


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( 1 ) To be cognizan t of the purchases we make, the process we usedto de termine why and ho w we need or des i r e a product , what a re the

ecologica l cos t s to the p lanet for manufac tur ing the product , and how the

product u l t imate ly a f fec t s our l ives . The goal here i s not to l abe l a l l

consumpt ion a s bad or ev i l , bu t r a ther to i l luminate the process we use to

determine how and why we acqui re goods , and the ef fec t of tha t product on

our l ives . Indiv idual s should spend some t ime cons ider ing whether they

rea l ly need a product and why the purchase i s needed.

( 1 )

Development of an ecosophy or ecosophica l approach to one s l i f e ,

which incorpora tes the necessary e l ements for sp i r i tua l fu l f i l lment . Thi s

may inc lude pursui t of t r ad i t ional wes tern-based Judeo-Chr i s t i an r e l ig ious

bel i e f sys tems , through a var i e ty of eas tern-based or progress ive

phi losophies , or the many shades of the Deep Ecology movement . The

objec t ive here i s to bui ld a f r amework tha t incorpora tes ecocent r i c va lues

for long- term psychologica l and sp i r i tua l hea l th and fu l f i l lment .

These two objec t ives have a number of l inkages . Whi le the cogni t ive

aspect of the f i r s t objec t ive t ends toward examinat ion of our thought

process wi th r egard to consum er i sm, the na tura l evolu t ion of th i s process

leads the indiv idual to ask o ther ques t ions about the na ture of consume r i sm

and subseque nt ly , i t s envi ronmenta l e f f ec t s . I f pur su i t of the f i r s t objec t ive

does not proceed b eyond the i s sue of the e f fec t s of consumer i sm, pur sui t of

the second objec t ive wi l l u l t imate ly a l low one to d i scover the r e l a t ionship

between the two.


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Kanner and Gomes (1995) of fer some sugges t ions for the psychology

profess ion to use in implement ing t r ea tmen t s for people who need he lp in

escaping narc i s s i s t i c -consumer i sm t endencies . Thi s cons i s t s of a three

s tep process tha t (1) cha l l eng es the l i es of the f a l se se l f ; (2) as s i s t s wi th

conta in ing the pa in tha t emerges upon the d i s so lu t ion of the f a l se se l f ; and

(3) ident i fy and nur ture dorma nt qual i t i es of the se l f tha t f lour i sh when

connected wi th the na tura l wor ld . Many forms of p leasure tha t have been

numbed by ur ban l iv ing , f rom bodi ly to perceptua l to aes the t i c to sp i r i tua l ,

come back to l i f e in na tur a l se t t ings . (p . 88-91) .

People have t r ad i t ional ly equated na tura l se t t ings wi th fores t s , parks ,

and wi lderne ss . Whi le so journs in these se t t ings would be an idea l p lace

for such sp i r i tua l explora t ion and ref reshment , people should not have to

leave the c i ty to f ind opp or tuni t i es to r e f resh themselves in na ture .

Research has shown tha t many oppor tuni t i es for psychologica l r e f reshment

are ava i l ab le in urban se t t ings (Dwyer , Schroeder , & Gobs ter , 1991, p . 18-

22) .

These r ecommendat ions for sp i r i tua l explora t ion and renewal have

common ground wi th ear l i e r psychology research . In the l a t e 1960s ,

psychologi s t Abraham Mas low used the t e rm se l f - ac tua l i za t ion to r e fer to

the process of growth , spec i f i ca l ly , tha t se l f - ac tua l i z ing people develop a

capaci ty for peak exper i ences in which the indiv idual sense of se l f i s

t r anscended or ex tended to inc lude a f ee l ing of ident i ty wi th a l a rger

rea l i ty (Schroeder , 1996, p . 82) .


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Mos t human cul tures can t r ac e back to a t ime when the i r cu l ture ,

the i r soc ie t i es , p l aced t r emendous sp i r i tua l and/or r e l ig ious va lue on t r ees

and o ther spec ia l p laces (Dwyer , Schroeder , & Gobs ter , 1991, p . 22) . I t

appear s as i f t h i s f ee l ing , has somehow in gra ined i t se l f in to the human

psyche and i s ther efore par t of us . The outdoors , the na tura l wor ld , i s

therefore an exce l l en t p lace to pur sue th i s hea l ing through exper ien t i a l

ac t iv i t i es . Thi s i s an oppor tuni ty to employ the ecopsychology profess ion ,

na tura l r esource and recrea t ion managers , and envi ronmenta l groups to

educate consumers and provide avenues for sp i r i tua l explora t ion .

The phenomenon of consumer i sm, sus ta inabi l i ty , and sp i r i tua l i ty a re

inext r i cably l inked , r equi r ing a mul t i - f ace ted approach on many l eve l s to

address the many envi ronmenta l problems we now face . The indiv idual

should ask cr i t i ca l , i n t rospec t ive ques t ions about the need for product s and

mater i a l goods in one s l i f e . The indiv idual should th ink cr i t i ca l ly about

the in tent of commercia l s and the informat ion and repor t s d i s t r ibuted by

for -prof i t i n t e res t s wi th the goal of r educing unnecessary consumpt ion .

The indiv idual should spend t ime th inking about the long- term ef fec t s of

consumpt ion on our ecosys tem and cons ider what we are pass ing on to

fu ture genera t ions . The indiv idual should open and mainta in an ongoing

dia logue about these i s sues wi th the i r communi ty . The indiv idual should

prac t i ce o ther habi t s tha t r educe our impact on the envi ronment - prac t i ce

the 3 Rs r educe , r ecycle , and reuse . The indiv idual should ge t involved

in communi ty e f for t s to pro tec t and mainta in the ecologica l hea l th of the


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loca l ecosys tem. These ef for t s , co l l ec t ive ly , wi l l he lp the indiv idual

develop the k ind of ecosophica l foundat ion tha t i s needed going forward

for a hea l th ier fu ture .

The t r ans i t ion to a sus ta inable soc i e ty wi l l r equi re a major

improvement in the l eve l o f , and qual i ty of par t i c ipa t ion of the c i t i zenr y of

the wor ld in the i r r espec t ive soc ie ta l organiza t ions and government

ins t i tu t ions to address i s sues of consumer i sm, envi ronmenta l qual i ty , and

ecologica l sus ta inabi l i ty . Governments c lose ly scru t in ized by a thought fu l ,

e th ica l , o rganized , involved c i t i zenry wi l l be empowered to implement the

kind of chang es necessary to improve the qual i ty of l i f e for a l l .

Governments , need to f ind ways to address d ivergent problems by

changing the way in which they approach problems . Rat ional thought and

logic wi l l be insuf f i c i en t a lone to a l low governments and soc ie ty to move

beyond the problems of consumer i sm, ecologica l sus ta inabi l i ty , and our

resul t an t de tachment f rom nature . Incorpora t ing h igher methods of wisdom,

love , compass ion , under s t anding , and empathy , in o ther words , a h igher

l eve l of sp i r i tua l awareness , wi l l a l low us to f ind so lu t ion s to address

these d i f f i cu l t i s sues .

The sc ient i f i c communi ty needs to overcome i t s t r ep ida t ion about

sp i r i tua l i ty and f ind ways to embrace th i s concept . Or r s t a t es :

Sc ient i s t s in a secular cu l ture a re of t en uneasy about mat t e r s of

sp i r i t , bu t sc i ence on i t s own can g ive no reason for sus ta in ing

humankind. I t can , wi th equal r igor c rea te the knowledge tha t


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wi l l cause our demise.the sp i r i tua l acumen necessary to so lve

divergent problems posed by the t r ans i t ion to sus ta inabi l i ty

cannot be achieved wi th a r e turn to some s impl i s t i c r e l ig ious

fa i th of an ear l i e r t ime. I t mus t be founded on a h igher order of

awareness tha t honors mys tery , sc i ence , l i f e , and dea th (Or r ,

2002, p . 1459) .

David Suzuki (1997) fur ther expands on the gap be tween

spi r i tua l i ty and sc ience :

by a t t empt ing to observe f r agments of na ture objec t ive ly and

wi thout emot ion , sc i en t i s t s ex t i rpa te the pass ion and love tha t

p iqued the i r cur ios i ty in the f i r s t

neal emerald

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