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SOUlheas/ 5wdies 48-69 Journal Journal oj oj SOUlht!as/ Asian Asian Swdit!s 31. 31. I I (March (March 2000): 2000): 43-69 02000 02000 by by National National University University of of Singapore Singapore ill Native Native Songs Songs and and Dances: Dances: Southeast Southeast Asia Asia in a Greater Greater Chinese Chinese Sporting Sporting Community, Community, 1920-48 1920-48 ANDREW ANDREW MORRIS MORRIS Co/gole Unil'ersify Co/gale Unil'ersil)' China China boasts boasts a a rich rich history history of of physical physical culture culture -from -from the the archery archery of of Confucian Confucian scholarly scholarly aristocratic culture. culture. to to the the kickball kickball games games used used in in military military training. training. to to ariSlOcralic polo polo and and golf golf performed to games, games, to to ice ice skating skating pageants pageants perfonned for for imperial imperial audiences. audiences. lo the the storied storied and and physical diverse diverse Chinese Chinese martial martial arts. arts. However. However. the the modem modem physicnl culture culture introduced introduced to to China China late in in lhe lhe Jme nineteenth nineteenth century century through through Japanese Japanese and and Anglo-American Anglo-American channels channels represented represented lhese a a clean clean break break from from Lhese previous previous modes modes of of physical physical endeavour. endeavour. Where Where older older Chinese Chinese ariStocrntic lhe modem genres genres were were laced laced with with values values of of martinI martinI manhood manhood or or aristocratic privilege. privilege. Lhe modern physical physical culture culture known known as as li)'u ({.f. Off) (literally, "body-cultivlllion") was was a a systemalic liyu ({.$. "K) (liternlly. "body-cultivmion") systematic wilh ideology ideology invested invested wiLh definite definite ideals ideals of of the the relationship relationship between between the the individual individual and and trealed a new new and and separale question. question. Sports Sports and and national national bodies, bodies, and and thus thus must must be be treated as as II separate cuhure physical physical education, education, callisthenics callisthenics with with a a military military Davour, recreation, recreation, flavour, physical physical culture - - physical physical fitness. fitness. all all included included in in the broad broad lhe term tenn 1;)'11 liyll - - were were closely closely connected to to notions notions conneCled nation. modem of of the the nation, modernity modernity and and a a modern citizenry. citizenry. Beginning Beginning in in the the last last years years of of the the Qing Qing J) Dynasty Dynasty (1644-191 (1644-191 I) and and continuing continuing through through the the period period of of the the Republic Republic of of China China (1912- (1912- imponanl tcaching and 49). 49). the the realm realm of of physical physical culture culture served served as as an an important conduit conduit for for teaching Bnd learning learning nation. lhe about about modernity. modernity. the the nation, and and the the duties duties of of Lhe modem modem citizen. citizen. lhe jl(,*") By By the 1920s 1920s both both modern modern sports sports and and martial martial arts arts (wushu (wushu Jit;k) were were commonly commonly a I1Ice viewed viewed as as important important modes modes of of strengthening strengthening and and modernizing modernizing II Chinese Chinese nation nation and and race considerations for for the the twentieth twentieth century. century. 7iyu-minded 7iyu-minded Chinese Chinese citizens citizens also also extended extended these these consideralions culture. the "HuaqitlO (.ff.ift-)". of of physical physical culture, modernity modernity and and national national strength strength to to Lhe so-called so-called "Huaqiao (.ff.ft-)", many. these or or "Overseas "Overseas Chinese" Chinese" population population in in Southeast Southeast Asia. Asia. To To many, Lhese Nanyang Nanyang (South (South "Greater that that could could Seas) Seas) Chinese! Chinese! represented represented a a tantalizing tantalizing link link to to a a potential potential "Grenter China" China" transcend transcend the the borders borders of of the the troubled troubled Republic. Republic. battle-scarred battle-scarred by by the the seemingly seemingly endless endless that lhe firsl warlord warlord fighting fighting Lhat plagued plagued Lhe new new nation nation over over the the first fifteen fifteen years years of of its its existence. existence. Experts lhe EJ!:pens and and planners planners in in the world world of of Chinese Chinese physical physical culture culture hoped hoped to to use use that that realm realm to to create create a a sporting sporting version version of of this this Greater Greater Chinese Chinese community. community. Where Where the the scientific. scientific. molions educational. educational. vigorous vigorous and and virile virile motions of of modem modem sport sport and and physical physical culture culture could could Iheir provide provide a a valuable valuable link link between between Chinese Chinese in in China China and and their long-lost long-lost sojourner sojourner brothers brothers and and sisters. sisters. IMy leons "Huaqillf)" Chinese"). Nanyung 1M)' use use of of the,'l,C Icons "HlIaq;ao" ("Overseas ("Overseas Chinese"), Southeast Southeast Asian Asian Chinese. Chinese. and and Nanyang Chinese illlerchangeable. (South (South Seas) Seas) Cbinese is is not not absolutely absolutely illtcrchangeable. As As Wang Wang Gungwu Gungwu has has pointed pointed out. out. the the Asia, ethnically ethnically "Hua" "Hua" (Chinese). (Chinese). majority majority of of Chinese Chinese in in Southeast Southeast Asia. while while identifying identifying themselves themselves calJ "HulJqillO". do do not not call themselves themselves "HulJqiao". Wang Wang Gungwu. Gungwu. "Political "Political Chinese: Chinese: Their Their Contribution Contribution 10 10 Modem Modem History". and OVl!rseQS Southeast Southeast Asian Asian History", in in Wang Wang Gungwu. Gungwu. China China fJIld the the China China OvtrSCQS (Singapore: (Singapore: Times Times Academic "Hutlqiao" which Academic: Press, Press, 1991). 1991). p. p. 142. 142. This This term term "Huaqiao" carries carries a a decidedly decidedly statist statist flavour. flavour. one one whic.h does resonates resonates much much more more with with official official Guomindang Guomindang or or PRC PRC nationalism nationalism than than it it docs with with the the complicated complicated SoutheaSt this identities identities of of the the Southeast Asian Asian Chinese. Chinese. Therefore. Therefore. I I use use this this term term only only to to reflect reflect Ihis official official olltionalinic Southeast stllte. nationalinic view view or or fantasy fantasy of of Southeasl Asian Asian Chinese Chinese as as forever forever loyal loyal U) U) the the Chinese Chinese Slllle. 48 48

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Page 1: NativeSongsSongs andand Dances:Dances: …

SOUlheas/ 5wdies 48-69JournalJournal ojoj SOUlht!as/ AsianAsian Swdit!s 31.31. II (March(March 2000):2000): 43-69 0200002000 byby NationalNational UniversityUniversity ofof SingaporeSingapore

illNativeNative SongsSongs andand Dances:Dances: SoutheastSoutheast AsiaAsia in aa GreaterGreater ChineseChinese SportingSporting Community,Community, 1920-481920-48

ANDREWANDREW MORRISMORRIS Co/gole Unil'ersifyCo/gale Unil'ersil)'

ChinaChina boastsboasts aa richrich historyhistory ofof physicalphysical cultureculture -from-from thethe archeryarchery ofof ConfucianConfucian scholarlyscholarly aristocraticculture.culture. toto thethe kickballkickball gamesgames usedused inin militarymilitary training.training. toto ariSlOcralic polopolo andand golfgolf

performed togames,games, toto iceice skatingskating pageantspageants perfonned forfor imperialimperial audiences.audiences. lo thethe storiedstoried andand physicaldiversediverse ChineseChinese martialmartial arts.arts. However.However. thethe modemmodem physicnl cultureculture introducedintroduced toto ChinaChina

lateinin lhelhe Jme nineteenthnineteenth centurycentury throughthrough JapaneseJapanese andand Anglo-AmericanAnglo-American channelschannels representedrepresented lheseaa cleanclean breakbreak fromfrom Lhese previousprevious modesmodes ofof physicalphysical endeavour.endeavour. WhereWhere olderolder ChineseChinese

ariStocrntic lhe modemgenresgenres werewere lacedlaced withwith valuesvalues ofof martinImartinI manhoodmanhood oror aristocratic privilege.privilege. Lhe modern physicalphysical cultureculture knownknown asas li)'u ({.f. Off) (literally, "body-cultivlllion") waswas aa systemalicliyu ({.$. "K) (liternlly. "body-cultivmion") systematic

wilhideologyideology investedinvested wiLh definitedefinite idealsideals ofof thethe relationshiprelationship betweenbetween thethe individualindividual andand trealed a newnew andand separale question.question. SportsSports andandnationalnational bodies,bodies, andand thusthus mustmust bebe treated asas II separate

cuhure physicalphysical education,education, callisthenicscallisthenics withwith aa militarymilitary Davour, recreation,recreation,flavour,physicalphysical culture -­physicalphysical fitness.fitness. allall includedincluded inin the broadbroadlhe termtenn 1;)'11liyll -- werewere closelyclosely connected toto notionsnotionsconneCled

nation. modemofof thethe nation, modernitymodernity andand aa modern citizenry.citizenry. BeginningBeginning inin thethe lastlast yearsyears ofof thethe QingQing J)DynastyDynasty (1644-191(1644-191 I) andand continuingcontinuing throughthrough thethe periodperiod ofof thethe RepublicRepublic ofof ChinaChina (1912­(1912­

imponanl tcaching and49).49). thethe realmrealm ofof physicalphysical cultureculture servedserved asas anan important conduitconduit forfor teaching Bnd learninglearning nation. lheaboutabout modernity.modernity. thethe nation, andand thethe dutiesduties ofof Lhe modemmodem citizen.citizen.

lhe jl(,*")ByBy the 1920s1920s bothboth modernmodern sportssports andand martialmartial artsarts (wushu(wushu Jit;k) werewere commonlycommonly a I1Iceviewedviewed asas importantimportant modesmodes ofof strengtheningstrengthening andand modernizingmodernizing II ChineseChinese nationnation andand race

considerationsforfor thethe twentiethtwentieth century.century. 7iyu-minded7iyu-minded ChineseChinese citizenscitizens alsoalso extendedextended thesethese consideralions culture. the "HuaqitlO (.ff.ift-)".ofof physicalphysical culture, modernitymodernity andand nationalnational strengthstrength toto Lhe so-calledso-called "Huaqiao (.ff.ft-)",

many. theseoror "Overseas"Overseas Chinese"Chinese" populationpopulation inin SoutheastSoutheast Asia.Asia. ToTo many, Lhese NanyangNanyang (South(South "Greater thatthat couldcouldSeas)Seas) Chinese!Chinese! representedrepresented aa tantalizingtantalizing linklink toto aa potentialpotential "Grenter China"China"

transcendtranscend thethe bordersborders ofof thethe troubledtroubled Republic.Republic. battle-scarredbattle-scarred byby thethe seeminglyseemingly endlessendless that lhe firslwarlordwarlord fightingfighting Lhat plaguedplagued Lhe newnew nationnation overover thethe first fifteenfifteen yearsyears ofof itsits existence.existence.

Experts lheEJ!:pens andand plannersplanners inin the worldworld ofof ChineseChinese physicalphysical cultureculture hopedhoped toto useuse thatthat realmrealm toto createcreate aa sportingsporting versionversion ofof thisthis GreaterGreater ChineseChinese community.community. WhereWhere thethe scientific.scientific.

molionseducational.educational. vigorousvigorous andand virilevirile motions ofof modemmodem sportsport andand physicalphysical cultureculture couldcould Iheirprovideprovide aa valuablevaluable linklink betweenbetween ChineseChinese inin ChinaChina andand their long-lostlong-lost sojournersojourner brothersbrothers

andand sisters.sisters.

IMy the~ leons "Huaqillf)" Chinese"). Nanyung1M)' useuse ofof the,'l,C Icons "HlIaq;ao" ("Overseas("Overseas Chinese"), SoutheastSoutheast AsianAsian Chinese.Chinese. andand Nanyang Chinese illlerchangeable.(South(South Seas)Seas) Cbinese isis notnot absolutelyabsolutely illtcrchangeable. AsAs WangWang GungwuGungwu hashas pointedpointed out.out. thethe

Asia, ethnicallyethnically "Hua""Hua" (Chinese).(Chinese).majoritymajority ofof ChineseChinese inin SoutheastSoutheast Asia. whilewhile identifyingidentifying themselvesthemselves a.~a.~ calJ "HulJqillO".dodo notnot call themselvesthemselves "HulJqiao". WangWang Gungwu.Gungwu. "Political"Political Chinese:Chinese: TheirTheir ContributionContribution 1010 ModemModem

History". and OVl!rseQSSoutheastSoutheast AsianAsian History", inin WangWang Gungwu.Gungwu. ChinaChina fJIld thethe ChinaChina OvtrSCQS (Singapore:(Singapore: TimesTimes Academic "Hutlqiao" whichAcademic: Press,Press, 1991).1991). p.p. 142.142. ThisThis termterm "Huaqiao" carriescarries aa decidedlydecidedly statiststatist flavour.flavour. oneone whic.h

doesresonatesresonates muchmuch moremore withwith officialofficial GuomindangGuomindang oror PRCPRC nationalismnationalism thanthan itit docs withwith thethe complicatedcomplicated SoutheaSt thisidentitiesidentities ofof thethe Southeast AsianAsian Chinese.Chinese. Therefore.Therefore. II useuse thisthis termterm onlyonly toto reflectreflect Ihis officialofficial

olltionalinic Southeast stllte.nationalinic viewview oror fantasyfantasy ofof Southeasl AsianAsian ChineseChinese asas foreverforever loyalloyal U)U) thethe ChineseChinese Slllle.

4848

Page 2: NativeSongsSongs andand Dances:Dances: …

49 49 SomheastSomheast AsiaAsia inin IIfI ChineseChinese SponingSponing CommuI/ityCommuI/ity

Republican·era nThisThis articlearticle willwill discussdiscuss thesethese Republican-ern imaginingsimaginings ofof a GreaterGreater ChineseChinese sportingsporting communily -- tell muchmuch aboutabout ChineseChinese notions ofof physicalphysicalcommunity imaginingsimaginings whichwhich cancan lell usus noLions cuhure 19205culture lindlind ofof thisthis elusiveelusive OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese populationpopulation duringduring thethe 1920s throughthrough thethe 19405, a1940s, ItIt isis notnot n studystudy ofof NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese physicalphysical cultureculture inin andand ofof itselfitself -- ""

thai weU lhis Rolher. pointinterestinginteresting topictopic butbut oneone thaI isis well beyondbeyond lhelhe scopescope ofof mis research.research. Rather. thethe poim aunched Chine.c;eofof thethe studystudy isis toto underst.1ndunderst.1nd thethe significancesignificance atlac:hed byby RepublicanRepublican Chinese toto "HIUlqiao""HIUlqiao"

ti)'/.I considerationpanicipationpanicipation inin thethe ChineseChinese tiyu world.world. TheThe periodperiod underunder considemtion beginsbegins inin 1920,1920, organil.8tioll Athleticwhenwhen nn privateprivate Shanghai-basedShanghai-based organization calledcalled lhelhe PurePure MartialMartial Athlelic AssociationAssociation

its the Nanynng(Jingwu(Jingwu 7i)'lllm;)7i)'lllm;) beganbegan spreadingspreading ilS famedfamed manialmanial artsarts amongamong lhe Nanyang ChineseChinese populalion.population. ItIt endsends inin 1948.1948. whenwhen severnlsevernl SoulheastSoulheast AsianAsian ChineseChinese communitiescommunities sentsent athletes Seventh National COlllpetitionalhleteS toto joinjoin inin China'sChina's Sevenlh Nalional Games.Games. aa competition modeledmodeled uponupon (and(and heldheld inin preparationpreparation for)for) thethe Olympics.Olympics.

article culture fooosTheThe wiele thusthus explOresexplOres twotwo ChineseChinese physicalphysical cullure fonns thatthat werewere distinctdistinct yetyet valid andequallyequally vaJid modesmodes ofof ShapingShaping andand sharpeningsharpening ChineseChinese bodiesbodies nnd minds.minds. DifferentDifferent

forms presented Strongfonns ofof thisthis modemmodem li)'uli)'u presenled differingdiffering idealsideals ofof howhow aa strong andand modemmodem nationnation arts, explicitlywouldwould bebe made.made. ModemModem martialmartial a.r1S, broughtbrought 1010 SoutheastSoutheast AsiaAsia purelypurely andand e.xpliciUy inin

thethe contextcontext ofof "Chinese"Chinese cuhure",cuhure", werewere understoodunderstood toto bringbring outout inin theirtheir practitionerspractitioners aa Chinese virtues."national"national essence"essence" ofof ancientancient andand timelesstimeless Chioese vin.ues. TheThe ideologyideology ofof competitivecompetitive

territorially­sports,sports, alongalong whichwhich lineslines thethe GuomindangGuomindang triedtried toto recastrecast itsits dreamsdreams ofof aa territorially· super·mHion, healthydefineddefined ChineseChinese super-milion, waswas meantmeant toto provideprovide forfor aa heallhy andand self~consciousself~conscious

citizenrycitizenry which,which, afierafier properproper training.training. couldcould beginbegin toto workwork andand playplay togethertogether asas aa team.team. fomlsTheThe overridingoverriding ideaidea ofof thesethese physicalphysical CultureCulture fOOlIS waswas inin manymany waysways thethe same:same: thethe

China healthynewnew GreaterGreater Chino wouldwould bebe basedbased inin newnew transnationaltransnational communitiescommunities ofof heallhy andand people. self-discipline 1I11entive the largermodemmodem ChineseChinese people, practisedpractised inin self·discipline andand everever 1I1lentive toto lhe Ilirger

consequencesconsequences ofof aUaU Iheir actionsactions andand movements.movements. ThisThis awarenessawarenesstheir ofof IheIhe bodybody -- "d"d specificallyspecifically ilsils potentialpotential forfor nationalnational triumphtriumph oror disasterdisaster -- couldcould onlyonly bebe laughtlaught throughthrough

educatjon, through tiYII "body·cuWvation".aa physicalphysical educatjon. lhrough aa tiYl1 "body-cuWvation". YetYet thethe forkfork atat whichwhich lheselhese new, robuSlmooel!>mooel!> divergeddiverged waswas crucial.crucial. WouldWould modemmodem physicalphysical cultureculture bebe anan agentagent ofof aa new. robust

cillture, nation·state?andand proudproud ChineseChinese cuLture, oror ofof aa powerfulpowerful andand expansiveexpansive ChineseChinese nat;oll-srole'1

Chil/a {/lid Sporrilf8 SomheaslChi/ln (lIld aa Sporrilfg SOl/theasl AsiaAsia

the trncedTheThe rapidrapid successsuccess ofof lhe tiylltiyll ideologyideology inin earlyearly RepublicanRepublican ChinaChina cancan bebe traced toto lhelhe elhnic retumingparticipationparticipation andand influenceinfluence ofof ethnic ChineseChinese athletesathletes visitingvisiting oror returning toto weirweir ancestralancestral

homelandhomeland fromfrom Hawaii, Japan, EuropeEurope andand NorthNorth America_ TheThe modemmodem sportingsporting cullureHawaii. Japan. America. cuhure to nations the thllt thecamecame 10 ChinaChina viavia thethe powerfulpowerful nalions ofof lhe globe,globe, andand ilil isis logicallogical thai me OverseasOverseas

nalions conduit IhisChineseChinese populationspopulations inin lheselhese nations wouldwould serveserve asas oneone conduil ofof this cu[ture.cu[ture.22 TheThe the daughtersparticipationparticipation inin lhe domesticdomestic ChineseChinese liyuliyu worldworld byby thesethese sonssons andand daughlers ofof HanHan nownow

innuence physical cultw-e Shanghai,~On~On lhelhe HawaiianHawaiian ChineseChinese influence onon ph)'sica1 culture 0.10.1 St.St. John'sJohn's UniversityUniversity inin Shanghai. seesee St.St. John'sJohn's Uni~'e,sity /g'J9-1929 (Shanghai:(Shanghai: 51. lohn's UniversityUniversity AlumniAlumni Assoc;iation. 1929,1929, TaipeiTaipei reprinlreprinl 1972),1972), pp.pp. 58-59.58-59. OnOn thethe HonoluluHonolulu ChineseChinese BaseBase BallBall TeamTeam thatthat joinedjoined thethe 19141914

Uniw~,sity /879-/929 SI. John's Association.

Games Eastern Shanghai, '1"heNationalNational Gllrnes atat BeijingBeijing andand thethe 19151915 FarFar Eastem ChampionshipChampionship GamesGames atat Shl\Jlghlli, seesee 11le ofChinll", YoungYoung MtnMen 11,1011,10 (1916):(1916): 526; ChenChen Xianming,Xinnming, LiangLiang YoudeYoude andand DuAthletesAthletes of China", Chin(l~Chin(l~ 526: 011

ZJrollgguo btmgqiu ylll1dOllgshi [The history baseball (WUhan: Wuhan chubanshe.Kehe,Kehe, ZJrollggllo /xJlIgqiu ylilldOllgshi {The hislOt)' ofof basl:ball inin China]China] (Wuhan: WuhfUl chubanshe, 11; China sYoungYoung Men 10.1010.101990),1990), p.p. II; J,J, Wong-Quincey,Wong-Quincey, 'The'The FarFar EasternEastern ChampionshipChampionship Games",Games", Chinn ~ Mtn

(1915):(1915): 429.429.

Page 3: NativeSongsSongs andand Dances:Dances: …

50 50 AndrewAndrew MorrisMorris

residingresiding inin modernmodern settingssettings likeHke JapanJapan lenl ananoror thethe WestWest lent authenticatingauthenticating louchlouch ofof lhe consolidateOccidentalismOccidentalism toto the ChineseChinese sportingsporting scene,scene, whilewhile alsoalso helpinghelping toto consolidale thethe

connectionsconnections betweenbetween thesethese sportingsporting practicespractices andand notionsnotions ofof aa newnew China.China. YelYel thethe ChineseChinese livingliving inin thethe coloniescolonies ofof SoutheastSoutheast Asia,Asia, particularlyparticularly thosethose inin thethe

Malaya werewere seenseen as/IS fomlingfomling the maSI impomntPhilippines.Philippines. BritishBritish Mal8}'U andand thethe DutchDutch Jndie..~,Jndie..~, me mm:! important foundationfoundation ofof thisthis diversediverse overseasoverseas sportingsporting world.world. SinceSince thethe latelate QingQing Dynasty,Dynasty, manymany

sojourners contributehadhad lookedlooked toto thesethese particularparticular OIineseOIinese sojoume~ toto contribule theirtheir shareshare toto thethe motherland.motherland. SuchSuch contributionscontributions wouldwould alsoalso serveserve 1010 createcreate bridgesbridges betweenbetween aa territorialterritorial ChineseChinese statestate

seen. irredeflfa.andand NanyangNanyang landslands seen, inin VictorVictor Purcell'sPurcell's words.words. asas terraterra irredenta.JJ TheThe "Song"Song ofof anti·Manchu scholarscholar ZhangZhang SingHn.SingHn. hintedhinted thatthat HllOqioQHllOqioQRevolution",Revolution", possiblypossibly writtenwritten byby anti~Manchu

to "re-sinicize" socontributionscontributions tQ aa ChineseChinese republicanrepublican revolutionrevolution couldcould "re~sinicize" thesethese sojournerssojourners SO f.romfarfar from thethe soulsoul ofof theirtheir racialracial community.community. PerhapsPerhaps moremore pragmatically,pragmatically, itit aJsoaJso couldcould

statuses thai there.solidifysolidify ChineseChinese claimsclaims andand staluses inin SoutheastSoutheast AsiaAsia soso that Ihere. "the"the WesternersWesterners [would] brothers".4[would) retreatretreat toto callcall youyou brolhers".4

TheThe sportingsporting connectionsconnections betweenbetween aa geographicalgeographical ChinaChina andand NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese gogo the well.backback toto tbe latelate QingQing periodperiod asas well, OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese returningreturning fromfrom SoutheastSoutheast AsiaAsia toto

ancesLraltheirtheir ancestral homeshomes (especially(especially inin MeixianMeixian County,County, Guangdong)Guangdong) broughtbrought backback rubberrubber soccersoccer ballsballs andand aa zestzest forfor thethe gamegame ofof soccersoccer learnedlearned inin thethe colonies.colonies. InIn Meixian.Meixian. ifif notnot

areas, the the Qing.inin otherother areas. tbe gamegame caughtcaught onon soso rapidlyrapidly thatthat byby thethe endend ofof lhe Qing, soccersoccer waswas partpart baveofof thethe curriculumcurriculum ofof everyevery elementaryelementary schoolschool i,ni,n thethe county.~county.~ OthersOthers have seenseen aa similarsimilar

athletically-inclined Taishan Coun<y.debtdebt toto returningreturning athJeticalJy~i.nclined sojournerssojourners inin thethe developmentdevelopment ofof Taishall Coun<y,

influence sportingOnOn thethe innuence ofof anan OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese sponing communitycommunity inin Japan.Japan. seesee WuWu Wenzhong,Wenzhong, Zhonggllo jilr btli nimr ,iYII over lastZhonggul) ji/I ooi niml liYII shishi [The[The historyhistory ofof ChineseChinese physicalphysical cultureculture o\'er thethe lasl century]century] (Taibci: yinshuguan. 19(7), Ruan Jitandong ylllldongllUi lis"i(lltibci: TaiwanTaiwan shangwushangwu yinshugunn. 1967), p.p. 95:95: RUlln Weicun,Weicun, }iWlldQlIg YlImlongAu; lisA; yllyll

[Historychengjichengji [Hislory andand RecordsRecords ofof thethe FarFar EasternEastern ChampionshipChampionship Games)Games) (Shanghai:(Shanghai: QinfenQinfen shuju.shuju. 81; "Cultivating1933),1933), p.p. 81: AndrewAndrew Morris,Morris, "Cultivuting thethe NationalNational Body:Body: AA HistoryHistory ofof PhysicalPhysical CultureCulture inin

diss.. California. SanRepublicanRepublican China"China" (Ph.D.(Ph.D. diss" UniversityUniversity ofof California, Slln Diego,Diego, 1998).1998). pp.pp. 228-29.228-29. title ZheTlgOnOn ChenChen Hanqiang.Hanqiang. anan ex-Europeanex-European lightlight middleweightmiddleweight utle beltbelt whowho coachedcoached thethe greatgreat Zheng

Oriental lind leam, sec"The"The Orienlal Cobra"Cobra" JichangJichang and thethe 19361936 ChineseChinese OlympicOlympic boxingboxing learn. see ZhouZhou Shibin.Shibin. "Yidai"Yidai qUMjiquanji zongshizoogshi -- Jicllllng" IZheng JichMg. bo.,ing masrer day). Shanghai shinllaZhengZheng Jichang" lZheng JichaJlg. bo.li»g masleJ" ofof hishis day), ShtJJlshai /i)'/I/i)'/I slJihllO

Chrai y/mdonghrli lJronghllO daibiaotuan !Jaogoo Reporr2929 (1990):(1990): 21:21: Chuxi DiDi shiyishiyi jiejie ShijieShijie yllndonghui lJronghua daibiuotuan baogao (Official(Official Rf!pon "re Chinese De/egolion '0 the Berlin,ofof ,/1f! Chinf!sf! Delf!golion 10 thf! X/tilX/til Olympiad.Olympiad. Berlin. /936)/936) (Shanghai:(Shanghai: ZhonghuaZhonghua quanguoquanguo tiyutiyu

xiejinhui. p. 10.xiejinhui, 1937),1937), SectionSection I.I. p, 10, Wong. Chicago·bomOnOn ChopperChopper Wong, thethe Chicago-born "Heavyweight"Heavyweight WrestlingWrestling ChampionChampion ofof thethe Orient",Orient", seesee

Future Wrestling The /llilstrated Week-Elld Sporting World (Jingle Jwabao)"The"The FUlure ofof Wreslling (Editorial)",(Editorial)", Thll. /lllIstratf!d Vluk-Etld Sponing WorM (ling/II. Iwahao) 3-4; Huang Boc:hang xillOzhuan" [Shon11,411,4 (1937):(1937): 3--4: "Wuguo"Wuguo shuaijillOshuaijillO mingjiangmingjiang Huan8 Dachang xiaozhuan" [Soon biographybiography ofof ourour

nation's star Bachang], tiY/l )'lIeboo (Tile MOntlrly)nalion's Slar wrestlerwrestler HuangHuang Dachang]. QinfenQinfen ti)'14 )'1111.000 (71/e ChinChin FenFen SportsSports Momlr/y) 4,54,5 (1937):(1937): 392,392,

JViclor Tht! Chinest!3Victor Purcell.Purcell. Thf! Chinese inin SoutheastSoutheast Asia.Asia. secondsecond editionedition (London:(London: OxfordOxford UniversityUniversity Press,Press, 1965).1965). p.p. 300.300.

"The Hua·Ch·iao". Gungwu, Commlllrity4Wang4Wang Gungwu,Gungwu, ''The OriginsOrigins ofof Hua-Ch'illo". inin WangWang Gungwu. Cammllllit)' mrdmrd Nation:Nation: AU!ltralia Australia.Chi/In.Chi/In. SoutheastSoutheast AsiaAsia andand Awrtralia (Kensington.(Kensington. Australia:Australia: AsianAsian StudiesStudies AssociationAssociation ofof Australia,

1992).1992). pp.pp. 7,7, 10.10. Cimin, "Meixian shihua" hiStory movement'Li'Li Cimino "Meixilln zuqiuzuqiu yundongyundong shibua" [Stories[Stories fromfrom thethe history ofof thethe soccersoccer movemenl

Meixian Guallgz!lou wens/ri x/ulIlji. ers/risi theinin Meb.ian County].County]. inin GuclIIgzhou wens/Ii liliaoliliao XllOllji, didi erslrisi jiji [Selected[Selected materialsmaterials onon lhe 24] (Guangzhou: tiliao weiyunnhui. 164-65;historyhistory ofof Guangzhou,Guangzhou, Vol.Vol. 24 J (Guang7.hou: WenshiWenshi ziliao yanjiuyanjiu weiyuanhui, 1981).1981). pp.pp. 164-tiS:

Cun1llung. chi.li wi subjccts MeixilUtLiLi Cun1JllUtg, "Haiwai"Haiwai chizi yuyu zuqiuzuqiu zhi xiangxiang Meixian"Meixian" [China's[China's overseasoverseas subjects andand Me.ixian nyu wenshi (1989);County,County, thethe homehome ofof soccer],soccer], 7iyu lI't:nshi 4040 (1989): 50.50.

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51 51 Sourhecj$t Asia {I Cllinese SponingSouthCllst Asin inin 1I Cllintse Sporting CommllnityCommllnity

GUllngdong.GUllngdong. asas thethe volleyball capitalcapitalvolleybaU ofof China.China.66 Jiao)'JI zazhi (Tire C1lr'neseByBy 1910.1910. JiuQ)'lI zazM (The Cilinese physicaJEducationalEducational Review)Review) waswas printingprinting photosphotos ofof OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese physical cultureculture endeavours.endeavours. 1'~) Java.?aa militarymilitary drilldrill exerciseexercise conductedconducted atat thethe ChineseChinese (ZJwnghua(ZJwnghua l' if<) AcademyAcademy inin Java.1

cuhureInIn thethe earlyearly RepublicanRepublican period.period. ChineseChinese werewere ableable toto learnlearn muchmuch aboutabout physicalphysical culture theinin SoutheastSoutheast Asia.Asia. ForFor example.example. lhe American-designedAmerican-designed physicalphysical educationeducation programmesprogrammes

inin thethe PhilippinesPhilippines werewere widelywidely admiredadmired inin ChinaChina asas healthyhealthy andand rationalrational formulaeformulae byby to soeial nodwhichwhich 10 refonnrefonn FilipinoFilipino SO(;ial and marriagemarriage customs.customs. advanceadvance thethe causecause ofof education,education,

could Nanyangandand strengthenstrengthen FilipinoFilipino bodies.'bodies.' SportsSports alsoalso eQuid presentpresent aa perfectperfect spacespace forfor Nanynng TheChineseChinese toto showshow theirtheir supportsupport fOrfOr China'sChina's revolution.revolution. InIn thethe fallfall ofof 1912.1912. Shanghai'sShanghai's Th~

Tnle a photograph athleticTme RecordRecord pictorialpictorial magazinemagazine publishedpublished 8 photogruph ofofanan 1I1hietic meetmeet heldheld inin SandakanSandakan thattoto commemoratecommemorate thethe firstfirst anniversaryanniversary ofof thethe WuchangWuchang UprisingUprising lhat sparkedsparked thethe 19111911

Revolution.9 ProvinciallnlerscholasticRevolution.S! AndAnd atat thethe 19211921 FujianFujian Provincial Interscholastic Games,Games, amongamong thethe prizesprizes forfor outstandingoutstanding participantsparticipants werewere sixsix silversilver cupscups donateddonated byby thethe PhilippinePhilippine universityuniversity administrationadministration andand ChineseChinese studentstudent union.union. thethe Chinese-ownedChinese-owned BenevolentBenevolent LongevityLongevity InsuranceInsurance Company.Company. andand Chinese-ownedChinese-owned lumber.lumber. textiletextile andand oiloil factoriesfactories inin Manila.Manila. 1010

cullurt. II politicaJly and viable reaJm inin borh coJonjaJcoJonjaJModernModern physicalphysical culture. a politically nnd cuhurallycuhurally viable- r~aJm both andSoutheastSoutheast AsiaAsia lind earlyearly RepublicanRepublican China.China. waswas certainlycertainly burdenedburdened withwith farfar differentdifferent

significancessignificances inin thesethese differentdifferent settings.settings. TheThe modelmodel ofof sportssports asas aa purelypurely colonialistcolonialist undenaken Soulheaslenterpriseenterprise undertaken byby thethe EuropeanEuropean powerspowers inin Southeast AsiaAsia lookedlooked veryvery differentdifferent

slructures supponing spons culturefromfrom thethe evolvingevolving indigenousindigenous siructures supporting thisthis modemmodem sports Culture inin China.China. YetYet lhisthis worldworld ofof tiyu,tiyu t nalional 10andand thethe national andand internationalinternational worldsworlds to whichwhich itit couldcould linklink itsits

represenled 10participants.participants. represented to manymany aa commoncommon groundground betweenbetween thethe RepublicRepublic ofof ChinaChina andand scattered throughoulthesethese communitiescommunities scaUered throughout thethe SouthSouth SeasSeas colonies.colonies.

PI'" Martial alld IIJ OverseaJ ExpansiollTheThe PI/~ Mortilll oNd Irs OI'eTSeos ExpoNsioll

fttSlTheThe first ChineseChinese organizationorganization toto makemake thisthis daringdaring connectionconnection toto OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese communities (JingwlI 1i)'uhui *kit {.$. t +)commul1itie~ waswas thethe PurePure MartialMartial AthleticAthletic AssociationAssociation (Jingwu 7i)'uhui *kit-f.*. t.) ofof

eslablishedShanghai.Shanghai. IIII TheThe genealogygenealogy ofof thethe famedfamed Association.Association. originallyoriginally established inin 19101910 asas thethe Martial 1icaa Xue,xiao tl"tt#-ll ¥:PurePure Mnrtial CalisthenicsCalisthenics && DrillDrill SchoolSchool (Jitlgwu(Jitlgwu 7icao Xuexiao ~klt #.ll!f: .ft.)..ft.). isis well­well­

enthusiasls Martial expertknownknown amongamong martialmartial artsarts enthusiasts today.today. Man.inl artsarts expen HuoHuo YuanjiaYuanjia leftleft TianjinTianjin

6Madeline communication.6MlKIeline Hsu,Hsu, personalpersonal communicauon. wtJri (The Chin!!$/! Edllcatiollo/ Revi~) Jiao)'ulJiao)'ulJiao)'u wthi (Thl! Chin~sl! Edl/cariollaf R~vi~) 2.72.7 (1910):(1910): 1858.1858. FromFrom 19091909 toto 1922.1922. Jiaoyu

lJllhi physical cuhurc-re.laled Chinese t;)'11lJlthi printedprinted 203203 physicaJ cuhurc-R!hued photographs.photographs. 1414 ofof whichwhich werewere ofof OverseasOverseas Chine...e ri)'11 panicipanlS Southeasl Asia.Asia. HsuHsu Yuan-mingoYuan-ming, "Jiuo)'u"Jiuo)'u UJv.iUJthi n)'un)'u Vll/opiun n~irrmg jtf-nxi (1909­(1909­panicipants inin Southea.~t v.lIopiun neinmg fl!nxi

l\nulysis phOtographs Tire Clrinese Reyiew1937)"1937)" [An[An llnalysis ofof physicalphysical culture-relatedculture-related photographs inin Tlrtf- Cln'nue EducationalEducational Rtf-view {l9O!)..1937)1.(1909-1937)1. unpublishedunpublished paperpaper (1995).(1995). p.p. 35.35.

'Jiang Weiqiao. wi tiyu"\Physical PhilippinesJ. liaoyw VJzh; 9,4sJiang Weiqlao. "FeilUbin"FeilUbin zhltiyu"'PhysicaJ cultureculture inin thethe Philippines I. Jiaoyw lJll,hi 9.4 (1917):(1917): 79--82: Qian jinngyi physical lOth;79-82: Qilln Zhixiu.Zhixiu. "'fiyu"'fiyu jiangyi (xu)"(xu)" [Lectures[Lectures onon physicaJ cultureculture (continued)].(continued)]. JiaoyuJiaoyu lOzh; 1.3 26-21.7.3 (1915):(1915): 26-27.

Ihe anniversnry Revolulion9o'NlInfllng9o'NlInfllng zhizhi GuoqingriGuoqingri (Celebration(Celebration ofof the lInnivCfSnry ofof thethe Revolution inin thethe South)",South)", ZJlfw,xiQllg Iwobao (71le rrUf! R~cord) 1,10ZhfffUi(1/I8 Ituabao (71If! TrUll Rtf-COrd) 1.10 (1912).(1912).

qtlQltSlrDIg.we.rioo j'urtdong tkJhtti baog(1() lOfflda1 Fujian Pro"inciaJIOFlljlonIOFlljlon qtllllUMf/g ~iIJO lio,,~lio,,~ j'urulong tkJhui baog(1D (OffICial ReportReport ofof !he!he Fojian Pf(willCiaJ Interscholastic (Fuzhou: FUjilltl jiaoyuting.lnterscholl&5tic Games]Games] (FuzhQu: FUjil1tl jiaoyuting, 1921).1921). pp.pp. 105-114.105-114.

liThe It'af\slation was Alhletic However.lIThe JitlgwlI'sJitlgwlI's ownown EnglishEnglish translation WItS "Chin"Chin WooWoo Athletic Association".Association". However, II preferprefer toto lr.UIslllte "Jillgll'U" intointo english, "Pure"Pure Manial" hopefUllyhopefUlly capturingcapturing IhisIhis notionnotion ofof their maninJIf'lUlslllte "Iing",u" English. Martial" Iheir mllnia!

mOSl ChiOll'S maniallradition.ansans asas thethe purestpurest andand m05t essentialessential ofof Chinn's maniaJ tradition.

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52 52 AndrewAndrew MorrisMorris

Oatteninginin 19071907 forfor Shanghai.Shanghai. wherewhere hehe quicklyquickly becamebecame renownedrenowned forfor hishis penchantpenchant forfor l1auerting ronin. Lhe Jingll'lIJapaneseJapanese rollin. RussianRussian rascals.rascals. andand otherother foreignforeign roguesrogues inin general.general. InIn 1910.1910. the ling"'!j

nalionaHsl narratives. assistancewaswas founded.founded. accordingaccording toto nalionalist narralives, withwith thethe assislance ofof RevolutionaryRevolutionary Jiaoren. 12 theAllianceAlliance figuresfigures ChenChen QimeiQimei andand SongSong Jiaoren,I2 RegardlessRegardless ofof howhow muchmuch ofof Lhe JillgJillg ..........uu

myth onc Scboolcreationcreation mylh one believes,believes, thethe foundingfounding ofof thethe PurePure ManialManial School trulytruly diddid markmark thethe manial ans.beginningbeginning ofof aa newnew eraera forfor China'sChina's indigenousindigenous maniall111s.

yeafS afler WI/shu Hun.SomeSome yeal'S after itsits foundingfounding byby thethe northernnorthern W/l:,>'11U mastermaster Huc. thethe PurePure MartialMartial camecame underunder thethe conuolconuol ofof severalseveral wealthywealthy andand connectedconnected CantoneseCantonese merchant-manialmerchant-manial

Jingwu caplainsartistsartists inin Shanghai.Shanghai. StartingStarting aroundaround 1916.1916. thesethese Jingw/I captains workedworked toto expandexpand iLSiLS mnn.inl emerprisemartial artsarts mediamedia presence.presence. (This(This publicpublic relationsrelations enterprise began.began. impressivelyimpressively enough,enough,

wilh giant artswithwith aa tensetense sparringsparring matchmatch with thethe iconoclasticiconoclastic literaryliterary giant. andand martialmartial am opponentopponent lhe YOllth!IJ) Associatioll appealloLuLu XunXun inin the editorialeditorial pagespages ofof NewNew YOllrJd I3) TheThe Associalioll triedtried toto appeal to urbanurban

wOnten equality. Ji/l811'11ChineseChinese women asas anan organizationorganization committedcommitted toto gendergender equality, Ji/lgwJl managersmanagers solidifiedsolidified aa modernmodern publicpublic imageimage byby creatingcreating andand strengtheningstrengthening tiesties toto politicalpolitical andand

Guangzhou.commercialcommercial eliteselites inin ShanghaiShanghai andand Guangzhou, TheThe successsuccess ofof thesethese agendasagendas enabledenabled itsits leadersleaders toto completelycompletely transfonntransfonn thethe PurePure MartialMartial fromfrom aa narrowlynarrowly defineddefined provincialprovincial

sciem.i1.edmartialmartial artsarts schoolschool intointo aa modernmodern urbanurban agentagent disseminatingdisseminating sdenti2cd andand nationalizednationalized manial arts.l~ ans JingwlIChineseChinese martial arts,l~ TheThe martialmartial arts ofof thethe newnew JillgwlI couldcould nono longerlonger bebe dismisseddismissed

practised peasamryasas stagnantstagnant superstitioussuperstitious ritualsrituals praclised byby thethe ChineseChinese peasantry ofof thethe imperialimperial pastpast -- aa commoncommon chargecharge everever sincesince thethe BoxerBoxer UprisingUprising ofof 1900.1900. InIn an modemmodem world.world. inin aa modemmodem economy,economy, thesethese artsarts wouldwould havehave toto becomebecome aa nationalized,nationalized, commercializedcommercialized forceforce inin theirtheir ownown right.right.

JinglVu's ultimatelyultimatelyAnotherAnother importantimportant elementelement ofof thethe Jingwu's appealappeal throughoutthroughout ChinaChina -­fifty.IWO organizatjonsallowingallowing itit [0[0 reachreach aa peakpeak ofof fifty.two branchbranch organiz.aljons -- waswas itsits workwork toto spreadspread

lhe thatmartialmartial artsarts beyondbeyond the bordersborders ofof thethe Republic,Republic, toto aa GreaterGreater ChinaChina Ihat includedincluded millionsmillions lndonesia,ofof sojournerssojourners inin SoutheastSoutheast Asia.Asia. ThisThis extensionextension southsouth toto thethe ChineseChinese ofof Malaya.Malaya. lndonesia.

CreatillgCambodia,Cambodia, VietnamVietnam andand SiamSiam waswas instrumentalinstrumental inin creating thethe powerfulpowerful imageimage ofof thethe Manial truly U1lnscendingPurePure Martial asas aa repositoryrepository ofof thethe tmly ChineseChinese ansans andand skills,skills, capablecapable ofof transcending

HokkienRepublicanRepublican bordersborders andand advancingadvancing alongalong thethe coursescourses ofof thethe CantoneseCantonese andand Hokk.ien in Southeastdiasporasdiasporas ill SoutheaSI Asia.Asia.

impelus to Slart lhe clime whenwhen Huo'sHuo's starstar pupilpupil LiuLiuj~Thej~The finalfinal impetus 10 start tbe organizationorganization supposedlysupposedly Clime Zhenliheng 1,Q scare away barnSlonning musc.lemal\ stirringZhensheng waswas ableable lO sc.'U'e ay,'ay aa barnSlomung foreignforeign musc.leman whowho waswas stirrinS upup troubletrouble

brOlhels and vice. thai the Cbinainin Shanghai'sShanghai's brothels aad otherother densdens ofof vice, publiclypublicly claimingclaiming that [be wholewhole ofof China couldcould COmpetilion 10 "nattenprovideprovide nono competition forfor hishis strengthstrength andand fightingfighting abilities,abilities, andand pledgingpledging to "Oatten anyany SickSick

ManMan ofof EastEast Asia"Asia" whowho dareddared challengechallenge him.him. TheThe foreignforeign knaveknave waswas eithereither RussianRussian oror English.English. lhe hears. Zhollgguodependingdepending onon whichwhich versionversion ofof the StoryStory oneone hcar.I. KuangKuang WennanWennan andand HuHu Xiaoming,Xiaoming, ZJumgguo

(;)'14 shihua Ihems athletics] shushe, p.tiyu shihulJ [Items fromfrom lhelhe historyhistory ofof ChineseChinese llthleticsl (Chengdu:(Chengdu: BaduBadu shllshe, 1989),1989), p, 219;219; Zhonggllo Pll nitm. "Aiguo tiyuhui"WuWu Wenzhong.Wenzhong. ZllOnggllo jill boiboi njtm, p.p. 40:40: JiangJiang Zhihe,Zhihe, "/\iguo dede JingwuJingwu tiyuhlli" [The[The

Manial shi/II/apatrioticpatriotic PurePure Martial AthleticAthletic Association].Association]. ShanghaiShanghai li)'11li)'11 shilll/a 3030 (1991):(1991): 36;36; HanHan Xizeng,Xizeng, Chen Yingshi's"Jianping"Jianping Chell YingshiYingshi fnqifnqi chuangbanchuangban Jingwuhui"Jingwuhui" [A[A briefbrief evaluationevaluation ofof ChenChen Yingsbi's rolerole inin

Martini Shang/wj slriJlIIulaunchinglaunching andand foundingfounding thethe PurePure Martial School],School], Shang!tai ti)'1Jti)'1J slriJlIIa 2929 (1990):(1990): 32.32. 1J.'Quanshu qunnfei" bandits], Xin Jeunew~)1:J.'Quanshu yuyu quanfei" [Boxing[Boxing andand BoxerBoxer bandits]. Xi/I qingnianqingnian (lA(lA Jeundse) 6,26,2 (1919):(1919):

218-21. exChange lllso de.~cribed 451}-52,113-21. ThisThis eJ:.chnngc isis also dc.~bed inin Morris.Morris. "Cultivating"Cultivating thethe NationalNational BooY",BooY", pp.pp. 450-52, lind Contesled Pasl: History JOl/mal ofand PaulPaul A.A. Cohen,Cohen, "The"The Contested Past: TheThe BoxersBoxers asas Hislory andand Myth",Myth", Journal oJ AsianAsian

51.1SwdiesSwdies 51,1 (1992):(1992): 84-87.84-87. "Cultivating NalionalI~Morris,I~Morris, "Culliv31ing thethe Na[ional Body",Body", pp.pp. 441-65.441-65.

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53 53 SOlllfleas( Sporring COtmmmirySOli/beast AsiaAsia illill aa ChineseChinese Sportillg Comlfumit)'

pro\'ided goldengolden opportunityopportunity forfor thelhe savvysavvyThisThis NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese presencepresence provided aa once-Pure wilJbusinessmenbusinessmen nownow illill chargecharge ofof thisthis once4 Pure MartialMartial system.system. asas will bebe discusseddiscussed below.below.

ButBut thisthis enigmaticenigmatic OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese populationpopulation alsoalso representedrepresented anan importantimportant challengechallenge WIts/lit lnlditions. the 1920s.toto thethe bearersbearers ofof thesethese wilsIIll traditions. ByBy lhe earlyearly 19205. itit waswas clearclear thaithai thethe unfortunateunfortunate

lrends HuaqillOandand uglyugly politicalpolitical trends inin thethe newnew ChineseChinese RepublicRepublic hadhad failedfailed toto rouserouse thesethese Hllaqiao homes.fromfrom theirtheir pragmaticpragmatic loyaltiesloyalties toto theirtheir adoptedadopted NanyangNanyang homes, TheThe PurePure MartialMartial expansionexpansion

Southeast thaIintointo Soumeast AsiaAsia gambledgambled that thethe culturalcultural traditionstraditions embodiedembodied inin thesethese ancientancient (yet(yet safely manialsafelY modernized)modernized) martial ansans wouldwould succeedsucceed inin reunitingreuniting thesethese sojournerssojourners withwith theirtheir molherland Grealer conneclionsmotherland inin aa newnew culturalcultural Greater China.China. PhysicalPhysical cultureculture connections betweenbetween thethe

NanYllng throughoUlROCROC andand Nanyang ChineseChinese continuedcontinued throughout thethe RepublicanRepublican period.period. butbut thethe PurePure Manial 1920s represenls lhis mostMartini modelmodel developeddeveloped inin thethe earlyearly 19205 represents this notionnotion ofof cultureculture asas thethe moSt

these times.logicallogical basisbasis forfor aa GreaterGreater ChinaChina inin mese messymessy politicalpolitical times, Jing"'u 10 senmlesslyNotNot onlyonly diddid thethe Jingwil extensionextension to SoutheastSoutheast AsiaAsia fitfit seamlessly withwith ChineseChinese

cultural\y-defined Cbina. tbei.maginationsi.maginations ofof aa transcendenttranscendent andand c.uhurn.lly-defined China. butbut the PurePure MartialMartial projectproject woo the coplureaJso camecame atat justjust me rightright timetime toto capture thethe interestsinterests ofof thethe NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese population.population. ItsIts formulaformula ofof enlightenedenlightened martialmartial artsarts andand cleanclean modemmodem livingliving -- soso uniqueunique andand totalizingtotalizing

felt 10 doclrine "Jingwu~ism"(Jingw/lz.huyi kitthatthat membersmembers feli comfortablecomfortable referringreferring to theirtheir doctrine asas "JingwlI~ism"(Jj"gwllzJlltyi kk Ai. ;it)I! - encompassedencompassed manymany valuesvalues thatthat suitedsuited thethe needsneeds ofof thesethese SoutheastSoutheast AsianAsiani<.i. j(,)I! ­

as well,ChineseChinese ns well. WangWang Gungwu.Gungwu. inin hishis workwork onon thethe "limits"limits ofof NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese 1920s. IIInationalism"nationalism" inin thethe 19205. hashas writtenwritten onon thisthis group'sgroup's growinggrowing dismaydismay at thethe disturbingdisturbing

fatefate ofof thethe Republic.Republic. HeHe identifiesidentifies aa decideddecided tumtum fromfrom pro-Republicanpro-Republican nationalismnationalism towardtoward nn idenlityan understandingunderstanding ofof ChineseChinese identity basedbased inin thethe veryvery realreal problemsproblems ofof theirtheir treatmenttreatment

futures. futures.inin thethe coloniescolonies wherewhere theythey nownow plannedplanned theirtheir furures. 1616 However.However. brighteningbrightening thesethese futures, thanandand thethe futuresfutures ofof theirtheir children,children, wouldwould requirerequire moremore thlln JUStJUSt thethe "sound"sound modemmodem ChineseChinese

attractededucation"education" thatthat WangWang cites.cites. ManyMany ofof thesethese NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese werewere quicklyquickly Oltracted toto thethe modernized manial ans broughtpromisespromises heldheld withinwithin thethe modemized martial art5 broughl toto theirtheir homeshomes byby thethe eagereager

agents Martial.proselytizingproselytizing agentS ofof thethe PurePure Mll.rtial. JillglV/I'S appropriately­TheThe JillgWlI'S expansionexpansion intointo SoutheastSoutheast AsiaAsia beganbegan inin 1919.1919. whenwhen thethe approprintely­

'''Qitmsya'' alE. reponernamednamed HuangHuang QiangyaQiangya ("QitIllS}'o" Q3E. meaningmeaning "Strong"Strong Asia"),Asia"), aa ShanghaiShanghai reporter M/lmafandand keykey PurePure MartialMartial member.member. wentwent toto workwork forfor thethe ChineseChinese MUlllu! BenefitBenefit TimesTimes

(Yiqlmbao JLtf411) Lumpur.(Yiqllllbao .A 'lf411) inin KualaKuala Lumpur, HuangHuang soonsoon foundfound therethere aa groupgroup ofof OverseasOverseas " befor!:ChineseChinese youthyouth whowho enjoyedenjoyed practisingpractising manialmanial artSartS withwith him.him. It waswas notnot longlong befo~ LuoLuo

Xiao·ao. Guangzhou Association. travelJedXiao·so. DirectorDirector ofof thethe Gunngzhou PurePure MartialMartial Associalion. travelled toto thethe MalayanMalayan Peninsula. martial arts and Jin8"'11Penil1sula. teachingteaching manial am 3J1d spreadingspreading thethe JingwlI word.word. 1717 CalculationsCalculations ofof thisthis

letlersNanyangNanyang marketmarket paidpaid off.off. andand thethe MalayanMalayan ChineseChinese couldcould notnot getget enough.enough. TheirTheir lellers pouredpoured intointo thethe officesoffice.... ofof thethe Centrnl J;'lglI'lI inin Shanghai.Shanghai. requestingrequesting copiescopies ofof thethe PurePureCentml J;'lg"'u Manial Constilution represenlatives 10Martial Constitution andand regulations.regulations. andand askingasking thatthat representatives bebe sentsent to helphelp foundfound AssocintionAssocintion branchesbranches inin thesethese OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese communities.communities.

zhi jiangJai" [The futureI~LuI~Lu Weichang.Weichang. ''Zhongguo''Zhongguo wushuwushu wi jianglw"lThe futute ofof ChineseChinese martialmartial artsl.artsl. InIn ViVi sailsail qumrguo }'undQrrg ,doTl ISpecial N:uionalcici qllulIgm) )'undQ/rg dahllidahlli ukon ISpecilil publicationpublication ofof thethe ThirdThird National Games]Games] (Hankou:(Hankou:

jidujilO qi\\gl\ianhui. 192.4).HankouHankou jidujiao qil\gl\ianhui. 1924). f6Wang LimilsrtiWang Gungwu.Gungwu. ''The''The Limits ofof NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese Nationalism.Nationalism. 1912-1937".1912-1937". inin WangWang Gungwu.Gungwu.

Carll/mllli/)' Nation.Conr/fluniry andand Nalinn. p.p. 50.50. 17yu Jue·an. fa1.han zhi chutan" preliminary inlollyu Jue'lin. "Jingwu"Jingwu nannan chuanchuan jiqijiqi fil1.han 1.hi chutaD" [A[A prtliminary in<Juiryin<Juiry iDlO thethe PurePure

Manial soulhern ond developmenll. Slrunghai tiY/IMartial Association'sAssociation's southern spreadspread lind developrnenll. Slranghai li)'11 shihuashihua 3030 (1991):(1991): 41.41.

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5454 AndrewAndrew MorrisMorris

amar-ing 10 lhe Spt.-ciaJ Ambassador.o"ThisThis amazing demanddemand gavegave riserise to the celebracedcelebraced lriplrip ofof thethe "Five"Five Spt.ociaJ Ambassador.;:" -- Jingwll's topfivefive ofof thethe Jingwu's lOp names,names, includingincluding Lua,Lua, ShanghaiShanghai leaderleader ChenChen GongzheGongzhe andand ShanghaiShanghai Women'sWomen's directordirector ChenChen ShichaoShichao -- toto thethe NanyangNanyang inin thethe summersummer ofof 1920.1920.

wllshuvisitingvisiting Malaya.Malaya. thethe IndiesIndies andand Indochina.Indochina. BesidesBesides lheirlheir valuablevaluable wushu know·how,know·how, thethe IbernAmbassadorsAmbassadors tooktook withwith themthem moremore thanthan 30003000 feetfeet ofof PurePure MartialMartial filmfilm toto assistassist Lhem inin

(guDe,,;passingpassing onon whatwhat theythey calledcalled theirtheir "national-essence"national-essence calisthenics"calisthenics" (guocui licaolicao IEIE ##­##­ClUED bund/e.'! seU.If)..If). TheirTheir cargo alsoalso includedincluded bundIe.'l ofof PurePure MartialMartial publicationspublications toto sell 1010 theirtheir bourgeoisbourgeois

patronspatrons inin Nanyang.Nanyang. 1818 TheseThese money~makingmoney~making possibilitiespossibilities involvinginvolving thethe newnew martialmartial artsarts ncouldcould alsoalso bebe turnedturned towardtoward nationalistnationalist ends.ends. TheThe highlighthighlight ofof meme triptrip waswas a two-nighttwo-night

10,000benefitbenefit performanceperformance givengiven byby thethe AmbassadorsAmbassadors beforebefore somesome 10.000 spectatorsspectators inin Singapore,Singapore, towithwith proceedsproceeds goinggoing 10 aidaid floodflood victimsvictims inin China.China. 1919 TheThe counsellingcounselling andand coachingcoaching ofof thethe

AmbassadorsAmbassadors waswas soso appreciatedappreciated thatthat thethe moremore enthusiasticenthusiastic locallocal ChineseChinese supponerssupponers branchesofferedoffered the.irthe.ir homeshomes andand gardensgardens asas officeoffice andand exerciseexercise space.space. ByBy 1921.1921. fourfour branChes

Kampur Associations,werewere operatingoperating inin BritishBritish MalayaMalaya -- Selangor,Selangor, SingaporeSingapore andand Kampar Associations. andand lingwu,2C expect,aa SelangorSelangor Women'sWomen's lingwu.20 AndAnd asas oneone mightmight expect. ChineseChinese businessbusiness eliteselites inin eacheach

ofof thesethese localeslocales -- likelike bankingbanking magnatemagnate LiLi liecenliecen oror SingaporeSingapore ChineseChinese ChamberChamber ofof CommerceCommerce leaderleader LinLin TuiqianTuiqian -- most 11werewere thethe mosi visiblevisible ofof thethe lingwu'slingwu's supporters.supporters.21

WangWang GungwuGungwu hashas describeddescribed thethe colonialcolonial "counter-nationalist"counter-nationalist forces"forces" atat workwork inin areasareas taken 10wherewhere NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese werewere mostmost numerousnumerous andand thethe measuresmeasures laken to arrestarrest thethe earlyearly

211920s1920s tidestides ofof nationalismnationalism inin thesethese colonies.colonies.22 HeHe seessees thesethese trendstrends leadingleading toto newnew [0choiceschoices byby OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese asas 10 howhow theythey wouldwould maintainmaintain theirtheir identitiesidentities asas Chinese.Chinese.

WangWang doesdoes notnot mentionmention thethe lingwu'slingwu's martialmartial artsarts invasion,invasion, butbut itit isis easyeasy toto seesee howhow thesethese new,ultra·"Chinese"ultra·"Chinese" formsforms couldcould serveserve asas anan importantimportant sitesite forfor thethe creationcreation ofof new. lessless

Inpartisan,partisan, yetyet fiercelyfiercely andand romanticallyromantically loyalloyal ChineseChinese identities.identities. in hishis work.work. WangWang leavesleaves nationalism,academiaacademia asas thethe onlyonly avenueavenue forfor newnew ChineseChinese nationalism. andand labelslabels thethe identitiesidentities

taughtlearnedlearned throughthrough ChineseChinese newspapersnewspapers andand textbookstextbooks asas "abstract"abstract andand cerebral.cerebral. taughl ...... was".nbutbut cutcut offoff fromfrom wherewhere thethe actionaction was".23 TheThe OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese responseresponse toto PurePure Manial,Manial,

Nanyanghowever,however, allowsallows usus 1010 movemove beyondbeyond Wang'sWang's modelmodel ofof aa purelypurely academicacademic Nanyllng Instead, laughtnationalism.nationalism. Instead. wewe seesee thatthat inin thethe cullura!cullura! ChineseChinese nationalismnationalism taught throughthrough thethe

forms, marlinl thcse ncw followcrs(OlmS, geslUresgeslUres andand traditionstraditions ofof thethe marlial arlS,arlS, these luckylucky new followers ofof thethe JillfwUJillfwU Ihe of,wayway couldcould notnot havehave beenbeen anyany moremore activelyactively engagedengaged in,in, oror anyany closercloser toto the actionaction of.

transcendentbuildingbuilding aa newnew tranSCendenl GreaterGreater China.China. lingwu aboul lheirling""u personnelpersonnel quicklyquickly becamebecame asas seriousserious about their SoutheastSoutheast AsiaAsia operationsoperations asas

leurning 1920s,thethe ChineseChinese therethere werewere aboutabout learning thesethese prizedprized arts.arts. [n[n thethe earlyearly 1920s. thethe PurePure within Jingwu organizationsMartialMartial proponentsproponents workedworked vigorouslyvigorously wilhin ChinaChina toto foundfound lingwll branchbranch organizalions

sourhem Still,throughoutthroughout thethe soulhern andand cenrralcenrral provinces.provinces. Still. thethe tremendoustremendous responseresponse fromfrom thethe

ISeai Yangwu, publicationsj,1Seai Yll.ngwu. "Jingwu"Jingwu shukanshukan xi"xi" [An[An analysisanalysis ofof PurePure Mania!Mania! AssociationAssociation publicationsj. li)'u shihI/O Zhou nlljic" [OnShanghaiShanghai liyu .shihuo 2929 (1990):(1990): 45:45: Zhau Peiyu.Peiyu. "Lun"Lun JingwuJingwu nlljie" IOn thethe heroinesheroines ofof thethe PurePure

Manial]. shihllaManial], ShanghaiShanghai riyuriyu .shihua 3030 (1991):(1991): 34.34. 19Luo Xillo'ao, jing\l'u lI'aiz)llIall [An alternative Manialll"Luo >Gao'ao. jiTlgII'1l lI'(Jiz)llIafl IAn a1temative historyhistory ofof thethe PurePure Martial'] (Shanghai:(Shanghai: JingwuJingwu

liyuhui.liyuhui. 1921).1921). pp.pp. 28-29.28-29. 20yu chuan",Wyu Jue'an,Jue'an, "Jingwu"Jingwu nannan chuan". pp.pp. 42-43.42-43. lilbid21lbid.... 42,p.p. 42. nWang Gungwu, Nationalism",22Wang Gungwu. "The"The LimitsLimits ofof NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese Nationalism". pp.pp. 51-52.51-52. lJlbidlllbid .... pp.pp. 53-54.53-54.

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a ChitlfS(' COfWllIUlitySoutheastSoutheast AsiaAsia inin (J Chitlest.> SportingSporting Cmtulllm;ty 5555

the Dong'ge,NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese waswas eveneven harderharder forfor lhe PurePure MartialMartial toto resist.resist. HuoHuo Dong·ge. secondsecond Jingwli Yuanjia, Guangzhou 10sonson ofof JingwlI founderfounder HuoHuo Yuanjia. leftleft hishis workwork atat thethe Guangz,bou branchbranch inin 19231923 lo

lenchingstaketake hishis l.enchings toto SurabayaSurabaya inin thethe Indies.Indies. SupposedlySupposedly ableable toto converseconverse inin CantoneseCantonese stint MartiaJ sU"Ucture,afterafter hishis slint inin thethe GuangzhouGuangzhou PurePure Martial SlJ'Ucture. HuoHuo soonsoon createdcreated aa kung-fukung-fu feverfever

amongamong SurabayaSurabaya ChineseChinese byby leachingleaching martialmartial ansans inin locallocal ChineseChinese schoolsschools andand holdingholding "Huopublicpublic demonstrationsdemonstrations ofof thethe ;;Huo FamilyFamily Boxing"Boxing" andand "Eight"Eight DrunkenDrunken Masters"Masters" styles.styles.

11 thllt demonSlfationsIt isis noteworthynoteworthy thtlt thesethese publicpublic demonsuutions werewere sponsoredsponsored byby thethe NanyangNanyang BrothersBrothers Company, firm attemptsTobaccoTobacco Company. thethe samesame finn whosewhose persislentpersislent (and(and sometimessometimes shameless)shameless) allemplS

nationalism, mornlity1010 positionposition themselvesthemselves asas anan agentagent ofof ChineseChinese nationalism. cultureculture andand morality inin thethe cigarclles1910s-20s1910s-20s havehave beenbeen richlyrichly documenteddocumented byby ShennanShennan Cochran.Cochran.2424 HowHow manymany cigarettes

Ihese Brolhers say,these exhibitionsexhibitions soldsold forfor thethe NanyangNanyang Brothers isis hardhard 1010 say. butbut theythey diddid createcreate anan eveneven among Jingll'umoremore potentpotent martialmartial artsarts addictionaddiction wnong SurabayaSurabaya Chinese.Chinese. AA Jitlgwu branchbranch waswas foundedfounded

Jakanatherethere inin 1924.1924. followedfollowed byby aa similarsimilar successsuccess inin Jakarta thethe nextnext year.year. 19205, twenty-two Jingll'lIDuringDuring thethe 1920s. lWenty-two otherother Jitlgwu missionariesmissionaries (including(including threethree women)women) to wushu fenile Malaya,wouldwould bebe sentsent 10 spreadspread Wluhu inin thethe ferule ChineseChinese communitiescommunities ofof Malaya. LheLhe Indies,Indies, Siam,ll IilcraJJy Ihis theirCambodiaCambodia andand Sjam.~ SomeSome ofof thesethese pioneeringpioneering martialmartial artistsartists Iirerally mademade Ibis !beir

Zhixi, Cilongdelifelife work.work. LiLi Zhixi. aa graduategraduate ofof thethe Cantonese-runCantonese-run Cl10ngde Girls'Girls' MiddleMiddle SchoolSchool inin sentShanghai.Shanghai. waswas senl toto KualaKuala LumpurLumpur inin 19211921 toto teachteach martialmartial ansans atat thethe newnew SelangorSelangor

Jingwll Association. transferred Pcnang Associalion,JingwlI Women'sWomen's BranchBranch Associalion. InIn 1923.1923. sheshe trnnsferred toto thethe Penang Association. 1990126wherewhere sheshe waswas activeactive untiluntil herher deathdeath inin 1990!26 WeiWei Yuanfeng.Yuanfeng. heirheir toto aa longlong familyfamily

lfadition atmartialmartial tradilion inin Jingxian,Jingxian, Hebei.Hebei. waswas invitedinvited al thethe ageage ofof sixteensixteen toto teachteach nonhemnonhem wJl.fh" slyies althew/lshll slyles at the ShanghaiShanghai PurePure ManialManial centre.centre. InIn 1924,1924, WeiWei waswas alsoalso sentsent toto teachteach inin

organizations 1984,21branchbranch organizalions inin Malaya:Malaya: hehe remainedremained therethere untiluntil hishis deathdeath inin 1984.27 ThanksThanks toto Nanynng bmnch, itsdedicateddedicated teachersteachers likelike these.these. eacheach Nanyang PurePure MartialMartial bronch. withwith ils representativesrepresentatives

different mania.1 lmditions,ofof China'sChina's differenl maniallrllditions. couldcould becomebecome anotheranother microcosmmicrocosm ofof thethe ChineseChinese wusllll nalion that Jay af hean ling .....u project. ~8wu.flm nation thai lay at thethe heart ofof (he(he .Iingwu project.:!!

time JinglVll heaviesFromFrom lime toto timetime Jillgw/l hcuvies fromfrom thethe CentralCentral AssociationAssociation inin ShanghaiShanghai wouldwould 10 Southeast putalsoalso ventureventure to Southcust AsiaAsia toto inspectinspect locallocal facilitiesfacilities andand pUI onon stillstill moremore martialmartial amam

demonslfations 1924,demonstrations forfor thethe adoringadoring fansfans there.there. InIn DecemberDecember 1924. aa SerembanSeremban crowdcrowd ofof somesome wlIsllu thesevenseven oror eighteight hundredhundred wllsilil aficionadosaficionados packedpacked tl1e YijingYijing MovieMovie TheaterTheater 1010 welcomewelcome

JinglVuJillgwtl messengersmessengers LuLu WeichangWeichang andand LuoLuo Xiao'aoXiao'ao toto town.town. LuLu andand LuoLuo treatedtreated thethe skills,audienceaudience toto aa demonstrationdemonstration ofof theirtheir skills. andand alsoalso 1010 PurePure MartialMartial filmsfilms andand aa slideslide

2IlShemilln Cochran, Business III Chino: Sifl(rForeign Ril'fJ/ry the Cigarette Illdustry.2IIShcrnilln Cochran. BigBig Bu.dll~ss 11/ ChiI/O.' SirltrFore;gll Rivalry i"i" th~ Cigorett~ blduslry. Harvard 1980), 173-85.1890-19301890-1930 (Cambridge:(Cambridge: nlltVard UnivcrsityUnivcrsity Press.Press. 1980). pp.pp. 63-69.63-69. 109.109. 120-21.120-21. 178-85.

Juc'an, MJingwu lhiliao"lHistorical Manial Association].:!jyu:!jyu Juc'fin, -Jingwu shiJiao"\His!oric.al mlilerialsmlilerials onon thethe PurePure Martial Associll.lion'J. ShanghaiShanghai liyu (1989):r;yu shihuoshihuo 2424 (1989); 16-17.16-17.

16yu~Yu Jue'an, "'JingwuJue·an. '''Jingwu shengnU'shengnU' -- lLi heroinc the Pure Manial]. ShllflghaiUU Zhixi"Zhixi" IU Zhixi.Zhixi. heroine ofof thc Pute Martial]. Shatlghai shihI/O (1990): 56-57: "Lon nUjie",tiyutiyu shihua 2626 (t99O): 56-57; ZhouZhou Peiyu.Peiyu. "Lun JingwuJingwu nUjie". p.p. 35.35.

)7yu Jue'an. "Jjngwu nanxing xianfeng" (Two Martial's llOuthem:nyu Jue·an. "Jingwu naruing liangliang xi:anfeng" Il\vo pion«rspion«rs ofof thethe PurePure Maroal's southern cxpansion]. Shanghai ti)'u shihlloexpansion]. Shnnshtd li)'u shihlla 2727 (1990):(1990): 40.40.

guess, imagined nalion·li~s w~re TheliAsliAs oneone mightmight guess. imllgined nalion·lies were notnot thethe onlyonly connectionsconnections operatingoperating here.here. Thc Jing",u branch Cfonlcin) wasJjngwu bl1Ulc.h inin HaiphongHaiphong (rankin) WIl$ housedhoused onon thethe premise,premise, ofof thethe XinhuiXinhui CountyCounty (Guangdong)(Guangdong)

see loyalties lUI aspeCINative-PlaceNative-Place Associalion.Associalion. allowingallowing usus toto sec howhow regionalregional loYalties werewere alsoalso an importantimportant aspect or Martial's inlO Southeast Zhongwen. "Haifllng lingwulingwu jinxun"jinxun" [NewsrNewsof thethe PurePure Mania!'s pushpush into Southeasl Asia.Asia. SuSu Zhongwen, ~Hllifang

MlUtial Jingk'u ;,uzhifromfrom thethe HaiphongHaiphong PurePure Martial branch].branch]. Ji1lS ....'u ~lJzhi 4646 (1924):(1924): 28.28.

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56 56 AlldrewAlldrew MorrisMorris

the Jingwll's pnnicularshowshow asas theythey explainedexplained lhe Jillgwu's modemizedmodemized martialmartial ans.ans.2929 ThisThis pnniculaT NanyangNanyang I.he Seremb.1Il.journey.journey. alsoalso joinedjoined byby YaaYaa Chanbo.Chanbo. includedincluded 5454 presentationspresentations justjust likelike Lhe oneone inin Seremb."UI.

Shanghai, )illgwu anolherWhenWhen LuLu andand VaaVaa returnedreturned toto Shanghai. thethe Jingwu stalwansstalwans heldheld yetyet another meetingmeeting wherewhere theythey describeddescribed conditionsconditions inin severalseveral SoutheastSoutheast AsianAsian branchbranch organizationsorganizations andand triedtried toto expressexpress toto locallocal personnelpersonnel thethe greatgreat enthusiasmenthusiasm sharedshared byby thethe NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese

mostforfor thethe PurePure Martial.Martial. PerhapsPerhaps lhelhe Illost tellingtelling anecdoteanecdote relatedrelated toto precociousprecocious ChineseChinese marketingmarketing schemesschemes inin Nanyang:Nanyang:

TheThe (wo(wo wordswords "Pure"Pure Mania)"Mania)" [Jillgll'U]lIJi1l811'1IJ! OneOne couldcould saysay thatthat theythey trulytruly stirstir deepdeep Southeastfeelingsfeelings withinwithin peoplepeople there.there. InIn everyevery localelocale inin Southe<lsi Asia.Asia. theythey lovelove toto useuse thethe

MlU1ial the wordsPurePure Martial emblem.emblem. SoSo lhe businessmenbusinessmen therethere allall addadd thethe twotwo wonis "Pure"Pure Martial"Martial" toto IheirIheir goodsgoods -- hats,likelike PurePure MartialMartial hats. PurePure MartialMartial shoes.shoes. PurePure MartialMartial firecrackers.firecrackers. Ctc.etc. EveryoneEveryone seemsseems toto lovelove it.it. andand itit isis greatgreat forfor businessbusiness too.)Otoo.)O

Jillgwu'sTheThe JillKwu'S extensionextension toto thethe OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese communitycommunity inin SoutheastSoutheast AsiaAsia speaksspeaks anotherdirectlydirectly toto anOlher differencedifference betweenbetween martialmartial artsarts andand otherother modesmodes ofof modemmodem physicalphysical

tiyll nil nation-state.culture.}1culture.}1 TheThe sportSsportS tiYII asas learnedlearned fromfrom thethe WestWest waswas all aboutabout thethe modemmodem nation-state, nations.withwith itsits emphasisemphasis onon competitioncompetition betweenbetween nations, thethe accumulationaccumulation ofof pointspoints andand scores.scores.

itsits setset andand clearlyclearly defineddefined spatialspatial andand temporaltemporal boundaries.boundaries. ParticipationParticipation inin modernmodern sportsport waswas meantmeant toto recre.1terecre.1te inin everyevery contest.contest. forfor everyevery participant.participant. thethe experienceexperience ofof livingliving andand

nation-state.32 lingwil martini thatparticipatingparticipating asas aa citizencitizen inin thethe modemmodem nation-slate.n TheThe Jingwil martial artsarts thaI itsits conslI1l.int.s.messengersmessengers broughtbrought toto thethe ChineseChinese ofof SoutheastSoutheast AsiaAsia sharedshared nonenone ofof thesethese constmints.

.."lIshll re-Iean}JoiningJoining inin thethe PurePure Martial'sMartial's wllshll allowedallowed anyone.anyone. anywhere.anywhere. thethe chancechance toto re-Ieanl what was movementswhal itit WItS likelike toto bebe Chinese.Chinese. TheThe techniquestechniques andand moVemenL'i ofof wushl/.wushl/. havinghaving survivedsurvived ManchuManchu prohibitionsprohibitions andand RepublicanRepublican ridicule.ridicule. werewere aa perfectperfect resilientresilient matchmatch forfor thethe

lindNanyangNanyang Chinese.Chinese. withwith theirtheir longlong andand oftenoften thanklessthankless serviceservice toto ChinaChina fromfrom abroad.abroad. and martial arts, nndthethe sufferingsuffering theythey hadhad endured.endured. TheThe nmrtio.l arts. supposedlysupposedly ancientancient and timeless.timeless. extendedextended

perfectlyperfectly toto thisthis boundlessboundless imaginaryimaginary calledcalled GreaterGreater China.China. TheThe Jillgll'lIJillgll'lI AthleticAthletic AssociationAssociation achievedachieved itsits greatestgreatest currencycurrency throughoutthroughout ChinaChina andand

1920s.beyondbeyond inin thethe firstfirst halfhalf ofof thethe 19205. atat thethe samesame timetime thatthat Anglo-AmericanAnglo-American sportssports werewere to Chinesebeginningbeginning 10 sweepsweep acrossacross thethe consciousnessconsciousness ofof Cbinese urbanurban youth.youth. Surprisingly.Surprisingly. thethe

anti-feudal, anti-lradirional liltleanli-feudal. anti-traditional legacylegacy ofof China'sChina's MayMay FourthFourth MovemelllMovemelll diddid Ijltle 1010 slowslow thethe Martial JingwlIadvanceadvance ofof thethe PurePure MartinI message.message. TheThe JiflgWII camecame toto dominatedominate meme ChineseChinese martialmartial

artS yearll. heavily thearts worldworld duringduring thesethese years. thanksthanks inin partpart toto policiespolicies whichwhich borrowedborrowed heavlly fromfrom lhe Western-theme<!Western-theme<! spOrtsspOrts -- namely.namely. associationassociation withwith modemmodem sciencescience andand aa literateliterate citizenry.citizenry.

Jirlgll'uandand cross-pollinationcross-pollination withwith risingrising urbanurban commercialcommercial forces.forces. TheThe Jirlgl\Pu alsoalso explicitlyexplicitly

Furong Martial Seremban]' Jingwli19o'Ji19o'Ji FUTOng JingwuJingwu huanyinghui"huanyinghui" [On[On thethe PurePure Martini welcomingwelcoming panypany inin 5eremban]. Jiflgwli lilt)'; (1924):lilt/ri 3838 (1924); 64.64.

30Jian Shijilln..oHuMying LuLu YaoYao liang zhurenzhuren huiguohuiguo ji" IOnIOn thethe welcome-homewelcome-home reception forforJOJian Shijilln. "Hunnying liaIlB ji'· re<:eption DirttlOB tothi (\914): 59--64.Dirttlors LuLu andand Yaal.Yaal. JingwuJingwu tathi 4040 (\924): S9-64.

JIThe JingwlI martialliThe JingK'1I werewere notnot thethe onlyonly RepublicanRepublican manial ansans presencepresence inin SoutheastSoutheast Asia;Asia; alsoalso notablenotable ··South Martial Squads·' organi1.ed laken fundraisingwerewere thethe "South FujianFujian Manial AnsAns Squads" organized andand tak.en toto MalayaMalaya onon fundrnising tourstours

lindbyby thethe Singapore-basedSingapore-based ChineseChinese businessbusiness leaderleader TanTan KahKah KeeKee inin 19291929 and 1930.1930. HongHong Zhengfu.Zhengfu. SII ninn lni baihequan" fYongchun'sLinLin YinshengYinsheng andand Su Yinghan,Yinghan, "Sanbai"Sanbai nian lai dede YongchunYongchun baihequan",Yongchun's WhiteWhite CraneCrane

yeanJ. wcosh;boxingboxing overover thethe lastlast 300300 yearsJ. Tt)'11Tt)'11 wCflshi 1919 (1986):(1986): 31-32.31-32. 311J11e Mnnial martial spansJ!1J'he PurePure Manial alsoalso retainedretained itsits dualdual emphasisemphasis onon maninl ansans andand Western-styleWestern-style spons inin

brntlches. [n lingll'u basketballtcamitsits SoutheastSoutheast AsiaAsia bmtIches. In fact.fact. thethe ManilaManila Jingll'lI basketball team capturedcaptured thethe 19281928 PhilippinesPhilippines basketball ohampionship. UOIlgYOII COlflpllflion)bask.etball championship. UOlIgy()1I (The(The YOllngYOllng Compllflion) 2424 (1928):(1928): 22.22.

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SOllrhed.JtSoutheast AsiaAsia inin aa ChineseChinese SportingSporting 57CommunityCommunity 57

martini the aClivitiesassociatedassociated martial amam withwith modemmodem sports,sports, creditingcrediting lhe athleticathletic activities itsits centrescentres nutriuousofferedoffered asas thethe nutritious "rice"rice andand bread"bread" whichwhich fuelledfuelled thethe movement'smovement's growth.])growth.]) InIn fact.fact.

movcmenloneone importantimportant momentmoment forfor thethe PurePure MartialMartial movement inin thethe 1920s1920s waswas thethe inclusioninclusion inin alina's (guocao III <tt, litemllyChina's 19241924 NationalNational GamesGames ofof martialmartial artsarts (gllocao Ill., Iiterully "national"national calisthenics")calisthenics")

Lhedemonstrations.demonstrations. OverOver threethree days,days, representativesrepresentatives fromfrom tenten Wuhan-areaWuhan-area schoolsschools andand the )ingwlImen'smen's andand women'swomen's JingIYu branchesbranches fromfrom Hankou,Hankou, Nanchang,Nanchang, andand KualaKuala LumpurLumpur

separate J4perfonnedperfonned 107107 separme selSselS beforebefore thethe NationalNational GamesGames crowds.crowds.14

arts, Ji"8wII 10ModemModem ChineseChinese martialmartial arts. especiallyespecially thethe JingIYu brand,brand, clearlyclearly owedowed muchmuch to thethe thai swepl Lhe twentieth-centuryideologiesideologies ofof sportsport that swept the latelate nineteenth·nineteenth· andand earlyearly twentieth..ccntury world.world. YetYet

the Jingwu imiullors Westemthethe architectsarchitects ofof lhe Jingwil werewere muchmuch moremore thanthan meremere imitators tracingtracing Western trailstrails 10to success,success, andand theirtheir martialmartial artsarts muchmuch moremore thanthan justjust aa uniquelyuniquely ChineseChinese "sport"."sport". TheThe ancienl artsancient traditionstraditions andand brightbright promisepromise thatthat thesethese newnew ChineseChinese martialmartial ans signifiedsignified werewere

Ihe theclearlyclearly aa differentdifferent propositionproposition fromfrom the modemmodem sportssports pushedpushed byby Ihe EuropeanEuropean colonialcolonial powerspowers inin SoutheastSoutheast Asin.Asin. IfIf thethe PurePure MartialMartial borrowedborrowed practicespractices andand philosophiesphilosophies fromfrom missionary-missionary- andand Chinese-runChinese-run sportingsporting programmesprogrammes inin China'sChina's cities,cities, theirtheir projectproject waswas

lhe connotauons cultumlalsoalso clearlyclearly blessedblessed withwith the perfectperfect connotations of.of. andand connectionsconnections to,to, aa cultural GreaterGreater China,

TheThe PurePure Martial'sMartial's energeticenergetic pursuitpursuit ofof aa NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese followingfollowing waswas aa keykey China.

WUShflelementelement inin theirtheir successfulsuccessful promotionpromotion ofof aa wushu productproduct longlong givengiven upup forfor deaddead byby soso 10 lhemanymany ChineseChinese modernists.modernists. TheirTheir projectproject alsoalso allowsallows usus to understandunderstand the powerpower ofof aa

culturally~defined wilh politicallyculturally-dcfined GreaterGreater ChinaChina notnot taintedtainted byby oror burdenedburdened with poUtically partisanpartisan but Jingwuconnotations,connotations, bUI createdcreated andand reproducedreproduced inin eacheach Jingwil branchbranch oror NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese

pmetised wflSllUhomehome withwith everyevery practised repetitionrepetition ofof wlishu traditions.)'traditions.)'

Grwmi"dang "Huaqiao" CommunityTireTire Gllomilldallg StateState andand itsits SportingSporting "H/laqiao" Commllniry

TheThe GuomindangGuomindang (Nationalist(Nationalist Party)Party) state,state, establishedestablished alal NanjingNanjing inin 1927,1927, waswas thethe govemment structure Republic.firstfirst totalizingtotalizing andand stablestable centralcentral government strUcture inin thethe historyhistory ofof thethe Republic, TheThe

exercised administraliveGuomindangGuomindang (KMT)(KMT) e,;ercised tOlaltOlal administrative controlcontrol overover onlyonly aa fewfew ofof China'sChina's provinces, bUIcentralcentral prOvinces, but itsits relativelyrelatively solidsolid financialfinancial andand ideologicalideological basebase allowedallowed thethe

10 nalion-stale.NationalistsNationalists finallyfinally toto gelgel downdown to thethe businessbusiness ofof buildingbuilding aa modemmodem nauon-sIBle. AmongAmong cullural political shifts thisthethe manymany cultural andand poUtical shirts thatthat camecame withwith Ihis newnew statestate werewere changeschanges inin

cuI lure imaginalions IheRepublicanRepublican physicalphysical culture policy,policy, andand alsoalso inin ChineseChinese imaginations ofof the NanyangNanyang landslands andand theirtheir OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese residents.residents.

OneOne ofof thethe innovationsinnovations ofof thethe newnew statestate waswas thethe explicitexplicit partisanpartisan politicizationpoliticization ofof polilical context. political culrure world.ChineseChinese Ii)'u.Ii)'u. TheThe newnew political contex!, andand itsits eXlensioneXlension 1010 IheIhe polilical cullure world,

Chinu" Pun: Manial occeplable.meantmeant thatthat thethe oldold "cultural"cultural China" modelmodel ofof thethe Pure Martini couldcould nono longerlonger bebe acceptable. cullure tiyflNationalistNationalist physicalphysical culture couldcould littlelittle affordafford suchsuch vagueness:vagueness: nownow thisthis tiYII realmrealm wouldwould

(tI\.~), "nauon-race".bebe directeddirected towardtoward buildingbuilding aa unitedunited ChineseChinese milllUmilllU (~;ij:), oror "nation-race", TheThe officialofficial

)'undong" {On lhe Purellzhongllzhong Ruiqiu.Ruiqiu. "Lun"Lun JingwuJingwu tiyuhuitiyuhui yuyu XjnXjn wenhuawenhua yundong" (On the Plm MartialMartial AthleticAthletic lind Movement), shihuaAssociationAssociation and thethe NewNew CultureCulture Movemenll, ShanghaiShanghai tiyutiyu shihllt1 2929 (1990):(1990): 40.40.

)oOChen )'undonghui full account~Chen 1iesheng,1iesheng, "Oi"Oi sunsun jiejie quanguoquanguo yundonghui guocaoguocao jishijishi benmo"benmo" (A(A fullll.ccoulll ofof thethe calisthenics demonstration at Jing\\'unationalnational cnlisthenics demonstrational thethe ThirdThird NationalNational Games],Games], Jingwu tatA;tatA; 4242 (1924):(1924): &-8.&-8.

)SIt similnr that the Jingl'l'lI's SOulheasl)Sit isis perhapsperhaps aa simillU" logiclogic thai sustainssustains !.he Jifl8l'1'll'S popularitypopularity inin Southeasl AsiaAsia toto thisthis JirtS"'u Mala)'siaday:day: contemporarycontemporary worldwideworldwide JiflgM'U rostersrosters areare stillstill dominateddominated byby bl1lnchesbl1lnches inin Malaysia andand

Singapore.Singapore.

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58 58 AndrewAndrew MorrisMorris

1930s Guomindang,19305 physicalphysical cultureculture agenda,agenda, followedfollowed byby manymany educatorseducators loyalloyal toto thethe Guomlndang, culture masses".calledcalled forfor thethe creationcreation ofof aa "physical"physical cullure forfor thethe masses", wherewhere proper,proper, scientificscientific

physicallrainingphysical training wouldwould allowallow allall ChineseChinese toto becomebecome efficientefficient membersmembers ofof thethe productionproduction "minzu Ornerforceforce andand ofof thethe newnew muscularmuscular "minz.u (national-racial)(national-racial) body".body". Other hard-linehard-line KMTKMT

elementSelementS pushedpushed forfor aa newnew "militarized"militarized physicalphysical culture"culture" curriculumcurriculum designeddesigned alongalong German ]joes.ItalianItalian andand Gennan Hoes.

pmgmaticAlongsideAlongside thesethese heavilyheavily politicizedpoliticized blueprints.blueprints. however,however, waswas aa moremore pmgmntic emphasisemphasis onon thethe conventionalconventional sportssports -- soccer,soccer, basketball,basketball, tracktraCk andand field,field, tennis.tennis. andand soso onon -- onon

founded. II this sportingwhichwhich thethe intemaLiomJ.!intemaLiomJ.! sportingsporting stagestage waswas foundt:d. It waswas inin mis sponing spacespace thatthat newnew imaginationsimaginations ofof aa SoutheastSoutheast AsianAsian ChineseChinese sportingsporting communitycommunity werewere nownow basedbased asas well.well.

sports -- shouldshould bebe understoodunderstood asasTheThe focifoci ofof thisthis sportS tiyutiyu teamworkteamwork andand sportsmanshipsportsmanship -­nalion-slatepanpan andand parcelparcel ofof thethe nation-state ideology.ideology. SportsSports werewere self·consciouslyself·consciously rationalrational andand

modemmodem withwith theirtheir measurements.measurements. times.times. physicalphysical andand behaviouralbehavioural boundaries,boundaries, rulesrules andand regulations:regulations: theirtheir mythsmyths ofof freefree movementmovement andand "natural""natural" motions:motions: andand theirtheir celebrationcelebration

ideals, make·believeofof modernmodern masculinemasculine ideals. SponsSpons providedprovided thethe groundsgrounds forfor make-believe DarwinistDarwinist that thestrugglesstruggles mat wouldwould cultivatecultivate me competitivecompetitive instinctinstinct soso necessarynecessary forfor survivalsurvival inin thethe

the themodemmodem world.world. TheseThese sportingsporting strugglesstruggles wouldwould alsoalso conditioncondition me team'steam's membersmembers forfor me ideologiesideologies ofof "friendly"friendly struggle"struggle" andand "fair"fair competition"competition" the nation-staleunderunder whichwhich !.he natioll-state systemsystem andand capitalismcapitalism justifiedjustified theirtheir tandemtandem globalglobal eltpansion.eltpansion. FromFrom thethe latelate 1920s1920s on,on, China'sChina's sportingsporting tiesties withwith thethe NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese wrerwrer bebe conceivedconceived inin thisthis realmrealm ofof

sportcompetitivecompetitive spon asas anan instrumentinstrument ofof thethe modemmodem ChineseChinese nation-state.nation-state. mania]TheThe manial artsarts werewere stillstill veryvery privilegedprivileged inin thethe newnew ChineseChinese statestate tiyutiyu apparatusapparatus asas

valuablevaluable (if(if still,still, toto some,some, embarrassinglyembarrassingly superstitioussuperstitious andand un-scientific)un-scientific) legacieslegacies ofof thethe "national"national essence".essence". TheThe Guomindang,Guomindang, eagereager toto conscriptconscript thisthis crucialcrucial genregenre forfor thethe

loadedNationalistNationalist cause,cause, louded thethe categorycategory ofof martialmartial artsarts withwith entirelyentirely newnew connotationsconnotations ofof arts. the glloshll mAtpanypany andand state.state. MartialMartial ans. nownow knownknown officiallyofficially asas lhe guoshu III -+:. oror "national"national arts",arts",

re<::ipient Slate institutionalized Martialwerewere thethe recipient ofof generousgenerous state fundsfunds andand werewere instilUuonalized inin thethe CentralCentral Manial (ZIlOllg)'(mg GUOShllglWll epof *'* IIIIII ;it{J) structure.structure. OldOld PurePure MartialMartialArtsArts AcademyAcademy (Zllong)'(mg Gllosllliguon At -tJ)

that JinglVlI's theconnectionsconnections paidpaid offoff handsomelyhandsomely forfor thisthis organizationorganization lhat tooktook thethe JinglVu's placeplace inin lhe order. statenewnew ChineseChinese order, asas smte fundingfunding waswas supplementedsupplemented inin 19281928 byby OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese

totalling Ylllln. Glloshugllan'scontributionscontributions LOtalling 250.000250.000 )'lIan.3636 However,However, thethe GlloshugllQIl'S purelypurely statestate orientationorientation manial arts-mindedfailedfailed toto captivatecaptivate forfor longlong thethe martial ans-minded ChineseChinese ofof SoutheastSoutheast Asia.Asia. Instead.Instead.

organiz.ation wh.ichthethe latterlatter remainedremained loyalloyal toto aa PurePure ManialManial organization which diddid notnot revolverevolve aboutabout thethe party·stare, ralher lhroughGuomindangGuomindang pany-stme, butbut rather operatedoperated through unofficialunofficial networksnetworks traversingtraversing lhelhe Nanyallg remnant's cilyseasseas betweenbetween Nanyang andand JillgwuJillgwu remnants inin thethe coastalcoastal city ofof Xiamen.Xiamen.3737 (Indeed.(Indeed.

Southeast Ibis butterSoulheast AsianAsian ChineseChinese havehave toto lhis dayday remainedremained thethe breadbread andand butler ofof thethe PurePure Manial thirty·fiveMartial Association:Association: ofof thirty-five registeredregistered "Chin"Chin Woo"Woo" branchesbranches operatingoperating aroundaround thethe

lhirteen theseworldworld inin 1999.1999. thincen areare locatedlocated inin lhese ASEANASEAN nations.nations. asas opposedopposed toto justjust si;<si;< inin thethe PRC.)!)PRC.31)

:l6Lin ZJrongglio WU.shll .shi mania! (Taibei:36Lin Boyuan.Boyuan. ZJronggllo WUShl1 shi (The(The hisloryhislory ofof ChineseChinese martial ansIansI (Taibci: WuzhouWuzhou 19%).chubanshe,chubanshe, 1996). p.p. 448.448.

3?Motris. "Cultivating tt\e. National 4%31Motris. "Cu\\ivating Ike Nalional Body",Body", p.p. 4S I.I. }I"Western family".Y''Western AustraliaAustralia ChinChin WooWoo AthleticAthletic AssociationAssociation Incorporated;Incorporated; ChinChin WooWoo -- OneOne BigBig fl1JOily".

<htlp.1lwww.chinwoo.com.3U>.<hup:llwww.chinwoo.com.:lU>.

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$Qldheast ClJitlese Community 59$oldheast AsiaAsia inin aa ClJinese SportingSporting CommuniI)' '9

NotionsNotions ofof aa sportingsporting GreaterGreater ChinaChina becamebecame dominateddominated byby ideologiesideologies ofof competitivecompetitive sports,sports, which,which, inin manymany ways. mademadeways, itit easiereasier toto imagineimagine actualactual "national""national" ticstics -- Utisbyby lhis

the century. bclWeen thethe RepublicRepublic andandpointpoint inin !he twentiethtwentieth century, thethe onlyonly typetype thatthat matteredmattered -- between sojourners.itsits long-lostlong-lost overseasoverseas sojoumers. PurcellPurcell identifiedidentified aa BritishBritish "fear"fear ofof aa highlyhighly organizedorganized

handling Malaya, Nationalistimperiumimperium inin imperio"imperio" inin lheirlheir bandling ofof thethe KMTKMT presencepresence inin Malaya. wherewhere Nlltionalist local nationalil)'agentsagents workedworked toto spreadspread amongamong loeaJ ChineseChinese SunSun Yat-sen'sYat-sen's theorytheory "that"that nationality

thejUJ' notjlLf solf',* lempted 10followedfollowed !hejm sanguinissanguinis andand notjtlS solf'.* OneOne maymay bebe Lempted to seesee BritishBritish concernsconcerns aboutabout ChineseChinese nationalismnationalism andand itsits destabilizingdestabilizing effectseffects onon colonialcolonial rulerule asas smackingsmacking ofof

with patriOlicparanoia.paranoia. YetYet wewe shouldshould keepkeep inin mindmind thethe realreal fervourfervour wilb whictlwhictl loyalloyal andand patriotic agents attempted lhe great anti·imperialist Chinese,olOKMTKMT agen~ theanempled toto bringbring !he grt:at anti·imperiaJist stnlgglestnlggle toto !he NanyangNanyang Chinese.olO

andand howhow easilyeasily thisthis assertivenessassertiveness maymay havehave spilledspilled intointo GreaterGreater ChineseChinese visionsvisions ofof aa newnew tbe SouLh Seas,·'empireempire extendingextending intointo the South Seas.· ,

lies the tbeTheseThese "national""national" ties couldcould alsoalso bebe reproducedreproduced inin lhe sportingsporting world.world. StartingStarting inin the 1920s,latelate 19205, SoutheastSoutheast AsianAsian ChineseChinese werewere commoncommon panicipantspanicipants inin China'sChina's mostmost crucialcrucial

sportingsporting eVents,eVents, fromfrom thethe NationalNational GamesGames toto thethe FarFar EasternEastern ChampionshipChampionship GamesGames andand eighLhChina'sChina's OlympicOlympic team.team. InIn 19271927 ShanghaiShanghai hostedhosted thethe eighth meetingmeeting ofof thethe FarFar EasternEastern

Chinese.ChampionshipChampionship Games,Games, aa (usually)(usually) biannualbiannual competitioncompetition amongamong Chinese, JapaneseJapanese andand summer, it thatPhilippinePhilippine IslandsIslands athletes.athletes. ThatThat summer. il waswas announcedannounced lbat thethe ChineseChinese FECGFECG teamteam

(answouldwould includeinclude twotwo outstandingoutstanding NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese tennistennis players.players. SportsSports fans surelysurely hopedhoped thatthat theirtheir helphelp inin defeatingdefeating thethe powerfulpowerful JapaneseJapanese squadsquad mightmight somehowsomehow reflectreflect onon aa strong yetyet veryvery fewfew peoplepeople eveneven seemedseemedstrOng andand worthyworthy GreaterGreater ChineseChinese presencepresence inin AsiaAsia -­

the. athleles. lhemtoto knowknow the namesnames ofof thesethese athletes. OneOne ChineseChinese sourcesource couldcould onlyonly callcall them (in(in the Singapore.·1 another "!heEnglish)English) lbe "Cheong"Cheong brothers"brothers" fromfrom Singapore.'2 whilewhile anolber referredreferred toto themthem asas '·the

Chine.se tennisChinese lennis playersplayers whowho defeateddefeated thethe AragonAragon BrothersBrothers inin ManilaManila andand whowho areare nownow staying Rt Shanghai, the [ndonesianSlaying at SingaporeSingapore......·)·) AfterAfter arrivingarriving inin Shanghai. lbe lndonesian ChineseChinese starsstars KhooKhoo

Lorn cleared aboulHooi-hyeHooi-hye andand GordonGordon Lum eleared upup allall questionsquestions about theirtheir identitiesidentities byby leadingleading thethe JaplUlese lUldChineseChinese tennistennis teamteam toto aa victoryvictory overover thethe Japanese and FilipinoFilipino contingents.contingents. TheirTheir successsuccess

"H/loqiao"alsoalso sparkedsparked aa newnew trendtrend ofof SoutheastSoutheast AsianAsian '·HlIllqiao·· participationparticipation inin thethe ChineseChinese nalionalnational sportingsporting scene.scene.

ByBy thethe 1930s, itit waswas fuHyfuHy expectedexpected ofof ethnicethnic ChineseChinese alhletes who excelledexcelled inin theirtheir1930s. athletes wbo that lhey loyaltynativenative SoutheastSoutheast AsianAsian environmentsenvironments thai they wouldwould showshow theirtheir uueuue loyo.lty byby joiningjoining thethe

squads,44 they prefer rolherROCROC sportssports squads.<M ThatThat lbey wouldwould preFer toto representrepresent thethe RepublicRepublic ofof ChinaChina rather thanthan the world­eveneven theirtheir OwnOwn nativenative countriescountries becamebecame commoncommon sensesense inin !he ChineseChinese sportingsporting world ­

whether travelling towhelber itit waswas OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese b'llvelling toto NanjingNanjing oror ShanghaiShanghai 10 participateparticipate inin thethe

YJPurceIl. Chjn~s~ S()Ulh~astJ'}PurccIl. Th~Th~ Chin~5~ inin SaU/h~a5t Asia.Asia. pp.pp. 299-300.299-300. ~ell Dutch this pp,olOJ>urcell alsoalso describesdescribes ChineseChinese nationalismnationalism inin thethe DUlch IndiesIndies duringduring lhis periodperiod (ibid"(ibid" pp.

466-67).448-50,448-50, 466--67). •lPor laler see 19SOs-era1950s-era "maps""maps" ofof II QingQing4lFor !Iller examplesexamples ofof thisthis typetype ofof imaginedimagined GreaterGreater China,China, $Ceo a

Dynasly Ihat Southeast Slephen Uhal1ey "'GrealerDynasty that coveredcovered allall ofof conlinentalconlinental Southeasl AsiaAsia inin Stephen Uhalley JrJr.... '·'Greater China':China': Term", Positions 277-78.TheThe ContestContest ofof aa Term". Po~ition5 2,22,2 (1994):(1994): 277-78.

•2"Di ba zhi Par42·'Oi bll jiejie YuandongYuandong yundongyundong dahuidahui ziti ltiansheng"ltiansheng" [Welcoming[Welcoming thethe EighthEighth Far EasternEastern Jiao)'u w<fti EducatioMJChampionshipChampionship Games!.Games!. }iao)'u W<ft; (The(The Educat;oMI Review)Review) 19.719.7 (1927):(1927): 9.9.

U,'WhaCI nyu (Physical EducQtion) 1,24lo'WhaCI WhalWhal inin thethe SportingSporting World",World", 'li)'u (Phys(ca/ Education) 1.2 (1927):(1927): 33.33. ""ntis likewise waswas truetnIe ofof thethe HonoluluHonolulu Chine5eChinC5C baseballbaseball learn,team, whowho camecame backback 10 represent.""This li~ewise to represent

the GlIJI\C5 anerChinaChina inin lhe 19271927 FarFar EasternEastern ChampionshipChampionship GlI.Ille5 after aa twelve-yeartwelve-year absence.absence.

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60 60 AndrewAndrew MorrisMorris

Games,NationalNational G:lmes. oror eveneven (as(as inin thethe casecase ofof severalseveral soccersoccer playersplayers fromfrom SingaporeSingapore andand thethe learnIndies)Indies) joiningjoining thethe ROCROC OlympicOlympic team inin 1936.1936.

ainightAssumptionsAssumptions aboutabout thethe loyaltiesloyalties ofof thesethese OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese athletesathletes werewere soso airtight Championships, 19341934 andand joinedjoined byby lhelhethatthat thethe TenthTenth FarFar EasternEastern Championships. heldheld inin ManilaManila inin

fin;t nDUIChDUICh EastEast IndiesIndies forfor thethe fin;( time,time, createdcreated a substantialsubstantial crisiscrisis inin thethe ChineseChinese sportingsporting world.world, TheThe IndiesIndies soccersoccer learnlearn includedincluded fivefive ethnicethnic ChineseChinese players.players. leadingleading oneone ChineseChinese

10 talem (Chuobserverobserver (0 remark,remark, "They"They areare falem (rom(rom ourour nationnation beingbeing employedemployed byby anotheranother (Clm Jill Yfmg. lile whatwhatell;ell; Ii,. )'ollg. literallyliterally "talent"talent ofof lhe ChuChu kingdomkingdom beingbeing employedemployed byby thethe Jin")Jin") -­

aa pit)'pit)' lhatlhat theythey cannotcannot fightfight forfor gloryglory forfor thethe nalion!"'4~nalion!"'4~ ThisThis authorauthor usedused thethe samesame fruSlrated to tennis starfrusltated phmsephmse (0 describedescribe KhoKho Sin+kic.Sin+kic. anotheranother JavaneseJavanese ChineseChinese teouis slar whowho

games.46 detailsrepresentedrepresented thethe IndiesIndies atat thesethese samesame games.4(i TheThe delails ofof Kho'sKho's case,case, however,however, mademade hishis "betrayal""betrayal" ofof thethe ChineseChinese nationnation eveneven moremore serious.serious. Kho,Kho, representingrepresenting thethe lndieslndies

populotion,ChineseChinese population, hadhad capturedcaptured thethe men'smen's tennistennis championshipchampionship atat thethe 19331933 NationalNational Representing unquestionablyGamesGames inin Nanjing.Nanjing. RepresenLing hishis JavaJava homehome inin anan unqueslionably "national""national" ChineseChinese

seltingsetting likelike thisthis waswas clearlyclearly acceptable:acceptable: afterafter all,all, thethe longlong tripstrips thatthat thesethese OverseasOverseas athletesathletes to Chinnmademade 1010 reachreach China'sChina's spiritualspiritual centrecentre seemedseemed 10 makemake theirtheir loyaltiesloyalties toto China crystal­crystal­

BUI 10 lIleclear."7clear."7 But thisthis picturepicture becamebecame frighteninglyfrighteningly cloudycloudy whenwhen KhoKho chosechose to represenlrepresenl the DUlchDUlch EastEast Indies,Indies, andand notnot na ChineseChinese motherland,motherland. atat Manila."sManila."8

ponendTheseThese ManilaManila GamesGames seemedseemed toto portend bothboth thethe beStbeSt andand worstworst forfor thosethose whowho dreameddreamed ofof aa strongstrong GreaterGreater ChineseChinese presencepresence inin Asia.Asia. WhenWhen thethe ROCROC delegationdelegation arrivedarrived inin Manila, aManila. theythey werewere honouredhonoured byby II tremendoustremendous welcomewelcome atat PierPier SevenSeven byby somesome sevenseven oror

thousandeighteight lhousand membersmembers ofof thethe locallocal ChineseChinese population.population. TheThe giddygiddy ChineseChinese observerobserver to strUcturequotedquoted aboveabove wrotewrote thatthat "the"the activityactivity andand humanhuman tidetide seemedseemed 10 setset thethe entireentire SlrUcture

ofof thethe greatgreat pierpier itselfitself inin motion";motion"; aa processionprocession ofof moremore thanthan 200200 carscars paradedparaded thethe athletesathletes the "the seen...~11 Butthroughthrough lhe ManilaManila streetsstreets inin ;'the warmestwarmest welcomewelcome thesethese skiesskies havehave everever secn".~9 BUI

thethe KhoKho problemproblem threatenedthreatened toto saddlesaddle eveneven joyousjoyous spiritsspirits withwith doubtsdoubts aboutabout thisthis GreaterGreater ChineseChinese essence.essence. FirstFirst waswas thethe troublingtroubling questionquestion ofof whetherwhether Kho'sKho's loyaltiesloyalties toto aa physicalphysical

literaloror lileral homehome outweighedoutweighed thosethose toto somesome ancestralancestral oror racialracial ChineseChinese motherland.motherland. Secondly.Secondly. indieshishis choicechoice toto representrepresent thethe DutchDutch EastEast Indies andand notnot thethe ROCROC seemedseemed toto confirmconfirm thethe

theworstworst CbjneseCbjnese nightmaresnightmares ofof "sheets"sheets ofof looseloose sand"sand" andand aa ChinaChina nOtnOt tnJlytnJly unitedunited inin lhe faceface ofof foreignforeign (sporting(sporting oror warring)warring) threats.threats.

i'H'laqiao"KhoKho simplysimply defieddefied thethe modemmodem i'Huaqiao" (overseas(overseas ChineseChinese sojoumer)sojoumer) labellabel thatthat thethe sporting (Chinese).ChineseChinese spon.ing communitycommunity wouldwould havehave assignedassigned him.him. ThoughThough ethnicallyethnically "Hila""Hila" (Chinese),

sojoum to not national, dictates.KhoKho punctuatedpunctuated hishis "qiao""qiao" sojourn accordingaccording 10 personal,personal, nOI national. diclates. AndAnd hishis nationalistlaterlater career.career. ifif viewedviewed throughthrough nalionalist lenses.lenses. isis eveneven moremore incomprehensible.incomprehensible. KhoKho

·!You qillnjing tongxin)'" [A"~You Yinzu.Yinzu. "Yuanyun"Yuanyun qianjing (Ma-ni-Ia(Ma-ni-Ia longxin)'" (A FarFar EasternEastern GamesGames previewpreview (Letter(Letter Manila)]. ReI1Y(l/1 zfwllkanfromfrom Manila}]. Rell)'(lll zhoukun 1616 (1934):(1934): 323.323.

~Ibid., 323.46lbid.• p.p. 323. •7Still, Huaqillo.~7Still. thosethose HIWqilIO. likelike tennistennis starsstars KhooKhoo andand Lum.Lum. whowho representedrepresented thethe moremore authenticallyauthentically

NaLionalChineseChinese locale.~locale.~ ofof ShanghaiShanghai lindlind SichuanSichuan atat thethe National G:unes,G:unes, werewere surelysurely appreciatedappreciated thatthat muchmuch Cai HUl1qiaomore.more. Cui Yangwu.Yangwu. "Jiu"Jiu ZhongguoZhongguo wangtanwangtan sansan weiwei Huaqiao qiuxing"qiuxing" [Three[Three OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese

world], nyu w/!.IIshistarsstars ofof thethe OldOld ChineseChinese tennistennis world]. n)'u we/Ish; 3737 (1989):(1989): 33.33. 048ln contrast. !Cho's Javane~"8ln contrast, Kbo's fellowfellow Javanese ChineseChinese tennistennis starstar KhooKhoo Hooi-hyeHooi-hye representedrepresented ChinaChina inin

Par Easlernthesethese Far Eastern Championships.Championships. 49you Yinzu, "Yuanyun qianjing",qianjing", p.p. 324.324.oWYou Yinzu. "YuanYlln

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Solltheost ill Chinest! 6161Solltlteast AsiaAsia it! aa Cltinest! SportingSporting CommunityCommunity

10 represenlwentwent onon to represent ChinaChina inin severalseveral DavisDavis CupCup competitionscompetitions betweenbetween 19351935 andand 1946,1946, lournaments, tillesplayedplayed inin threethree WimbledonWimbledon tournaments. andand capturedcaptured BritishBritish clayclay courtcourt nationalnational titles inin

938-39.,so historian,II938-39..so ToTo aa present·daypresent·day historian. Kho'sKho's careercareer cancan veryvery wellwell serveserve asas na textbooktextbook cJ;ample fluid Yel Aisexample ofof howhow nuid andand shiftingshifting culturalcultural identitiesidentities cancan be.be. Yet toto his contemporarycontemporary

in unseuling loyall)'sportingsporting publicpublic i,n China.China. thethe unsenling lacklack ofof ChineseChinese 10yaJ[)' exhibitedexhibited byby KhoKho andand hitn mustmust havehave mademade this sportingsporting enlerprise seemseem aa muchmuch lessless trustworthytrustworthylhisothersothers likelike himS1S1 enterprise

slrenglh.routeroute towardtoward ChineseChinese solidaritysolidarity andand strength. common,AnotherAnother common. yetyet similarlysimilarly ambiguous,ambiguous, wayway inin whichwhich connectionsconnections betweenbetween ChinaChina

Nanyung the emb'.ll"kedandand thethe Nanyang ChineseChinese werewere forgedforged waswas viavia \he floodflood ofof athleticathletic teamsteams whichwhich emb'Mked rungeonon sportingsporting tourstours ofof SoutheastSoutheast Asia.Asia. TheseThese teamsteams couldcould range fromfrom squadssquads representingrepresenting

a (nod well~endowed) entire(I singlesingle (and well-endowed) ShanghaiShanghai oror NanjingNanjing schoolschool toto enlire OlympicOlympic delegations.delegations. 1927-36, lessl twentyDuringDuring thethe decadedecade fromfrom 1927-36. atat le851 Iwenty ChineseChinese semi·professional,semi·professional, scholasticscholastic

andand nationaJ sportssports teams enjoyedenjoyed SouLheasl AsianAsian lours.lours.national learns nn touredSouLheast SeveralSeveral teamsteams alsoalso loured Jupan lll1d this well, but Nanyang was the destinationdestinationlhe ofof choicechoice forforJapan and KoreaKorea duringduring Ihis limelime asas well. bUI Nanyong wa~

thesethese representativesrepresentatives ofof thethe ChineseChinese sponingsponing project.project. SuchSuch tourstours werewere seenseen asas aa wayway ofof bringingbringing ChineseChinese andand OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese togethertogether inin healthyhealthy andand "righteous""righteous" competition.competition.

athletes China.TheyThey werewere designeddesigned toto leachleach ChineseChinese Mhletes aboulaboul thisthis remarkableremarkable OverseasOverseas China, healthieSI represenlativeswhilewhile reacquaintingreacquainting thethe HIIQ(/iaoHIIQ(/iao withwith lhelhe heartiestheartiest andand healthiest representatives ofof thethe

trUe However,U"Ue ChineseChinese nation.nation. However. thesethese competitionscompetitions couldcould stillstill posepose similarlysimilarly vexingvexing problemsproblems forfor thosethose involvedinvolved andand lheir conceptionsconceptionstheir ofof na unitedunited GreaterGreater China.Chinu.

oUlings leamsSuchSuch outings couldcould bebe veryvery catharticcathartic experiencesexperiences forfor bothboth thethe ROCROC teams andand thethe locallocal settings, Jovaethnicethnic ChineseChinese livingliving inin colonialcolonial sellings, InIn 1929,1929, thethe Java ChineseChinese SoccerSoccer AssociationAssociation

(0invitedinvited Shanghai'sShanghai's famedfamed ChinaChina JoyJoy SoccerSoccer ClubClub to thethe IndiesIndies forfor aa twelve.garnetwelve.garne tour.tour. Hengzhi. lheYuYu Hengzhi, whowho coachedcoached the ChinaChina JoyJoy team,team, remembersremembers thethe localslocals beingbeing electrifiedelectrified byby

Ihis tookthethe ShanghaiShanghai squad'ssquad's undefeatedundefeated runrun lhroughlhrough this schedule.schedule. TheyThey reportedlyreportedly look lOlO #9 Wai·lOng, thlllChinaChina Joy'sJoy's starstar 119 LeeLee Wa.i·tong. thethe country'scountry's "King"King ofof Soccer",Soccer", soso lhoroughlylhoroughly thal aa

jnewnew "#9""#9" markelingmarketing crazecraze waswas bornborn inin thethe ChineseChinese communitycommunity there.there.H) WithWith thethe benefitbenefit fifty hindsight Indjesofof nfty years'years' hindsight. CoachCoach YuYu inin 19821982 recalledrecalled thethe Indies ChineseChinese population'spopulation's

response lO DUlch rule thai toenthusiasticenthusiastic reSponse asas aa directdirect challengechallenge to Dutch colonialcolonial rute that workedworked 10 excludeexclude theirtheir politicalpolitical participation.participation.5454 ItIt isis easyeasy lOlO imagi,neimagi,ne thethe satisfactionsatisfaction ofof thethe ChinaChina JoyJoy

lheir al demonstrdtion suengthplayersplayers andand their fansfans at thisthis successfulsuccessful demonstration ofof ChineseChinese st.rength andand teamworkteamwork

Zhongguo wungtan",50Cai50Cai Yangwu,Yangwu, "Jiu"Jiu ZhODggUO wangtan", pp.pp. 33-34.33-34. 'IChen'IChen Jian.Jilln. IIII MalayanMalayan ChineseChinese sprinter,sprinter, waswas thethe firstfirst womanwoman tolO appearappear inin threethree ChineseChinese

pnsl- (her ancestniJNationalNational Games.Games. However,However, herher similarlysimilarly chequeredchequered pnst- runningrunning forfor FujianFujian (ber ancestl'llJ home)home) Shunghai she; al1M East SchOOl) j933, andinin 1930,1930, Shanghai (where(where she studiedstudied !ltthe Enst AsianAsian P.E.P.E. School) inin 1933, llnd thethe MalayanMalayan (earn - alsoalso mademade ChenChen a liminalliminal figurefigureII inin thethe sportingsporting world.world, QuangI/oQuanguoChineseChinese teRm inin 19351935 _

ltijYl/ndongyulUl mingjJwrg III IRoU natioo's alhlttesl (Shanghai:Itljyundongyuun mingjiwrg Il/lRoU ofof thethe nation's womenwomen alh}ttcsl (Shanghlli: QlnfenQlnfen sbuju.sbuju. 1936),1936), p.p. II.II.

nn.e~ triumphanlsummersummer ofof 1933,1933, onlyonly monthsmonths beforebefore thethe triumphant FifthFifth NationalNational GamesGames heldheld inin NanjingNanjing October, ancienl tOUles, TIullonon 10--2010--20 October. waswas tbetbe busiestbusiest timetime forfor ChineseChinese teamsteams plyingplying thesethese ancient roules, nUll summer.summer.

Shanglllli's China (Donglll/Il) loured Philippines, FudanShanghai's EastEast Chinu (Donglma) SoccerSoccer ClubClub toured thethe Philippines. thethe Pudun UniversityUniversity volleyballvolleyball teamteam mademade IIa triptrip toto SoutheastSoutheast Asia,Asia, thethe ShanghaiShanghai SouthernSoulhern CommercialCommercial Institute track andand fieldfieldrnstitute-lraclt team Manila. me basketballlearn traveledtraveled toto Manila, andand Ute FujianFujian ProvincialProvincial men"smen"s andand women'swomen's baskelball teamsteams concludedconcluded 11jl tourtour ofof MalayaMalaya andand Singapore,Singapore, thethe women'swomen's teamteam returning 1010 ChinaChina an undefeated 17-0.17-0.relurning lin undefealed

S3yu Hengzhi, "NllJ1wang Lehull zuqiudui" unforgettable China ClubJ,3Jyu Hengzhi. "Nanwang dede Lehua l.uqjudui" ITheIThe unforgeunble Chinn JoyJoy SoccerSoccer Clubl, ShaTlg/wl ti)'u sllihllQShanghai li)'u sllihllo 22 (1982):(1982): 12-13,12-13,

j(lbid.,~Ibid., p.p. 13.13.

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AndrewAndrew MorrisMorris6262

lhe power. soccerrightright underunder !he nosesnoses ofof thethe EuropeanEuropean colonialcolonial POWCf_ However,However, SOClXr isis obviouslyobviously aboutabout gttat ambivalencewinnenwinnen andand losers.losers. andand oneone alsoalso cancan imagineimagine thethe ~t ambivaJence fellfell byby bothboth RepublicanRepublican

Chioese atnu and post-gameandand NanyangNanyang Chinese aInu thesethese one-sidedone-sided competitions.competitions. Pre·Pre· aod posI-garne socializingsocializing aside. Iitdeuide. thethe heatheat ofof thesethese competitionscompetitions likelylikely leftleft little roomroom forfor romanticromantic pan-Chinesepan-Chinese

n:pesentalivessolidarity.solidarity. TheThe officialofficial policypolicy <bcribed<bcribed aboveabove ofof includingincluding OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese Iqxesentalives pn:senl solidonon ROCROC teamsteams clearlyclearly couldcould present solid examplesexamples ofof truetrue GreaterGreater ChineseChinese teamwork.teamwork.

lOUIS. proVide iliatButBut thesethese loun;. almostalmost allall privateprivate initiatives.initiatives. seemedseemed toto provide forfor situationssituations Lhat couldcould wen:bebe asas liminalliminal andand awkwardawkward asas theythey were encouragingencouraging andand inspirational.inspirational.

uips lilat Manial ArtsOneOne ofof thethe moremore celebratedcelebrated trips waswas that mademade byby thethe NanjingNanjing CentralCentral Martial Am•• manial arts teams Singapore:.&& PhysicalPhysical EducationEducation Institute'sInstitute's mania) am andand basketballbasketball leams toto Singapore. severalseveral

otherolher MalayanMalayan citiescities andand ManilaManila inin 1936.1936. ThisThis tourtour waswas fundedfunded inin largelarge partpart byby twotwo ofof gianlS.Singapore'sSingapore's ChineseChinese businessbusiness giants, thethe shippingshipping andand rubberrubber tycoontycoon TanTan KahKah KeeKee andand

''Tigerthethe "Tiger BalmBalm King"King" AwAw BoonBoon Haw,Haw, whowho alsoalso donateddonated greatgreat sumssums ofof moneymoney 1010 thethe NanjingNanjing InstituteInstitute itself.itself. TheThe three-monththree-month voyagevoyage waswas designeddesigned toto allowallow thethe Institute'sInstitute's

andeighteen-maneighteen-man delegationdelegation toto teachteach nnd learnlearn muchmuch aboutabout GreaterGreater ChineseChinese traditions,traditions, valuesvalues aspimtions.jS belween 8J1S revealing.andand aspirations,55 TheThe balancebalance between martialmartial ans andand basketballbasketball isis alsoalso veryvery revealing,

lerms cuhjvale; fine li)'uinin lemlS ofof thethe well-roundedwell-rounded imageimage thethe NanjingNanjing stalestale hopedhoped 1010 cultivate; thesethese flne ri)'u specimensspecimens sentsent alongalong toto SoutheastSoutheast AsiaAsia wouldwould representrepresent toto thethe ChineseChinese communitiescommunities therethere

masterythethe Republic'sRepublic's masl.C:ry ofof bothboth thethe particularparticular ChineseChinese andand universally-defineduniversally-defined modemmodem su'ty-fivefonns.fonns. TheThe basketballbasketball team'steam's 45-0-245-0-2 runrun andand thethe guoshuguoshu squad'ssquad's sixty-five sparklingsparkling

demonstnu;onsdemonstrations likelylikely provedproved 10fO manymany lhe5e Nanjing rep~n1atives' un;lthese N3lIjing represcnrauves' worthworth asas aa unit theembodyingembodying allall thatthat waswas goodgood andand strongstrong aboutabout lbe modemmodem ChineseChinese nationnation andand people.people.

However,However, somesome momentsmoments recordedrecorded byby thesethese participantsparticipants alsoalso allowallow usus toto seesee thingsthings thatthat Overseascomplicatedcomplicated theirtheir notionsnotions ofof thisthis oppressedoppressed yetyet loyalloyal Ove~as China.China.

Singapoce. lnstiMc ~presencatives visiced family's Tigel"-Pantbel"InIn Singapote. thethe Instieute representatives visired thethe AwAw (amily's privateprivate TIger·Panther SwimmingSwimming Pool,Pool. andand wer-ewere simplysimply amazedamazed byby 8 r-ead.a signsign onon thethe outsideoutside fencefence whichwhich read,

allowed swim":56"Only"Only ChineseChinese alJowed insideinside toto swim",56 TheThe anjinganjing basketballbasketball andand manialmanial artsarts starSstarS Nanyang;sawsaw themselvesthemselves bringingbringing truetrue modemmodem ChineseChinese essencesessences toto Nanyang: howhow couldcould thesethese

sojourners. aftbe tosojourners, livingliving asas theythey diddid inin thethe veryvery beUybeUy of the imperialistimperialist beast.beast. managemanage LO bebe eveneven mor-e Sino--centric Chinese'?more patrioticpatriotic andand Sino-centric thanthan "real""real" Chinese'!

with also leftTheThe NanjingNanjing group'sgroup's audienceaudience wilb aa MalayanMalayan rulerruler inin KualaKuala LumpurLumpur aJso lert thethe Thr-ee participantsathletesathletes stunned.stunned. Three ofof thesethese plllticipants rememberedremembered thethe rulerruler beingbeing shadowedshadowed by,by,

laking orden maUers from. aa situationsituation thai mademadeandand taking orders onon thethe smallestsmallest matten; from, aa BritishBritish officerofficer -- that libenythethe ChineseChinese groupgroup "extremely"extremely infuriated.infuriated. inin thethe truetrue spiritspirit ofof 'Give'Give meme Iibeny oror givegive meme

death"'.57 jnrri.ng IlIl "extinctdeath"'.S7 ThisThis powerpower imbalanceimbalance providedprovided aa jarring reflectionreflection ofof thethe fatefate ofof an '"extincl "lIlion". fafe nOfnntion", aa (nte intointo whichwhich ChineseChinese prayedprayed theythey wouldwould not followfollow thesethese SouthSouth SeasSeas kingdoms.kingdoms.

the~e compHcated understllllding complexEventsEvents likelike lbese alsoalso compljcalcd thethe NanjingNanjing athletes'athletes' undcrstnnding ofof thethe comple.x lhrivedandand challengingchallenging environmentenvironment inin whichwhich NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese thrived andand surelysurely challengedchallenged

"Huaqiao" sponingtheirtheir preconceptionspreconceptions aboutabout thethe "Hunqioo" world.world. TheThe spornng connectionsconnections forgedforged betweenbetween wer-e these nation-state-friendlyChinaChina andand NanyangNanyang inin thethe 1930519305 were basedbased chieflychiefly onon the~ nation-slate-mendly DOrmsDOrms

"Pang li liyu Zhuankc.'"Pans Yusen.Yusen. U ZhenzhongZhenzhong andand TangTang Baokun.Baokun. "Nanjing"Nanjing ZbongyangZbongyang GuoshuGuoshu nyu Zhuanke XuexillO NanyangNanyang lllxingluan chufangchufang z.huiji~ (Recollection! ofof Ibc NanjingNanjing CenuaJ Mania! AnsXuexiao lil.xiogtuan zhuiji M [RecoUeclions ~ CeotnLI Manial Arts lUld Edueal.ion lnnitUle 10 seasl. · enshi (l98S):Md PhysicalPhysical Education InstitUle triptrip to thethe SouthSouth Seas(. jiongsujiongsu tiyutiyu ........·cnshi 33 (I98S): 31-34.31-34.

56lbid.,56"lbid., p.p. 32.32. 51lbid••5'llbid.. p.p. 33.33.

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63 63 $oulheasl CommunitySoutheast AsiaAsia inin aa ChilleseChillese SportingSporting Commu"ity

BUIofof competitioncompetition andand fairfair play.play. But thethe confusingconfusing contactscontacts thatthat suchsuch tourstours providedprovided toto hardly reassuredGreaterGreater ChinaChina dreamersdreamers likelike thethe NanjingNanjing delegationdelegation couldcould h.ardly havehave russured themthem

impuio These spotting formsthatthat aa newnew impuiumimpuium inin imperio laylay inin thethe Republic'sRepublic's nearnear future.future. 'These sporting fonns betw«n nation-statCS findwerewere designeddesigned forfor interactioninteraction between sovereignsovereign nation-stateS ofof self-consciousself-conscious and healthyhealthy

deLails athleles leamedcitizens.citizens. YelYel thethe devilishdevilish details thatthat manymany ROCROC athletes learned aboutabout thethe NanyangNanyang fruslrating challenge wbo theseChineseChinese worldworld couldcould onlyonly havehave posedposed aa frustrating cballenge toto thosethose who sawsaw tbese

t.hesportingsporting formsforms andand valuesvalues asas lhc answeranswer toto thethe GreaterGreater ChineseChinese question.question. sports couJdIfIf thesethese notionsnotions ofof aa GreaterGreater ChinaChina unitedunited viavia thethe worldworld ofof sportS could becomebecome vaguevague

contradictory.andand complicatedcomplicated andand downrightdownright contr1ldietory. therethere waswas stillstill oneone dimensiondimension ofof thethe betweenrelationshiprelationship thatthat trulytruly couldcould maintainmaintain newnew tiesties berween ChinaChina andand itsits OverseasOverseas subjectssubjects

-- Comme«:e. Overseas Chinese tread.business.business. C~. anan arenaarena intointo whichwhich Over.;eas Chinese. hadhad nevernever fearedfeared toto tread.. ti}'u in advenisingconnectedconnected toto modemmodem 'iyu ill aa myriadmyriad ofof ways.ways. fromfrom advertising andand thethe growinggrowing sportingsporting

indusLrY thatgoodsgoods illdusLrY toto !.he!.he veryvery capitalistcapitalist idealsideals rnal formedformed thethe basisbasis ofof thethe newnew sportingsporting tmnsoational thatculture.culture. AndAnd thesethese werewere thethe transnational ChineseChinese connecdonsconnecdons thai seemedseemed toto flowflow mostmost

spOning and "Hllaqiao".easilyeasily fromfrom thesethese spaning lieslies betweenbetween ChinaChina nod itsits "Hlwqiao". Jiangsu physiCal expertWangWang Huaiqi.Huaiqi. thethe famedfamed Jinngsu nativenative physical educationeducation CJlpen whowho turnedturned outout fifty­fifty­

19105-20s.ninenine booksbooks onon physicalphysical educationeducation duringduring thethe 1910s-20s. publishedpublished oneone titletitle inin 19281928 onon "starbal'" (..ringqiu .J.~). morethethe topictopic ofof "slarbaU" (xingqlu J.~). aa miniaturizedminiaturized formform ofof soccersoccer supposedlysupposedly mOTe

suitnble c.hiJdren. detailed explnnations ofof thethe backgroundbackgroundsuitable forfor womenwomen andand children. AlongAlong withwith hishis dellliled e~planations

roles the se\'ers.l direct fOfandand rules ofof \he game.game. hishis bookbook alsoalso includedincluded several direcl plugsplugs for meme sportingsporting goodsgoods Tan Corporntiou.JI !hedivisiondivision ofof thethe Tao KahKah KeeKee Corporation.sa Tan.Tan. the Singapore-basedSingapore-based ChineseChinese industrialistindustrialist

stnmger Grealer tiyu.mentionedmentioned above,above, waswas nono stranger toto thisthis worldworld ofof Greater ChineseChinese li}·u. HeHe waswas aa strongstrong education tuldadvocateadvocate ofof physicalphysical educatioo programmesprogrammes atat XiamenXiamen UniversityUniversity llOd thethe GatheredGathered

philanlhropy XiamenBeautyBeauty School.School. bothboth productsproducts ofof hishis philanthropy inin hishis Xiamco home."home." andand hadhad ledled thethe on fund-raisingSouthSouth FujianFujian MartialMartial ArtsArts SquadSquad 00 fuod-raising tourstours ofof MalayaMalaya inin 19291929 andand 1930.1930.

considemble amounlS effons.WhileWhile TanTan donateddonated considerable amounts toto thesethese modemmodem physicalphysical cultureculture efrons. hehe \\las spaniog 1I'llde.likelylikely was alsoalso determineddetermined toto earnearn atat leastleast somesome ofof itit backback viavia thethe sporting goodsgoods trade.

leather starballsHisHis eponymouseponymous corporationcorporation manufacturedmanufactured high-qualityhigh-quality lelther starbaJls forfor thethe ChineseChinese thou&\' were stamped with "Nationat ProdUClS"market:market: though mademade inin Malaya.Malaya. theythey Wtte proudlyproudly Slamped wh.h aa "National Products"

II 1') melhod(Guohuo(Guohuo lilt) sealseal ByBy thethe latelate 19205.19205. thisthis popularpopular method ofof associatingassociating ethnicethnic ChineseChinese businessbusiness enterpriseenterprise overseasoverseas withwith thethe nationalistnationalist movementmovement insideinside thethe RepublicRepublic waswas simplysimply [00 welJ-proveo patriotic. totOO well-proven forfor aa seasonedseasoned andand patriolic businessmanbusinessman likelike TanTan 10 ignore.ignore.

litis context. sponing sharesInIn this context, thethe Guomindang-eraGuomindang-era sporting enterpriseenterprise share.~ muchmuch inin commoncommon withwith aspects Mania! Asia werellSpects ofof thethe PurePure Manial expansionexpansion intointo SoutheastSoutheast Asia. ThereThere wen: manymany profitsprofits toto bebe

slick nboatdhadhad byby thethe slick: businessmenbusinessmen whowho wiselywisely jumpedjumped aboard anyany fiyufiyu bandwagon.bandwagon. bebe itit

SlWall8 Xirrgqiu gul:.e ISwbaJl Regulationsl ZbongguojianxucSliWallg Huaiqi.Huaiqi. Xingqiu 8/Jl:.e IStarba!1 RegUlations] (Shanghai:(Shanghai: Zhongguojianxue she.she. 1928).1928). commerciaJ 1I0t constitutefrontfront covercover andand pp.pp. 6-16.6-16. TheseThese commercial plugsplugs dodo oot constilute thethe fullfull extentextent ofof Wang'sWang's

mock:m physicaJ hiliobsessionobsession withwith thethe capitalistcapitalist naturenature ofof modem physical culture;culture; somesome ofof his musingsmusings onon thethe tiesties Ii)'u and labor are almostbetweenbetween modemmodem 1i)'1.1 aod capitalistcapitalist Jabor disciplinediscipline lite ll1.most downrightdownright chilling.chilling. OneOne passagepassage ofof

Wanl', M(Althletes' rules-respectinl participation spor1$ is wort doneWan,', went.went. MIA}thIetes' rules-respecting pArticipalioa inin sporu i, justjust likelike thethe work: dope byby I.bcnrs goodJ.... (T}here also malter athletes' forlabomt toto produceproduce goods_.. IT}here isis abo thethe matter ofof Ithlete!' respectrespect foc thethe rules.rules. WhetherWhether

tbere always of ruiCi.inin defeatdefeat oror victory.victory. there willwill IIwlYS bebe somesome violationviolation or thethe rules. Again.Again. howhow muchmuch doesdoes thisthis memble!he factory ltw all must follow'"Kst.mble the fllCtOl'y disciplinediscipline thall1l mUSt roUowT (pp.(pp. 51-59).51-59).

"James A_ Cook..Cook.. "Bridges 10 Modernity:Modernity: Xilmeo OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese aDd SoutheastSoutheast CoIsta!"JIlme$ A. "BridgC5 to Xiamen. and Coastal Modernization, diSl~ University Ca.l.iJomia, San 1998),Modernization. 1843-193T'1843-193T' (Ph.(Ph. D.D. diu~ Universily ofof California. SIO Diego.Diego. 1998). PII.PII. 202-203.202-203.

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6464 AndrewAndnw MorrisMorris

arts lhe sponing cullure. here. mat Greall::rmartialmartial artS oror the modemmodem sporting cuhure. ItIt isis bere. inin lhc:lhc: businessbusiness world.world. iliat Greater the ccnturies.-old tran.!I­ChinaChina couldcould finallyfinally meanmean somelhingsomelhing tangible.tangible. OnlyOnly inin !he centuries.J>ld worldworld ofof tranJl­

nationlll uade lhe dreams thosennlioooJ ChineseChinese Inlde couldcould thisthis conceptconcept bebe freedfreed fromfrom IJle vaguevague drr:ams ofof lhose whowho wishedwished 1010 definedefine itil inin cuJluraJ ICnnscuJumd !Cnn5 oror thosethose expansiveexpansive aatioaalists whowho impracticablyimpracticablynationalists

incorporateexpectedexpected toto iocorponue SoutheastSoutheast AsianAsian landslands intointo aa territorially-definedterritorially-defined GreaterGreater China.China. like wereThoseThose liXe WangWang andand TanTan whowho .....ere involvedinvolved inin thesethese NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese sponingsponing (and(and

eil.ber these Olioa";other)other) businessbusiness dealings.dealings. diddid notnot needneed eilher ofof Ihesc visionsvisions ofof "Greater"Greater China"; theythey hadhad the transnational tbey wanled. spaniogexactlyexactly die trarlsmuionlll ChineseChinese communitycommunity lhey wanted. AnyAny perusalperusal ofof sporting

magazinesmagazines fromfrom thethe latelate 1920519205 andand 1930519305 makesmakes itil clearclear howhow importantimportant thethe SoutheastSoutheast Asinn sparring MayAsian connectionconnection waswas forfor thisthis sporting industry.industry. Singapore'sSingapore's MayMay MBy CompanyCompany advertisedadvertised

basketball lhetheirtheir badminton.badminton. ping-pong.ping-pong. tennis.tennis. basketbalJ andand soccersoccer productsproducts inin the pagespages ofof TIl~ fOllng Branch BaodingShanghai'sShanghai's TIle Young Companion.Companion. TheThe NanjingNanjing Brooch ofof thethe BaDding LuckyLucky LaborLabor

Faclory rackefs slrings write-upF.1CIOf)' carriedcarried lennislennis rackets andand stringS' mademade inin Singapore.Singapore. AA friendlyfriendly wrile-up onon ChinShanghai'sShanghai's famedfamed VictoriousVictorious StudentStudent SportingSporting GoodsGoods FactoryFactory inin thethe pagespages ofof TheThe Clrin

Momhly mentiOned sponingFenFen SportsSports MomMy mentioned theirtheir recentrecent expansionexpansion intointo thethe SingaporeSingapore ~ponin8 marketmarket n own.60withwith a locallocal branchbranch ofof theirtheir own./i()

tiyu thatthat manymany ofof thesethese SoutheastSoutheast AsianAsian ChineseChineseTheThe enthusiasmenthusiasm forfor modernmodern tiYII lheybusinessmenbusinessmen sharedshared mademade perfectperfect sensesense forfor thethe transnationaltransnational commercecommerce networksnetworks they

so hornes lheworkedworked 50 hardhard toto cultivatecultivate betweenbetween theirtheir colonialcolonial homes andand the Republic.Republic. AsAs withwith thethe Pure Manial ethnic toP\Ire Martial Association.Association. thethe elbnic ChineseChinese ofof NanyangNanyang werewere moremore thanthan WillingWilling 10

that brought au Insupportsupport enterprisesenterprises Ihat broughl gloryglory toto thethe ChineseChinese peoplepeople ofof aU nations.nations. in 19361936 andand 1948, the govemmenl proved commit me great sums1948. whenwhen !he RepublicanRepublican govemmem prm'e<! unableunable (0(0 commie dtc grtal sum neededneeded to10 sendsend ROCROC delegationsdelegations toto thethe BerlinBerlin andand LondonLondon OlympicOlympic GamesGames respectively.respectively. thethe

Southeast the fmaneial ChineseChineseChinese ofof Southea.!i:l AsiaAsia camecame toto the: Olympians'Olympians' fmanciaJ rescue.rescue. InIn 1936,1936, thethe Qljnese fund-raisersoccersoccer teamteam playedplayed anan OlympicOlympic fund-ra:isc:r exhibitionexhibition scheduleschedule ofof twenty-seventwenty-seven gamesgames

su.ty-two appreciative and Chinestinin sLuy-two daysdays beforebefore aPPicciative llnd generousgenerous Olinese crowdscrowds inin Vietnam.Vietnam. Singapore.Singapore. Indies, Burma, befoK rest thethethe Indies. 8urma. MalayaMalaya andand Siam.Siam. before meetingmeeting thethe test ofof lhe OlympicOlympic teamteam inin

Bangkok..l5lBangkok..6\

Yet these straightforwardYel lhese notionsnotions ofof aa "Greater"Greater China".China". thesethese seeminglyseemingly slraightforward connectionsconnections dreamsbetweenbetween HUlUjiaoHUlUjiao greengreen andand ChineseChinese drelllllS ofof OlympicOlympic gold.gold. werewere simplysimply uselessuseless inin thethe

Otinesc= Conrrru~faceface ofof KMT-styleKMT-style politicspolitics andand nationalism.nationalism. InIn 1948,1948, whenwhen thethe Otinesc OlympicOlympic CoOlrni~

10askedasked prominentprominent OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese to donatedonate toto thethe OlympicOlympic cause.cause. AwAw BoonBoon HawHaw delivereddelivered supplemenl lhespecificspecific conditionsconditions 1010 supplement hishis generousgenerous offer.offer. HisHis sonson AwAw Hllw.Hllw. negotiatingnegotiating lbe

Shanghai. membenicontributioncontribution inin Shanghai, proposedproposed thatthat allall twelvetwelve members ofof hishis father'sfather's SingaporeSingapore SoccerSoccer

~Uang)'QU~UtJllg)'Ou YO'U1g CompclIliQn) 7: 1iyu UJvri 1.1 "Usheng(The(The YOWlg Comptlllion) 4040 (1929):(1929): 7; 7iyu z.az)Ji I.t (1935):(1935): 97;97; ZhaoZhao wu.wu. "Lishcng gongchang jishi"IThe the Factory). Qin,fen tiy'l ylUbew (Tilegongthnng jishi" [The storystory ofof lhe VictoriousVictorious StudentStudent Factoryl, QinJen tiYll ylU!bew (Tilt ChinChin FenFen SportsSports Monthly)Monthly) 4.34.3 (1936):(1936): 205.205.

61Chu;ri OJ shl)'; jle )'undonghul. Seclion I, 2, with Cheng61Chll.fi Di shiyl jlt ShljleShljle )'undonghlli. Section I. pp.pp. 2. 8-9.8-9. 17-18:17-18: interviewinterview wilh ChenR lingyDn. Suzhou.Suzhou. China.China. 22 MarchMarch 1997;1997; Morris.Morris. "Cultivllling lbt NationalNational Body", pp.pp. 413-15.413-15. TheTheJinguan. "Cullivl1!ing 1M: Body". resl the lhe Venle. made stopstesl ofof lhe OlympicOlympic delegation.delegation. onon boardboard lbe ItalianItalian ConttContt Verde. made: stOPJl inin HongHong Kong.Kong. Singapon:. BIIIIsJr:'ok lind Slop from IbeSingapore. KumaKuma Lumpur.Lumpur. Bangkok I1nd Bombay.Bombay. eacheach ,top bringingbringing fabulousfabulous welcomeswelcomes {rom /he

Singapore, more Chinek takinglocallocal ChineseChinese population.population. InIn Singapore. ItlOI'e thanthan 10001000 OverseasOverseas Chinese greetedgreeted thethe team.team. t.nk.ina len dry lhen to ho!;tcd Di.aothethe OlympiansOlympians inin ten carscars onon aa tourtour ofof thethe ciry andand then 10 aa banquetbanquet ho5led byby ROCROC ConsulConsul Diao

ZooqiaJl. atlended a basketball between alloeseZuoqian. HugeHuge crowdscrowds alsoalso 111te:ndcd • b:lsketball scrimmagescrimmage beiwecn thethe Chinese OlympiansOlympians andand Singapore. All.Stars., nilK-penonthethe Singapore AU·Stars. whichwhich waswas followedfollowed byby aa demonstrationdemonstration byby thethe ni~-person OlympicOlympic

arts leam. ChllXi Dl shi)'1 jil' Shijle yJmdonghui. Sectionmartialmartial ans team. SeeSee CIuaxi OJ Jhiji jie Shijk )<vndonghlli. Stc:lion I.I. pp.pp. 18-19.18-19.

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65 65 SOlltheast Asi" Sponing CotntmmirySoutheast Asitl illill aa Chille~'~Chille~'~ Spunillg COmf1l1milY

eighteen-man Naturally,ClubClub bebe namednamed toto thethe eigtueen-man ChineseChinese nationalnational team!team! Naturally. thesethese un-nationalun-national conditionsconditions werewere 100 muchmuch eveneven forfor the cash-slarved OlympicOlympic Committee.Committee. TheThe TigerTiger BalmBalmtoo lhe cash-starved

requesl. nble toKing'sKing's secondsecond request. thaIthaI thethe youngeryounger AwAw bebe able 10 accompanyaccompany thethe OlympicOlympic delegationdelegation ad'lisor", acceptuble. ButBut itit wouldwould have beenbeen clearclear tQtQ aUaUasas anan "official"official ad.."isor". provedproved moremore acceptable.6262 hlwe

involved Greaterinvol"ed thmthm thisthis sportingsporting Grenler ChinaChina -- eveneven whhwhh thethe sacredsacred nationalnational causecause ofof OlympicOlympic goldgold alal stakeslake -- mighl whm r.heymight nevernever proveprove toto bebe what they hadhad imagined.imagined. OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese supponsuppon

Butofof thethe RepublicanRepublican sportingsporting enterpriseenterprise couldcould lindlind aa broodbrood basebase inin ethnicethnic pride.pride. BUI thethe bureaucmts Olilla totallynationalismnationalism conceivedconceived byby GuomindangGuomindang plannersplanners andand bureaucrats inin Oliua waswas tolally foreignforeign

tenitorialtoto thesethese NanyungNanyung Chinese.Chinese. TheirTheir GreaterGreater ChinaChina waswas characterizedcharacterized nOtnOt byby territorial nationalism, Simple economy,nationalism. butbut byby aa simple economy. oneone thatthat maymay eveneven havehave seemedseemed unthinkablyunthinkably crasscrass

apoState dicuuesoror eveneven apostlue byby thethe dicuttes ofof officialofficial ChineseChinese statestate nationalism.nationalism. OfficialOfficial GuomindangGuomindang dreamsdreams ofof aa GreaterGreater ChinaChina thaIthaI couldcould bebe foundedfounded inin panpan inin thethe

typesideologiesideologies andand valuesvalues ofof modemmodem sportsport allowedallowed newnew lypes ofof engagementengagement betweenbetween ROCROC residen15 party­residents andand OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese duringduring thethe NanjingNanjing Decade.Decade. TheThe KMT'sKMT's vigorousvigorous pany· Stale cOnlact 10 autherllicate itSlale waswas ableable toto provideprovide forfor moremore ofof thisthis contact thanthan everever beforebefore andand to authenticaLC il

Gre.1ter ideology "nalion-mce" (miflUI).withwith anan officialofficial newnew Grealer ChineseChinese idCQlogy ofof thethe robustrobust "nalion-race" (minlll). WhereWhere tiju the t920s. nad exchanges Cninesetiyu. tiesties inin lhe t920s had beenbeen limitedlimited toto culturalcultural ex.changes viavia anan essentialessential Chinese

Guomindang amartialmartial arts.arts. thethe Guomindnng ernern broughtbrought 0. newnew emphasisemphasis onon thethe competitivecompetitive spOrtsspOrts andand position nation-statetheirtheir unshakeableunshakeable posilion inin thethe newnew modemmodem nalion-state order.order. TheseThese sportingsporting formsforms

effeclive nalions.werewere perfectlyperfectly effective inin connotingconnoting thethe realreal worldworld strugglesstruggles betweenbetween sovereignsovereign nations. from 10 t311laiizingHowever.However. theythey endedended upup providingproviding muchmuch lessless groundground rrom whichwhich to reachreach forfor thethe t311taliz.ing

dreamsdreams ofof na GreaterGreater ChinaChinn thatthat knewknew no worldlyworldly boundaries.boundaries.00

TIleTIle Postwar PeTiOli andand ,lie 1948 Sevellth NtlliOl/ol GamesGamesPOSfYo'or PeriQi/ '"l' /948 Seveml! NatiOl/al

tn Games, aITllirIn 1948.1948. thethe RepublicRepublic ofof ChinaChina heldheld itsits lastlast NationalNational Games. anan affair kickedkicked offoff byby dramatic 236 siteaa drnmntic torchtorch relayrelay coveringcovering thethe 2.36 milesmiles betweenbetween NanjingNanjing andand thethe GamesGames sile atat

feslival, the reunilication 10 irnponanlShanghai.Shanghai. ThisThis festival. whichwhich markedmarked lhe reunification ofof China,China, waswas to bebe anan imponanl Slep of !.hestep inin remindingreminding ChineseChinese or the immensityimmensity ofof theirtheir recenlrecenl victoryvictory overover JapaneseJapanese imperialism, !.he geogmphicalimperialism. andand ofof the gloryglory ofof thethe RepublicRepublic nownow "ruling""ruling" overover itsits greatestgreatest gCQgmphical

ob~rver wrote,expanseexpanse ever.ever. AsAs oneone observer wrote.,

olT. athleles lakingNowNow ourour bondagebondage hashas finallyfinally beenbeen castcast otT. WeWe seesee TaiwanTaiwan athletes taking panpan inin thethe NUlionai Games time. Northeastcrn cities,National Gnmes forfor thethe firstfirst lime. ThoseThose inin thethe Northeastern provincesprovinces andand cilies. eveneven llJ1"Iidst !ires fear tulve sentamidst thethe fires andand chaoschaos ofof [civilJ[civilJ wllr.wllr. dodo notnot fcaT danger.danger. andand allall have scnt teamsteams

62Aw Hnw clearly t\lld non-Olympic mind. h.is 1948 visits Shanghai.'lAw Haw ctenrly bad oilieroilier nail-Olympic goalsgoals inin mind duringduring his 194& visits. toto Sbanghai. ThatThat Kai-shek's Ching-kuo, father',September.September. ChiangChiang Kaj-shek's sonson Ching-kuo. inin chargecharge ofof implementingimplementing hishis father's FinancialFinancial andand

Emergency Shanghai,EconomicEconomic Emergenoy MeasuresMeasures inin Shanghai. orderedordered Aw'sAw's arrestarrest forfor smugglingsmuggling goldgold andand foreignforeign quickly Kong, arresl shorl-Jivedcurrency.currency. AwAw quick.ly nedned toto HongHong Kong. evadingevading arrest butbut alsoalso forfeitingforfeiting hishis shari-Jived OlympicOlympic

E.fl.SllTlan. Stt!d$ o[Destnu:tion; Nmiotlfllist Chilw Rel'OlutiOrllegacy.legacy. LloydLloyd E.E. &stman, Stl!ds ofDutrlu:tion: NmiotlllJisr Chino inin WarWar andand R6volurit)n /937­/937­UniyersilY Press, It19491949 (Slanford:(Slanford: StanfordStanford University Press. 1984).1984). pp.pp. 186,261.011186,261.011 aa relatedrelated note,note, a supposedsupposed

donation HUDqiao later todonalion fromfrom PhilippinePhilippine HUaJliQt) (but(but laler foundfound LO bebe aa fabricationfabrication byby ChineseChinese OlympicOlympic CommitteeCommittee ChainnllJ\ Hoo Gtngsheng to duringChaTnnan Roo Gengshcng inin orderorder 10 maximizemaximize hishis infltlenceinfltlence dUring thisthis planningplanning period)period) waswas thethe

factor IllI learn sent 10 the lhedecidingdeciding raCtor inin ensuringensuring thatthat nn OlympicOlympic team couldcould bebe scnt to London.London. InIn lhe end.end. the OlympicOlympic and teams (thc fealuring Huaqiao rosier)basketballbasketball nod soccersoccer leams (the formerformer featuring threethree Huoqillo playersplayers onon itsits II Q-manQ-man roster) stillstill

10 a tour M:lnila, Bl1Ilgkok. Singapore, llndhadhad to makemake II drainingdraining pre-Gamespre-Games lour ofof Saigon.Saigon. Manila. Bl1llg'ko'k. Singapore. RangoonRangoon and Calcuua 10 mise lustCalcutta to raise oneone IltSt cachecache ofof badly-neededbadly-needed funds.funds. DongDong Shouyi.Shouyi. "Aolinpike"Aolinpike yuyu ZhOngguo"ZhOngguo" IThc China]. Ji XinglTlao Lo Changfu, AO)'lInhlli JIIIThe OlympicsOlympics andand Chinal. inin 1i Hongmin.Hongmin. YuYu Xingmllo andand LD Chnngfu. eds"eds" AOJ'IJ"hui J'tl VlOngg/lo nod 7.iliao chubans.he, pr.VlOngguIJ ITheIThe OlympicsOlympics and ChinalChinal (Beijing:(Beijing: WenshiWenshi z;l;ao ehubanshe. 1935).1935). pp. 30-31.30-31.

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66 66 AndrewAndrew MorrisMorris

over beyond the ando"'~r landland andand water.water. fromfrom ~yond tiM: passespasses llJld mountains.mountains. OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese lIthletes,lIthletes, from Xinjiang,andand teamsteams (rom borderborder provincesprovinces likelike Xinjiang. XikangXikang andand Qinghai.Qinghai. allall havehave mademade

longlong leeksleeks toto thesethese Games.Games. ItIt isis thisthis kindkind ofof ferventfervent andand enthusiasticenthusiastic emotionemotion thatthat allows solid ivtimacy e.tiSI.allows usus 1010 feelfeel 1M1M soljd cohesioncohesion andand thethe gn:algn:al lieslies ofof iJ:ltimacy InalInal C:l:jsl amongstamongst

(lIlinzu).6)thosethose ofof thethe ChineseChinese nation-racenation-race (1IIInzu).6)

the Jefl thaIThisThis fomlUlllIionfomlUlllIion ofof lhc empoweredempowered andand emboldenedemboldened minzuminzu obviouslyobviously Jeff liuleliule Ihal todistinguisheddistinguished NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese fromfrom otherother ChineseChinese lravellinglravelling 10 ShanghaiShanghai fromfrom distantdistant

GamesRepublicanRepublican lands.lands. TheThe renewalrenewal ofof thethe NationalNational Garnes afterafter aa thineen·yearthineen·year hiatushiatus wouldwould thus expanses,lhus continue.continue. overover greatergreater expanses. olderolder LhemesLhemes ofof thethe GamesGames asas aa meansmeans ofof unitinguniting

fiuest wornellChina'sChina's fluest mcnmcn andand women inin oneone gloriousglorious celebrationcelebration ofof thethe strongstrong ChineseChinese nation·nation· ThC$e to lhe pany-stale,race.race. These GamesGames wouldwould alsoalso proveprove 10 bebe aa lasllasl grandiosegrandiose gaspgasp forfor the KMTKMT pany-slllle,

withwith regardregard bothboth toto lhe worldworld ofof sportingsporting cultureculturethe inin ChinaChina andand toto itsits positionposition alat thethe centrecenlre Chinaofof aa unitedunited GreaterGreater China.

surface, 3t IheseOnOn thethe surface. therethere waswas muchmuch aboutabout whichwhich 1010 bebe excitedexcited at these SeventhSeventh NationalNational Games. quite impressive, wilb tcams to representGames, ParticipationParticipation waswas quite. impressive. with teams comingcoming 10 ShanghaiShanghai 1010 represem lwenty-nine provinces. thirteen municipalities. lbe lbelwenty·nine provinces, lhineen municipalities, the fourfour branchesbranches ofof lhe military,military, andand eveneven thelhe nation'snation's police.police. TheseThese ROCROC delegationsdelegations alsoalso werewere joinedjoined byby teamsteams representingrepresenting sevenseven "Huaqiao""Huaqiao" populationspopulations -- Saigon,Indonesia,Indonesia, thethe Philippines,Philippines, Malaya,Malaya, Saigon. Siam.Siam. Toronto.Toronto. andand HOnoluluHonolulu -- byby farfar thethe greatestgreatest OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese presencepresence atat anyany NationalNational Games.Games. (The(The

Games, 1933 and respectively, emlyFifthFifth andand SixlhSixlh Games. heldheld inin 193311:nd 19351935 respectively. hadhad includedincluded ooly aa handfulhandful ofof IndiesIndies andand MalayanMalayan ChineseChinese athletes.)athletes.) ThisThis "Huaqiao""Huaqiao" participationparticipation inin thethe ChineseChinese National routinized AthleticNiltional GamesGames nownow waswas alsoalso roulinized throughthrough aa newnew OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese Alhletic Federation.~Federation.M

lbe excitement. venture<!AddingAdding toto the excilement, anan estimatedestimated averageaverage ofof 65,00065,000 peoplepeople aa dayday ventured fromfrom Out lbe 6Sthethe citycity properproper out toto thethe modemmodem Shan&haiShan&hai StadiumStadium inin the liangwanliangwan suburbssuburbs forfor thethe meeLmeeL65

TheThe GamesGames scheduleschedule featuredfeatured thethe richrichest lbese athletes,t selectionselection ofof competitionscompetitions everever fotfot these athletes. wrestling. weightlifiingwithwith newnew eventsevents likelike ping-pong,ping-pong, wrestling, weightliflirrg andand Western-styleWestern-style boringboring pushingpushing

tota!to TIle Oilthethe toUllto eleveneleven men'smen's andand eighteight women'swomen's event.<;.66event.<;.66 'The mediamedia alsoalso reportedreported endlesslyendlessly on technolOgies fromfrom thethe ShanghaiShanghai newsnews leaderleader Silenooo'sSilenooo's ownown high-techhigh-tech GamesGamesthethe newnew technologies -­

transport toheadquarters,headquarters, 1010 thethe airplanesairplanes usedused toto transpon athletesathletes 10 ShanghaiShanghai fromfrom XinjiangXinjiang oror ulilized alSoutheastSoutheast Asia,Asia, whichwhich werewere beingbeing utilized andand shownshown offoff at thesethese games.games.

to IheManyMany lookedlooked 10 the NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese representativesrepresentatives toto prOVideprOVide aa specialspecial sparkspark atat Huaqiao sportsthesethese Games.Games. FamedFamed Huaqioo spons figurefigure ChenChen Zhang'e,67Zhang'e,67 inin anan essayessay writtenwritten forfor thethe

:\iwang" hopesl. jie quanguo yundonghui63<:hen63<:hen Xunyu,Xunyu, "Ganxiang"Ganxiang yuyu :tiwang" {Emotions{Emotions andand hopesl, inin DiDi qiqi jit: qllanguo yundonghlli Pictoriall ShenbaogullO,huakanhuakan (Seventh(Seventh NationalNational GamesGames OfficialOfficial PictoriaJl (Shanghai:(Shanghai: Shenbaogullll, 1948).1948). p.p. I.I.

Zhenya, Jiu ZlIonggu/'l jianwen China}60lWang60lWang Zhenya. Jill Zllongguo liyuliyu jicmwt:n IGlimpsesIGlimpses ofof physicalphysical cultureculture inin thethe oldold China] liyu chubanshe.(Beijing:(Beijing: RenminRenmin Liyu cbubllns.he, 1987),1987), pp.pp. 7-8.7-8.

MDi jie quallguo )'undong"ui JruaJmn.65Di qiqi jlt: qUDllgUO )'undong"u; lIualum, p.p. 61.61. included events:66The66The scheduleschedule alsoalso induded ninenine demonstrationdemonstration evenl5: men'smen's andand women'swomen's archery,archery, ChineseChinese

boxing compelieion (he guoshu O(ltiontdlyhoKing (quanshu,(quanshu, formerlyformerly anan officialofficial COrl;lpelition inin ,he daysdays whenwhen guos"u waswas stillstill aa nurionttlly form). diving,significantsignificant fonn), badminton,badminton, men'smen's gymnastics.gymnastics. diving. waterwater polo,polo, baseball,baseball, racewalking,racewalking, andand

Di qllallguo yundonghui z1li:cu Seventhmini-soccer.mini-soccer. OJ qiqi jiejie qllQIlgUO YUlldonghl'; zlli:ru cece [Official[Official programprogram ofof thethe Sevenlh NationalNational Games] 1948), 103-117.Gamesl (Shanghai.(Shanghai. 1948). pp.pp. 103-\17.

67As man. track There.~7As aa youngyoung man, ChenChen hadhad beenbeen aa nationally-knownnationally-known \!'lIck starstar basedbased inin Xiamen.Xiamen. there. inin nn II againsl l1efeated min19201920 hehe ran a racerace a,gainsl aa train;train; hishis reputationreputation soaredsoared afterafter hehe defeated thethe tillin andand provedproved thethe

symbl)l modemilyhumanhuman body'sbody's capacitycapacity toto bellerbeller eveneven thisthis ultimateultimate symbol ofof modernilY andand commerce.commerce. GuGu Xin.Xin. "Tiyujia Zhang'e]. ('This"llyujia ChenChen Zhang'e"Zhang'e" [Physical[Physical educationeducation expertexpert ChenChen Zhang'el. p.p. 48.48. (This articlearticle fromfrom anan

.wurce by Cook.)unknownunknown .'lOurce waswas kindlykindly providedprovided b-y JamesJames Coole.)

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Soulh~as( Chin~$~ Communit}, 6767Soulh~ast AsiaAsia inin aa Cllin~st! SportingSporting Comrnllnit},

basketblllliellm, lhem imponllJlt (I)PhilippinePhilippine basketball team. assignedassigned them fourfour imponnnt "missions";"missions"; (1) BearBear thethe gloryglory ofof representingrepresenting thethe 120,000120,000 OverseasOverseas Chinese:Chinese: (2)(2) useuse thethe artsarts ofof basketballbasketball toto betterbetter

conUlcts others;yourselvesyourselves throughthrough thesethese contacts withwith others: (3)(3) makemake anan emotionalemotional connectionconnection withwith thethe (wo8Ilon~i rens!li a A-!-);A-!-): andand (4)(4) spreadspread thethe wordworddomesticdomestic residentsresidents ofof ourour nationnation (wogflon~i renslli .d IIIIII ~~

spiritofof ourour OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese sportingsporting spirit.6868 Nanyang alhlelesLnLn manymany waysways thesethese Nllnyang ChineseChinese athletes seemedseemed toto embodyembody thethe bestbest ofof ChineseChinese

Shenbao's sponswriterssportingsporting traditions.traditions. Silenbuo's sportswriters "selected"selected oneone playerplayer asas aa perfectperfect modelmodel ofof lhesponsmanship,sponsmanship, Siam'sSiam's LiLi Mujin,Mujin, whowho alwaysalways obeyedobeyed the referees".referees". Li'sLi's mediamedia aficionadosaficionados

went called (ouJwen! onon toto elaborate,elaborate, "Even"Even whenwhen hehe waswas ca1led forfor aa fouJ hehe wouldwould shakeshake handshands with,with, cOlll1!geousandand apologizeapologize to,to, thethe playerplayer hehe fouled.fouled. ThisThis typetype ofof COUJ1l;geous andand toleranttolerant spiritspirit isis wellwell

wonh admiring.'~ alhletesworth admiring. 'oM AnotherAnother gloryglory showeredshowered onon OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese athletes waswas thethe invitationinvitation givengiven thethe 31·member31·member SaigonSaigon delegationdelegation toto traveltravel toto NanjingNanjing toto meetmeet ChiangChiang Kai-shekKai-shek andand

victory.70congratulatecongratulate himhim onon hishis recentrecent presidentialpresidential electionelection victory,70 YetYet thethe exoticizedexoticized termsterms inin whichwhich manymany ofof thesethese nativesnatives ofof thethe SouthSouth SeasSeas werewere

exactly fitdescribeddescribed givesgives oneone pausepause asas toto wherewhere eltllctly theythey couldcould possiblypossibly havehave fil inin aa newnew ChineseChinese order.order. OneOne ofof thethe starsstars ofof thethe GamesGames waswas MalayanMalayan ChineseChinese swimmerswimmer FengFeng Zhaoyu, wnlten, all swimmers, theZhaoyu. aboutabout whomwhom itit waswas wOllen, "Of"Of a1l thethe malemale swimmers. hehe isis tbe mostmost healthyhealthy

-fIt:l).andand beautifulbeautiful UianmeiUianmei -/It :1:). HisHis skinskin isis completelycompletely palm-blackpalm-black inin colour,colour, hishis bodybody isis 01d."7lcoveredcovered withwith lightlight hair,hair, hishis musclesmuscles areare fullfull andand supple.supple. andand hehe isis justjust 1919 yearsyears 01d."71

BixiaTheThe attractiveattractive MalayanMalayan ChineseChinese womenwomen swimmersswimmers TanTan JinliuJinliu andand HuangHuang Biltia werewere simplyphotographedphotographed endlesslyendlessly inin theirtheir bathingbathing suits,suits, theirtheir photosphotos captionedcaptioned si.mply "Malai"Malai

Mt!irenyu"MeirenYll" (.l1:l ~ ~A.*., Mermaids").71(J'l, ~-kA.A, lit.lit. 'The'The MalayMalay Mermaids").72 ThisThis termterm ofof MalayanMalayan ethnicityethnicity -- notnot MalayanMalayan nationalitynationality -- indicatedindicated justjust howhow CJl;otice.ltotic atldand differentdifferent thesethese tannedtanned NanyangNanyang

10 be.athletesathletes seemedseemed to be, lhe track slllndoutsAnAn articlearticle onon the trnck andand fieldfield standouts atat thesethese GamesGames includedincluded thethe passage.passage. "Chen"Chen

Taiwan. Chinese]YinglangYinglang isis knownknown asas thethe 'track'track andand fieldfield wonder'wonder' inin Taiwan, andand [Malayan[Malayan ChineseJ Liangzheng quite nOtHuangHuang Liangllteng isis alsoalso quile famousfamous inin SoutheastSoutheast Asia.Asia. TheyThey dodo not speakspeak MandarinMandarin

Cbinese well, 8I"e very well-built"nn TakingTaking thesethese imaginationsimaginations ofof thethe exoticexoticChinese veryvery well. butbut theythey are ve.ry well-built...funher, lheSouthSouth SeasSeas ChineseChinese oneone stepstep further, aa writerwriter reportingreporting onon the Siam-PoliceSiam-Police men'smen's basketballbasketball

gamegame usedused curiouslycuriously anthropologicalanthropological tenninology toto describedescribe asas "native"native songssongs andand dances"dances"terminology (fulen88ewlI tbe(rufeng gewlI .±.A-4.f:-Jt).±.A-4.f:-Jt) thethe fightfight songssongs chantedchanted onon thethe sidelinessidelines byby membersmembers ofof the

leam,7~SiameseSiamese ChineseChinese soccersoccer team.7~

TheThe presencepresence ofof thethe TaiwaneseTaiwanese athletesathletes atat thesethese GamesGames waswas jarringjarring inin itself;itself; theirtheir tones, Inughable skills.darkerdarker skinskin lones, lnughable MandarinMandarin skills, andand reputedreputed historyhistory ofof slavishnessslavishness toto theirtheir

JapaneseJapanese colonialcolonial mastersmasters simplysimply repulsedrepulsed manymany ofof Shanghai'sShanghai's properproper andand cosmopolitancosmopolitan

Zhang'c. nyu mantQll [Infonnal sport] Dcmgnan ehubanshe,6868 ChenChen Zhang'e, 7iyu mnnt011 [Infomutl conversationsconversations onon spOrt] (Shanghai:(Shanghai: Dongnan chubanshe, 1948).1948), p.p. 4.4.

quanguo huokml,69Di69Di qiqi jiejie ql,anguo )'undonghui)'undonghui huakml. p.p. 28.28. ;'I:uansboutuan Zhuxi" ISaigon calls ChalnnanJ. ZJlengyanbiw,1Oo'Xigong1Oo'Xigong xuansboutuan jinyejinye Zhulti.. jSaigon delegationdelegation culls onon thethe Chainnnn), ZJu!1lgyanbiw,

"Quanyun [National 1948."QulInyun teknn"teknn" (National GamesGames SpecialSpecial Publication],Publication], 1212 MayMay 1948, p.p. 1.1. 71m jil! )'undonghlli huakall.11 0; qiqi jie quanguoquanguo )'undonghui huokall. p.p. 10.10. 7:l:1bid Zhl!lIgyanboo, "Qull.nyun 1948, "Malay'" here'nlbid.... p.p. 14;14; ZlIengyanbiJo, "Quanyun lekan",lekan", 1111 MayMay 1948. p.p. 4.4. "Malay" isis clearlyclearly usedused be~

as aa geographicgeographic rulherroilier thll1lthan anan elhnic tenn.tenn.o..s elhnic: Tlo; jill qlUJnguo yundonghui huokan, p.nO; qiqi jit quanguo )'undonghui hualwn, p, 38.38. 1~Moming, "Lanqiu"Lanqiu quanriquanri 'lhancheng"zhancheng" (BasketballIBaskctb:l.!1 scoresscores fromfrom thethe entire daYI, ZJltmg)'tlnbaQ,1~Moming. ent.in: daYI. Zheng)'allbao,

teun", 1948."Quanyun"Quanyun tekan", 77 MayMay 1948, p.p. 2.2.

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68 68 AndrewAndrew MorrisMorris

Chinese.n though.Chinese.7~ EvenEven morcmorc problematic.problematic. though, werewere thethe NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese andand theirtheir veryvery appearances. ­­differentdifferent uppenrances, accentedaccented speechspeech andand potentiallypotentially messymessy politicalpolitical backgroundsbackgrounds

all nOl-quitc·truly-Chinese TIliswhichwhich aU mademade itit easyeasy toto categorizecategorize themthem asas anotheranother nOl-quite·truly-Chinese group.group. This exolicization 10 1940scxoticiz.alion ofof NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese isis notnot aa phenomenonphenomenon newnew oror uniqueunique to thethe 19405 post­post­warwar period.period. PeriodicalsPeriodicals fromfrom thethe 1920s.1920s. likelike Shanghai'sShanghai's TheThe YoungYoung Companioll,Companioll, regularlyregularly featuredfeatured beefcakebeefcake shotsshots ofof flexingflexing shirtlessshirtless NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese slfongmen,76slfongmen,76 SwimmingSwimming hadhad alsoalso longlong beenbeen consideredconsidered aa somewhatsomewhat exoticexotic sport;sport; oneone writerwriter inin 19251925 hadhad toto

lha! Ilnd naliens.concedeconcede lhat unHkeunHke nativesnatives ofof thethe PhilippinePhilippine and JapaneseJapanese islandisland nations. "the"the ChineseChinese abilil'ies".'17mainlandmainland populationpopulation areare justjust notnot bornborn withwith swimmingswimming abilities".'17

exoticiz.ing treatmentYetYet thisthis categorizationcategorization extendedextended pastpast thethe exoticizing lfealmenl ofof individualindividual NanyangNanyang oilierChineseChinese swimmersswimmers andand olher athletes.athletes. ThisThis commoncommon understandingunderstanding ofof NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese

cmcgoriz.edpeople'speople's marginalizedmarginalized andand categorized positionposition inin aa newnew ChineseChinese orderorder helpshelps usus definedefine the thatlhe limitslimits ofof anan imaginedimagined GreaterGreater ChinaChina thal couldcould bebe unitedunited onon thethe playingplaying fieldsfields ofof

the state'sShanghaiShanghai andand Nanjing.Nanjing. GuomindangGuomindang ideologuesideologues ofof lhe slate's spottingspotting apparatusapparatus foundfound logicaJ the the "eniliusinsticveryvery logical !he visionsvisions ofof !he "enthusiastic ...... cohesivecohesive ...... intimate"intimate" ChineseChinese nation-racenation-race

articulated. dreams,whichwhich theythey urticulated. TheseThese GreaterGreater ChinaChina dreams. however.however. werewere plaguedplagued byby twotwo logicaJ faJlacies. Fm;t t.hallogical fallacies. Flnit waswas ilieilie assumptionassumption Ihal NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese participationparticipation inin aa ChineseChinese NationalNational GamesGames somehowsomehow guaranteedguaranteed iliatiliat "Chineseness""Chineseness" waswas thethe sumsum totaltotal ofof thisthis group'sgroup's

the thatself-identities.self-identities. TheThe secondsecond waswas lhe conjectureconjecture thnt NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese withwith ''Chineseness''''Chineseness'' asas thethe sumsum totaltotal ofof theirtheir self-identityself-identity wouldwould naturallynaturally choosechoose aa Nanjing-centeredNanjing-centered Guomindang-ruJed vehkle n:llionaHslGuomiJldan8-ruled RepubHcRepubHc asas thethe vebkle ofof thesethese n:uionnlisl designs.designs.

Obviously, the with thatthat beingbeing ChineseChineseObviously. wewe nownow knowknow lhe problemproblem wi!h thethe firstfirst assumptionassumption -­race,waswas merelymerely oneone aspectaspect ofof NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese identitiesidentities complicatedcomplicated byby issuesissues ofof race. classclass

toandand politicspolitics likelylikely foreignforeign 10 almostalmost anyany RepublicanRepublican Chinese.Chinese. AndAnd thethe absurditiesabsurdities ofof thethe thesecondsecond hardlyhardly meritmerit spacespace here.here. ButBut eveneven assumingassuming thatthat !he NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese sharedshared

these Greater too!hese dreamsdreams ofof aa sportingsporting Grealer China.China. therethere werewere justjust 100 manymany differencesdifferences andand tootoo manymany suspicionssuspicions -- racial,racial, cultural,cultural, political,political, linguisticlinguistic -- the partonon !he par1 ofof ROCROC ChineseChinese forfor suchsuch 00 thisGreaterGreater ChinaChina toto comecome togethertogether inin !his realm.realm.

Conclusio"Conclusio"

ByBy thethe 1920s.1920s. modernmodern physicalphysical cullurecullure waswas alreadyalready anan importantimportant ingredientingredient ofof nalion-state.Republican-eraRepublican-era designsdesigns forfor aa strongstrong andand worthyworthy ChineseChinese nation-state. HereHere II havehave discusseddiscussed

howhow thesethese notionsnotions ofof aa fitfit andand healthyhealthy ChinaChina alsoalso figuredfigured prominentlyprominently inin ChineseChinese imaginationsimaginations ofof aa GreaterGreater ChinaChina thatthat mightmight transcendtranscend politicalpolitical boundariesboundaries andand reachreach thethe

Taiwanese athletes'1'One1'One authorauthor explainedexplained thethe TaiwllJ1ese alhlelcs' surprisingsurprising successessuccesses inin thethe GamesGames byby pointingpointing thallhey nalUl1ll1yOUIOUI thai they werewere nalUrally obedientobedient "slaves""slaves" whowho hadhad beenbeen trainedtrained wellwell byby thethe JapaneseJapanese colonialcolonial

shorts]. ZJumgyanbao, 4:regime.regime. "Xuanshou"Xuanshou jianying"jianying" [Athlete[Athlete shonsl. ZJum8)'Qnb(/(1, "Quanyun"Quanyun telean".telean". 55 MayMay 1948.1948. p.p. 4; xuanshnu tanqi" ITalking aboulthe athlelesl, ZhengyonOOo.TongTong Xiangzhao,Xiangzhao, "Cong"Cong TaiwanTaiwan xuanshou tanqi"IThlking aboullhe ThiwanThiwan athletes), ZheflgJoflooO.

"Quan)'un 11 Ma)'"Quanyun tckan".tckan". II May 1948.1948. p.p. 4.4. liang)'OIl Companion) Liangyou (Th~16For16For example.example. seesee Umrg)'OIl (The(The YoollgYoollg Com(HlI1ion) 3434 (January(January 1929),1929), p.p. 22:22: UflflgyOU (The

YoungYoung Companion)Companion) 4747 (1930):(1930): 24.24. gaikuang"lOn ChwnpicmshipnJiangnJiang Xiangqing.Xiangqing. "Yuandong"Yuandong yundonghuiyundonghui gaikuang"[On thethe FarFar EasternEastern Chwnpionship Games].Games].

)'undonghui )'Iuuan dahui ,dJ1.n [Special Nationalinin DiDi qiqi jiejie >'lwndong>'lwndong ),ulldonghui quanguoquanguo puuon tUlhui reJw.n ISpecial publicationpublication ofof thethe NationaJ Selection Elllitem YuandnngSeleclion MeetMeet forfor thethe SeventhSeventh FarFar Eastern ChwnpionshipChwnpionship Games]Games] (Shanghai:(Shanghai: OiOi qiqi jiejie Yuandong

quanguo dllhuiyundonghuiyundonghui quunguo yuxuanyuxuan dahui tekanshe.tekanshe. 1925).1925). p.p. 44.44.

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SfXJrting 6969South~astSouth~ast AsiaAsia inin aa Chin~s~Chin~s~ Sporting CommunityCommunity

waitingwaiting embracesembraces ofof OverseasOverseas ChineseChinese allall overover thethe world.world. especiallyespecially inin thethe coloniescolonies ofof sportingSoutheastSoutheast Asia.Asia. TheThe formsforms understoodunderstood toto provideprovide thesethese pan-Chinesepan-Chinese sponing ties.ties. however.however.

hadhad veryvery differentdifferent implicationsimplications forfor visionsvisions ofof aa greatergreater China.China. In I92Os, O1inain thethe earlyearly 19205. manymany couldcould imagineimagine Otina andand NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese asas boundbound logetherlogether "traditional" Manialbyby "tIaditional'" andand essentialessential culturalcultural ties.ties. likelike thosethose embodiedembodied inin thethe PurePure Mania] arts.arts.

lIle teamwhichwhich knewknew nono modemmodem borders.borders. ByBy thethe NanjingNanjing Decade.Decade. the learn spons,spons, whichwhich nownow lhoughl 10 lhis China. fonnswerewere thought to serveserve asas thethe basisbasis ofof tllis GreaterGreater China, assumedassumed IheIhe veryvery forms ofof

lIlat the twentieth.century nation-stalecompetitioncompetition andand fairfair playplay that shapedshaped Ihe newnew twenticth.century nation-slale order.order. TheThe fonner 10 toformer provedproved to bebe anan acceptableacceptable andand practicalpractical wayway forfor NanyangNanyang ChineseChinese 10 maintainmaintain Ihal identilies ancientthat "Chinese""Chinese" aspectaspect ofof theirtheir identities byby participatingparticipating inin supposedlysupposedly ancienl andand

arts. which. :mist 10aggressiveaggressive am. which, withwith eacheach kickkick andand punch.punch. allowedallowed thethe martialmartial anist to feelfeel whatwhat 10itit meantmeant to bebe Chinese.Chinese. OnceOnce GreaterGreater ChineseChinese dreamersdreamers depaneddepaned fromfrom thesethese feel-goodfeel-good

however. efforts "re"·integrnteabstractions.abstractions. however, effons toto "re"~integrnte NanyangNanyang communitiescommunities intointo aa newnew ChineseChinese Hllaqiao through recaptureorderorder asas HIloqioo througb competitivecompetitive sportsport couldcould nevernever quitequite recaplure thethe magicmagic ofof thethe

19205.PurePure Manial'sManial's decadedecade ofof dominancedominance inin thethe 19205, Chinese communiry,OneOne typetype ofof GreaterGreater Otinese community, forgedforged viavia thethe age-oldage-old commercialcommercial connectionsconnections

Chinese. stiObetweenbetween thethe RepublicRepublic andand SoutheastSoutheast Asia'sAsia's Otinesc sojourners,sojourners, couldcould sliD flourishflourish duringduring manufacluring goods.thisthis KMTKMT period.period. BusinessmenBusinessmen manufacturing oror sellingselling sportingsporting goods, oror sponsoringsponsoring

teams, importantsportssports tcams, becamebecame anan imponant sourcesource ofof legitimacylegitimacy forfor thisthis transnationaltransnational ChineseChinese activity greal profits sportingtiyutiyu aclivit'Y atat thethe samesame timetime thatthat theythey couldcould reapreap great profils fromfrom thisthis newnew sponing

industry. however. Guomindang"scommunity.community. BesidesBesides thesethese captainscaptains ofof commercecommerce andand industry, however, thethe Guomindang's tenns Gre.uersportingsporting programmesprogrammes werewere uselessuseless inin terms ofof creatingcreating thethe powerfulpowerful andand coherentcoherent Greater

NaoyangChineseChinese communitycommunity ofof whichwhich soso manymany dreamed.dreamed. Nanyang ChineseChinese identitiesidentities werewere tootoo vague. Chinesevague, RepublicanRepublican Cbinese expectationsexpectations tootoo unrealisticallyunrealistically one-dimensional.one-dimensional. andand thesethese

fonns nation-statesponingsponing fonus simplysimply tootoo deeplydeeply implicatedimplicated inin modemmodem nation~state formulas.formulas. forfor thisthis sportinggreatgreat sponing enterpriseenterprise toto createcreate anyany meaningfulmeaningful bridgebridge betweenbetween thethe RepublicRepublic andand thethe

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