music theory

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Music theory From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Music theory is the study of the practices and possibilities of music. It generally derives from observation of how musicians and composers make music, but includes hypothetical speculation. Most commonly, the term describes the academic study and analysis of fundamental elements of music such as pitch, rhythm, harmony, and form, but also refers to descriptions, concepts, or beliefs related to music. Because of the ever-expanding conception of what constitutes music (see Definition of music), a more inclusive definition could be that music theory is the consideration of any sonic phenomena, including silence, as it relates to music. Music theory is a subfield of musicology, which is itself a subfield within the overarching field of the arts and humanities. Etymologically, music theory is an act of contemplation of music, from the Greek θεωρία, a looking at, viewing, contemplation, speculation, theory, also a sight, a spectacle. [1] As such, it is often concerned with abstract musical aspects such as tuning and tonal systems, scales, consonance and dissonance, and rhythmic relationships, but there is also a body of theory concerning such practical aspects as the creation or the performance of music, orchestration, ornamentation, improvisation, and electronic sound production. [2] A person working in music theory is a music theorist. Methods of analysis include mathematics, graphic analysis, and, especially, analysis enabled by Western music notation. Comparative, descriptive, statistical, and other methods are also used. The development, preservation, and transmission of music theory may be found in oral and practical music-making traditions, musical instruments, and other artifacts. For example, ancient instruments from Mesopotamia, China, [3] and prehistoric sites around the world reveal details about the music they produced and, potentially, something of the musical theory that might have been used by their makers (see History of music and Musical instrument). In ancient and living cultures around the world, the deep and long roots of music theory are clearly visible in instruments, oral traditions, and current music making. Many cultures, at least as far back as ancient Mesopotamia, Pharoanic Egypt, and ancient China have also considered music theory in more formal ways such as written treatises and music notation. Contents 1 History of music theory 2 Fundamentals of music 2.1 Pitch 2.2 Scales and modes 2.3 Consonance and dissonance 2.4 Rhythm 2.5 Melody 2.6 Chord 2.7 Harmony 2.8 Timbre 2.8.1 Dynamics 2.8.2 Articulation 2.9 Texture 2.10 Form or structure 2.11 Analysis 2.12 Music perception and cognition 2.13 Expression

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Page 1: Music Theory

Music theoryFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Music theory is the study of the practices and possibilities of music. It generally derives from observationof how musicians and composers make music, but includes hypothetical speculation. Most commonly, theterm describes the academic study and analysis of fundamental elements of music such as pitch, rhythm,harmony, and form, but also refers to descriptions, concepts, or beliefs related to music. Because of theever-expanding conception of what constitutes music (see Definition of music), a more inclusive definitioncould be that music theory is the consideration of any sonic phenomena, including silence, as it relates tomusic.

Music theory is a subfield of musicology, which is itself a subfield within the overarching field of the artsand humanities. Etymologically, music theory is an act of contemplation of music, from the Greek θεωρία,a looking at, viewing, contemplation, speculation, theory, also a sight, a spectacle.[1] As such, it is oftenconcerned with abstract musical aspects such as tuning and tonal systems, scales, consonance anddissonance, and rhythmic relationships, but there is also a body of theory concerning such practical aspectsas the creation or the performance of music, orchestration, ornamentation, improvisation, and electronicsound production.[2] A person working in music theory is a music theorist. Methods of analysis includemathematics, graphic analysis, and, especially, analysis enabled by Western music notation. Comparative,descriptive, statistical, and other methods are also used.

The development, preservation, and transmission of music theory may be found in oral and practicalmusic-making traditions, musical instruments, and other artifacts. For example, ancient instruments fromMesopotamia, China,[3] and prehistoric sites around the world reveal details about the music they producedand, potentially, something of the musical theory that might have been used by their makers (see History ofmusic and Musical instrument). In ancient and living cultures around the world, the deep and long roots ofmusic theory are clearly visible in instruments, oral traditions, and current music making. Many cultures, atleast as far back as ancient Mesopotamia, Pharoanic Egypt, and ancient China have also considered musictheory in more formal ways such as written treatises and music notation.

Contents1 History of music theory2 Fundamentals of music

2.1 Pitch2.2 Scales and modes2.3 Consonance and dissonance2.4 Rhythm2.5 Melody2.6 Chord2.7 Harmony2.8 Timbre

2.8.1 Dynamics2.8.2 Articulation

2.9 Texture2.10 Form or structure2.11 Analysis2.12 Music perception and cognition2.13 Expression

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Ancient Egyptian musicians playing lutes in anensemble.

2.14 Performance and style2.15 Mathematics2.16 Serial composition and set theory2.17 Musical semiotics

3 Music subjects3.1 Notation

4 See also5 Notes6 Sources7 Further reading8 External links

History of music theoryThe beginnings of music theory can be observed inextremely ancient instruments, artifacts, and later,depictions of performance in artworks.

As early as the Paleolithic, it appears people consideredelements of music in some way. For instance, a boneflute with carefully placed finger holes found in HohleFels in Germany and dated c.35,000 BCE,[4] may be aprehistoric example of the manufacture of an instrumentto produce a preconceived set of pitches. For furtherdiscussion of Upper Paleolithic flutes, see d'Errico, et al.2003, 39–48.

Similar bone flutes (gǔdí, 贾湖骨笛) from NeolithicJiahu, China dated c. 7,000 BCE[5] reveal their makersprogressively added more holes to expand their scales,structured pitch intervals closer to each other to adjust tuning, and could play increasingly expressive andvaried music.[6] "Tonal analysis of the flutes revealed that the seven holes [in some of the flutes]correspond to a tone scale remarkably similar to Western eight-pitch scales."[7][8] These instruments[9]

indicate their makers became familiar with acoustics and developed theories of music comparable to thoseof later times. Audio recordings of two of these flutes by Brookhaven National Laboratory are availablehere (http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/pr/1999/bnlpr092299.html).

In North America, similar flutes from the Anasazi Indian culture were found in Arizona and dated c. 600–750 CE, but again, suggest an older tradition. These instruments typically have six finger holes ranging oneand a half octaves.[10] As with all these ancient flutes, it is likely an error to imagine the Anasazi fluteswere limited to only as many tones as they have holes. Changes in embouchure, overblowing, and cross-fingering are common techniques on modern flutes like these that produce a much larger range of noteswithin an octave and in octaves above the fundamental octave.[11]

The earliest known examples of written music theory are inscribed on clay tablets found in Iraq and Syria,some of which contain lists of intervals and other details[12][13] from which "...musicologists have beenable to produce credible reconstructions of the Mesopotamian tonal and tuning systems."[14] Tablets fromUgarit contain what are known as the Hurrian songs or Hurrian Hymns dated c. 1,400 BCE. An

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interpretation of the only substantially complete Hurrian Hymn, h.6, may be heard here(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ygoCqxjMcEQ). The system of phonetic notation in Sumer andBabylonia is based on a music terminology that gives individual names to nine musical strings or "notes",and to fourteen basic terms describing intervals of the fourth and fifth that were used in tuning stringinstruments (according to seven heptatonic diatonic scales), and terms for thirds and sixths that appear tohave been used to fine tune (or temper in some way) the seven notes generated for eachscale.[15][16][17][18][19]

Over time, many cultures began to record their theories of music in writing by describing practices andtheory that was previously developed and passed along through oral tradition. In cultures where no writtenexamples exist, oral traditions indicate a long history of theoretical consideration, often with uniqueconcepts of use, performance, tuning and intervals, and other fundamental elements of music. The Vedas,the sacred texts of India (c. 1,000–500 BCE) contain theoretical discussion of music in the Sama Veda andYajur-Veda. The Natya Shastra,[20] written between 200 BCE to 200 CE and attributed to Bharata Muni,discusses classes of melodic structure, intervals, consonance and dissonance, performance, and othertheoretical aspects such a "shruti," defined as the least perceivable difference between two pitches.[21]

The music of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica is known through the many instruments discovered. Thirty-twocondor-bone flutes and thirty-seven cornet-like instruments made of deer and llama bones have beenrecovered from a site at Caral, Peru dating to c. 2,100 BCE.[22][23][24] Flute No. 15 produces five distinctfundamental tones. A Mayan marimba-like instrument (c. 350 CE), made from five turtle shells ofdecreasing sizes suspended on a wooden frame, has been discovered in Belize.[25]

Later artwork depicts ensemble and solo performance. Taken together, this evidence does not in itselfdemonstrate anything about music theory in Mesoamerica from at least 2,000 BCE, though "...it is widelyaccepted that finds and depictions of ancient musical instruments are not only markers of musical traditionsin space and time. … The information obtained from the archaeological record can be deepenedconsiderably when ancient scripts, historical treaties, and other written sources concerning music arerelated. Such documents offer notes on performance practices and their sociocultural contexts. For somecultures, hints concerning ancient music theory and musical aesthetics may also be found."[26]

Music theory in ancient Africa can also be seen in instruments .[27] The Mbira, a wood or bamboo-tinedinstrument similar to a Kalimba, appeared on the west coast of Africa about 3,000 years ago, and metal-tined lamellophones appeared in the Zambezi River valley around 1,300 years ago.[28] In the 20th century,these instruments produce a number of tones, ranging to 32 separate pitches, and demonstrate a greatvariety of tunings—tunings "so dissimilar as to offer no apparent common foundation", something thatmight have been expected at least by 1932.[29] The djembé, a common type of drum, likely originated fromearlier, extremely ancient drums.[30] Djembé ensembles create complex polyrhythmic patterns,[31] butproduce a variety of pitches depending on size and playing technique, usually producing at least threeseparate tones.[32] African music theory is also preserved in oral and cultural traditions that are oneexample of the great variety of concepts of fundamental aspects of music around the world.[33]

In China, a variety of wind, string, percussion instruments, and written descriptions and drawings of themfrom the Shang Dynasty (c.16th to 11th century BCE), show sophisticated form and design.[34] During theZhou Dynasty (c. 1046–256 BC), a formal system of court and ceremonial music later termed "yayue" wasestablished. As early as the 7th century BCE, a system of pitch generation was described based on a ratioof 2:3 and a pentatonic scale was derived from the cycle of fifths,[35] the beginnings of which appear in

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A set of bells from China, 5th Century BCE.

7,000 year-old Jiahu bone flutes. In the tomb of the Marquis Yi of Zeng (5th century BCE), among manyother instruments, a set of bronze chime bells were found that sound five complete seven note octaves inthe key of C Major and include twelve semitones.[36] The Analects of Confucius, believed to have beenwritten c. 475 to 221 BC, discuss the aesthetics of what Confucius considered the most benevolent formand use of music, in contrast to popular music of his time—an example of early music criticism andconsideration of aesthetics.[37][38]

Around the time of Confucius, the ancient Greeks,notably Pythagoras (c. 530 BCE), Aristotle (c. 350BCE),[39] Aristoxenus (c. 335 BCE),[40] and laterPtolemy (c. 120 CE),[41] speculated and experimentedwith ideas that became the basis of music theory inMiddle Eastern and Western cultures during the MiddleAges as can be seen, for example, in the writing ofBoethius in 5th century Rome[42] and Yunus al-Katibin7th century Medina.[43] Middle Eastern and Westerntheory diverged in different directions from ancientGreek theory and created what are now two distinctlydifferent bodies of theory and styles of music.

As Western musical influence spread throughout the world in the 1800s, musicians adopted Western theoryas an international standard—but other theoretical traditions in both textual and oral traditions remain inuse. For example, the long and rich musical traditions unique to ancient and current cultures of Africa areprimarily oral, but describe specific forms, genres, performance practices, tunings, and other aspects ofmusic theory.[44][45]

Major contributors to the field include the ancient Greeks: Archytas, Aristotle, ristoxenus, Eratosthenes,Plato, Pythagoras, and later Ptolemy. The Middle Ages of Europe had Boethius, Franco of Cologne, Guidoof Arezzo, Hucbald of Saint-Amand, Jacob of Liège, and Jean de Muris. Later in Europe, Zarlino,Rameau, Werckmeister, and Fux helped further musical knowledge. More recently, Riemann, Schenker,Boulanger, and Schoenberg contributed (see List of music theorists). Musical theorists in India includeBharata Muni, Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande, Purandara Dasa, and Sharngadeva. The Middle East had IbnMisjah, Ibrahim al-Mawsili. and his son Ishaq, Yunus al-Katib, Ibn Sina (known in Europe as Avicenna).China had Confucius, Yong Menzhoue, and Cao Rou.

Fundamentals of musicMusic is composed of aural phenomena, and "music theory" considers how those phenomena apply inmusic. Music theory considers melody, rhythm, counterpoint, harmony, form, tonal systems, scales, tuning,intervals, consonance, dissonance, durational proportions, the acoustics of pitch systems, composition,performance, orchestration, ornamentation, improvisation, electronic sound production, etc.[46]

Pitch

Pitch is the lowness or highness of a tone, for example the difference

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Middle C (261.626 Hz) Play .

Pitch is the lowness or highness of a tone, for example the differencebetween middle C and a higher C. The frequency of the soundwaves producing a pitch can be measured precisely, but theperception of pitch is more complex because we rarely hear a singlefrequency or pure pitch. In music, tones, even those sounded by soloinstruments or voices, are usually a complex combination offrequencies, and therefore a mix of pitches. Accordingly, theoristsoften describe pitch as a subjective sensation.[47]

Most people appear to possess relative pitch, which means they perceive each note relative to somereference pitch, or as some interval from the previous pitch. Significantly fewer people demonstrateabsolute pitch (or perfect pitch), the ability to identify pitches without comparison to another pitch. Humanperception of pitch can be comprehensively fooled to create auditory illusions. Despite these perceptualoddities, perceived pitch is nearly always closely connected with the fundamental frequency of a note, witha lesser connection to sound pressure level, harmonic content (complexity) of the sound, and to theimmediately preceding history of notes heard.[48] In general, the higher the frequency of vibration, thehigher the perceived pitch. The lower the frequency, the lower the pitch.[49] However, even for tones ofequal intensity, perceived pitch and measured frequency do not stand in a simple linear relationship.[50]

Intensity (loudness) can change perception of pitch. Below about 1000 Hz, perceived pitch gets lower asintensity increases. Between 1000 and 2000 Hz, pitch remains fairly constant. Above 2000 Hz, pitch riseswith intensity.[51] This is due to the ear's natural sensitivity to higher pitched sound, as well as the ear'sparticular sensitivity to sound around the 2000–5000 Hz interval,[52] the frequency range most of thehuman voice occupies.[53]

The difference in frequency between two pitches is called an interval. The most basic interval is the unison,which is simply two notes of the same pitch, followed by the slightly more complex octave: pitches that areeither double or half the frequency of the other. The unique characteristics of octaves gave rise to theconcept of what is called pitch class, an important aspect of music theory. Pitches of the same letter namethat occur in different octaves may be grouped into a single "class" by ignoring the difference in octave.For example, a high C and a low C are members of the same pitch class—the class that contains all C's.The concept of pitch class greatly aids aspects of analysis and composition.[54]

Although pitch can be identified by specific frequency, the letter names assigned to pitches are somewhatarbitrary. For example, today most orchestras assign Concert A (the A above middle C on the piano) to thespecific frequency of 440 Hz, rather than, for instance, 435HZ as it was in France in 1859. In England, thatA varied between 439 and 452. These differences can have a noticeable effect on the timbre of instrumentsand other phenomena. Many cultures do not attempt to standardize pitch, often considering that it should beallowed to vary depending on genre, style, mood, etc. In historically informed performance of older music,tuning is often set to match the tuning used in the period when it was written. A frequency of 440 Hz wasrecommended as the standard pitch for Concert A in 1939, and in 1955 the International Organization forStandardization affirmed the choice.[55] A440 is now widely, though not exclusively, the standard formusic around the world.

Pitch is also an important consideration in tuning systems, or temperament, used to determine the intervallicdistance between tones, as within a scale. Tuning systems vary widely within and between world cultures.In Western culture, there have long been several competing tuning systems, all with different qualities.Internationally, the system known as equal temperament is most commonly used today because it isconsidered the most satisfactory compromise that allows instruments of fixed tuning (e.g. the piano) tosound acceptably in tune in all keys.

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A pattern of whole and half steps in the Ionianmode or major scale on C Play .

Scales and modes

Notes can be arranged in a variety of scales and modes.Western music theory generally divides the octave into aseries of twelve tones, called a chromatic scale, withinwhich the interval between adjacent tones is called a halfstep or semitone. In equal temperament each semitone isequidistant from the next, but other tuning systems are alsoused. Selecting tones from this set of 12 and arranging themin patterns of semitones and whole tones creates other scales.[56]

The most commonly encountered scales are the seven-toned major, the harmonic minor, the melodicminor, and the natural minor. Other examples of scales are the octatonic scale and the pentatonic or five-tone scale, which is common in folk music and blues. Non-Western cultures often use scales that do notcorrespond with an equally divided twelve-tone division of the octave. For example, classical Ottoman,Persian, Indian and Arabic musical systems often make use of multiples of quarter tones (half the size of asemitone, as the name indicates), for instance in 'neutral' seconds (three quarter tones) or 'neutral' thirds(seven quarter tones) – they do not normally use the quarter tone itself as a direct interval.[57]

In traditional Western notation, the scale used for a composition is usually indicated by a key signature atthe beginning to designate the pitches that make up that scale. As the music progresses, the pitches usedmay change and introduce a different scale. Music can be transposed from one scale to another for variouspurposes, often to accommodate the range of a vocalist. Such transposition raises or lowers the overall pitchrange, but preserves the intervallic relationships of the original scale. For example, transposition from thekey of C major to D major raises all pitches of the scale of C major equally by a whole tone. Since theinterval relationships remain unchanged, transposition may be unnoticed by a listener, however otherqualities may change noticeably because transposition changes the relationship of the overall pitch rangecompared to the range of the instruments or voices that perform the music. This often affects the music'soverall sound, as well as having technical implications for the performers.[58]

The interrelationship of the keys most commonly used in Western tonal music is conveniently shown by thecircle of fifths. Unique key signatures are also sometimes devised for a particular composition. During theBaroque period, emotional associations with specific keys, known as the doctrine of the affections, were animportant topic in music theory, but the unique tonal colorings of keys that gave rise to that doctrine werelargely erased with the adoption of equal temperament. However, many musicians continue to feel thatcertain keys are more appropriate to certain emotions than others. Indian classical music theory continues tostrongly associate keys with emotional states, times of day, and other extra-musical concepts and notably,does not employ equal temperament.

Consonance and dissonance

Consonance and dissonance are subjective qualities of the sonority of intervals that vary widely in differentcultures and over the ages.

Consonance (or concord) is the quality of an interval or chord that seems stable and complete in itself.Dissonance (or discord) is the opposite in that it feels incomplete and "wants to" resolve to a consonantinterval. Dissonant intervals seem to clash. Consonant intervals seem to sound comfortable together.Commonly, perfect fourths, fifths, and octaves and all major and minor thirds and sixths are consideredconsonant. All others are dissonant to greater or lesser degree.[59]

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Metric levels: beat level shown in middle withdivision levels above and multiple levels below.

"Pop Goes the Weasel" melody[61] Play

Context and many other aspects can affect apparent dissonance and consonance. For example, in aDebussy prelude, a major second may sound stable and consonant, while the same interval may sounddissonant in a Bach fugue. In the Common Practice era, the perfect fourth is considered dissonant when notsupported by a lower third or fifth. Since the early 20th century, Arnold Schoenberg’s concept of"emancipated" dissonance, in which traditionally dissonant intervals can be treated as "higher," moreremote consonances, has become more widely accepted.[60]

Dissonance is an essential element of music and used in most every culture and genre, not only for effect,but as a fundamental structural element to create motion and tension. J.S. Bach’s music depends in greatpart on the effect of dissonance. The art of melody writing depends heavily upon the selection of consonantand dissonant tones.

Rhythm

Rhythm is produced by the sequential arrangement ofsounds and silences in time. Meter measures music inregular pulse groupings, called measures or bars. Thetime signature or meter signature specifies how manybeats are in a measure, and which value of written noteis counted or felt as a single beat.

Through increased stress, or variations in duration orarticulation, particular tones may be accented. There areconventions in most musical traditions for regular andhierarchical accentuation of beats to reinforce a givenmeter. Syncopated rhythms contradict those conventionsby accenting unexpected parts of the beat. Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature iscalled polymeter. See also polyrhythm.

In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars.Recent work in these areas includes books by Bengt-Olov Palmqvist, Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff,and Jonathan Kramer.

Melody

A melody is a series of tones sounding in successionthat typically move toward a climax of tension thenresolve to a state of rest. Because melody is such aprominent aspect in so much music, its construction andother qualities are a primary interest of music theory.

The basic elements of melody are pitch, duration,rhythm, and tempo. The tones of a melody are usuallydrawn from pitch systems such as scales or modes.Melody may consist, to increasing degree, of the figure, motive, semi-phrase, antecedent and consequentphrase, and period or sentence. The period may be considered the complete melody, however someexamples combine two periods, or use other combinations of constituents to create larger formmelodies.[62]

Chord

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An illustration of hairpins in musical notation.

Harmony

Timbre

Timbre, sometimes called "color", or "tone color," is the principal phenomenon that allows us to distinguishone instrument from another when both play at the same pitch and volume, a quality of a voice orinstrument often described in terms like bright, dull, shrill, etc. It is of considerable interest in music theory,especially because it is one component of music that has as yet, no standardized nomenclature. It has beencalled "...the psychoacoustician's multidimensional waste-basket category for everything that cannot belabeled pitch or loudness,"[63] but can be accurately described and analyzed by Fourier analysis and othermethods[64] because it results from the combination of all sound frequencies, attack and release envelopes,and other qualities that comprise a tone.

Timbre is principally determined by two things: (1) the relative balance of overtones produced by a giveninstrument due its construction (e.g. shape, material), and (2) the envelope of the sound (including changesin the overtone structure over time). Timbre varies widely between different instruments, voices, and tolesser degree, between instruments of the same type due to variations in their construction, andsignificantly, the performer's technique. The timbre of most instruments can be changed by employingdifferent techniques while playing. For example, the timbre of a trumpet changes when a mute is insertedinto the bell, the player changes their embouchure, or volume.

A voice can change its timbre by the way the performer manipulates their vocal apparatus, (e.g. the shapeof the vocal cavity or mouth). Musical notation frequently specifies alteration in timbre by changes insounding technique, volume, accent, and other means. These are indicated variously by symbolic and verbalinstruction. For example, the word dolce (sweetly) indicates a non-specific, but commonly understood softand "sweet" timbre. Sul tasto instructs a string player to bow near or over the fingerboard to produce a lessbrilliant sound. Cuivre instructs a brass player to produce a forced and stridently brassy sound. Accentsymbols like marcato (^) and dynamic indications (pp) can also indicate changes in timbre.

Dynamics

In music, "dynamics" normally refers to variations ofintensity or volume, as may be measured by physicistsand audio engineers in decibels or phons. In musicnotation, however, dynamics are not treated as absolutevalues, but as relative ones. Because they are usuallymeasured subjectively, there are factors besidesamplitude that affect the performance or perception ofintensity, such as timbre, vibrato, and articulation.

The conventional indications of dynamics are abbreviations for Italian words like forte (f) for loud andpiano (p) for soft. These two basic notations are modified by indications including mezzo piano (mp) formoderately soft (literally "half soft") and mezzo forte (mf) for moderately loud, sforzando or sforzato (sfz)for a surging or "pushed" attack, or fortepiano (fp) for a loud attack with a sudden decrease to a soft level.The full span of these markings usually range from a nearly inaudible pianissississimo (pppp) to a loud-as-possible fortissississimo (ffff).

Greater extremes of pppppp and fffff and nuances such as p+ or più piano are sometimes found. Othersystems of indicating volume are also used in both notation and analysis: dB (decibels), numerical scales,colored or different sized notes, words in languages other than Italian, and symbols such as those forprogressively increasing volume (crescendo) or decreasing volume (decrescendo), often called "hairpins"

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Examples of articulations. From left to right:staccato, staccatissimo, martellato, marcato, tenuto.

Tone row from Alban Berg's LyricSuite, mov. I. Play

when indicated with diverging or converging lines as shown in the graphic above.

Articulation

Articulation is the manner in which the performersounds notes. For example, staccato is the shortening ofduration compared to the written note value, legatoperforms the notes in a smoothly joined sequence withno separation. Articulation is often described rather thanquantified, therefore there is room to interpret how toexecute precisely each articulation.

For example, staccato is often referred to as "separated" or "detached" rather than having a defined ornumbered amount by which to reduce the notated duration. Violin players use a variety of techniques toperform different qualities of staccato. The manner in which a performer decides to execute a givenarticulation is usually based on the context of the piece or phrase, but many articulation symbols and verbalinstructions depend on the instrument and musical period (e.g. viol, wind; classical, baroque; etc.).

There are a set of articulations that most all instruments and voices perform in common. They are, in orderof long to short: legato (smooth, connected); tenuto (pressed or played to full notated duration); marcato(accented and detached); staccato ("separated", "detached"); martelé (heavily accented or "hammered").Many of these can be combined to create certain "in-between" articulations. For example, portato is thecombination of tenuto and staccato. Some instruments have unique methods by which to produce sounds,such as spicatto for bowed strings, where the bow bounces off the string.

Texture

Form or structure

Analysis

Music perception and cognition

Expression

Performance and style

Mathematics

Serial composition and set theory

Musical semiotics

Music subjects

Notation

Musical notation is the written or symbolized representation ofmusic. This is most often achieved by the use of commonlyunderstood graphic symbols and written verbal instructions and their

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Tibetan musical score from the 19thcentury.

abbreviations. Computer file formats have become important aswell.[65] Spoken language and hand signs are also used tosymbolically represent music, primarily in teaching.

In standard Western music notation, tones are representedgraphically by symbols (notes) placed on a staff or staves, the vertical axis corresponding to pitch and thehorizontal axis corresponding to time. Note head shapes, stems, flags, ties and dots are used to indicateduration. Additional symbols indicate keys, dynamics, accents, rests, etc. Verbal instructions are often usedto indicate tempo, technique, and other aspects.

There are many systems of music notation from different cultures and different ages. Traditional Westernnotation evolved during the Middle Ages and remains an area of experimentation and innovation.[66]

See alsoPitch (psychophysics)AP Music TheoryTheory of paintingMusicologyList of music theorists

Notes1. OED 2005.2. Palisca and Bent n.d., Theory, theorists. 1. Definitions.3. Latham 2002, 15–17.4. Conrad, Malina, and Münzel 2009, 738.5. Zhang and Kuem 2005, passim.6. Zhang, Xiao, and Lee 2004, 769, 775.7. Zhang, Harboolt, Wang, and Kong 1999, passim.8. Zhang and Kuen 2004, passim.9. Lee and Shen 1999, passim.

10. Bakkegard and Morris 1961, passim.11. Gross n.d..12. Mirelman 2013a, passim.13. Mirelman 2013b, passim.14. Crickmore 2012, 57.15. Civil 2010, text 6.3.1.16. Laroche 1955, passim.17. Schaeffer and Nougayrol n.d., 463, cuneiform text on 487.18. Dietrich and Loretz 1975, passim.19. Martin 1994, 166.20. Muni 1951.21. Bakshi 2005, passim.22. Ross 2002, passim.23. Haas and Creamer 2001, passim.24. Cheong 2012, passim.25. Brill 2012, passim.26. Both 2009, 1.27. Kubik 2010,21–28.28. Kubik 1998,.29. Tracey 1969, 93.30. Charry 2000,.

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31. Billmeier 1999,.32. Henning 2012.33. Chernoff 1981, passim.34. Thrasher 2000, 2.35. Randel 2003, 260–62.36. Lu 2005, 140.37. Routledge 2008, 2:1201–1202.38. Confucius 1999, Chapter VI.39. Barnes 1984, Politics book VIII, chapts. 5–7, pp. 2125–29.40. Aristoxenus 1902.41. Ptolemy 1999.42. Boethius 1989.43. Shiloah 2003, 24.44. Kubik 2010, passim.45. Ekwueme 1974, passim.46. Palisca and Bent n.d..47. Hartmann 2005,.48. Lloyd and Boyle 1978, 142.49. Benade 1960, 31.50. Stevens, Volkmann, and Newman 1937, 185; Josephs 1967, 53–54.51. Olson 1967, 248–51; Houtsma 1995, 269.52. Despopoulos and Silbernagl 2003, 362.53. Nave n.d..54. Bartlette and Laitz 2010,.55. Cavanagh 1999.56. Touma 1996,.57. Touma 1996,.58. Forsyth 1935, 73-74.59. Latham 2002,.60. Latham 2002,.61. Kliewer 1975,.62. Stein 1979, 3–47.63. McAdams and Bregman 1979,.64. Mannell n.d..65. Castan 2009.66. Read 1979,; Stone 1980,.

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Further readingApel, Willi, and Ralph T. Daniel (1960). The Harvard Brief Dictionary of Music. New York: Simon & SchusterInc. ISBN 0-671-73747-3Baur, John (2014). Practical Music Theory. Dubuque: Kendall-Hunt Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-4652-1790-5Benward, Bruce, Barbara Garvey Jackson, and Bruce R. Jackson. (2000). Practical Beginning Theory: AFundamentals Worktext, 8th edition, Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-697-34397-9. [First edition 1963]Brown, James Murray (1967). A Handbook of Musical Knowledge, 2 vols. London: Trinity College of Music.Chase, Wayne (2006). How Music REALLY Works!, second edition. Vancouver, Canada: Roedy Black Publishing.ISBN 1-897311-55-9 (book).Dunbar, Brian (2010). Practical Music Theory: A Guide to Music as Art, Language, and Life. Rochester, Minn.:Factum Musicae. ISBN 978-0578062471.Hewitt, Michael (2008). Music Theory for Computer Musicians. USA: Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-59863-503-4.Lawn, Richard J., and Jeffrey L. Hellmer (1996). Jazz Theory and Practice. [N.p.]: Alfred Publishing Co. ISBN 0-88284-722-8.Mazzola, Guerino (1985). Gruppen und Kategorien in der Musik: Entwurf einer mathematischen Musiktheorie(http://books.google.com/books?id=ktPuAAAAMAAJ). Heldermann. ISBN 978-3-88538-210-2. Retrieved26 February 2012.

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Wikibooks has more onthe topic of: Music theory

Mazzola, Guerino; Daniel Muzzulini (1990). Geometrie der Töne: Elemente der mathematischen Musiktheorie(http://books.google.com/books?id=LOkDNQAACAAJ). Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-3-7643-2353-0. Retrieved26 February 2012.Mazzola, Guerino, Stefan Göller, and Stefan Müller (2002). The Topos of Music: Geometric Logic of Concepts,Theory, and Performance, Vol. 1 (http://books.google.com/books?id=6I9U9-Rls8oC). Basel, Boston, and Berlin:Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-3-7643-5731-3. (Basel). ISBN 978-0-8176-5731-4 (Boston). Retrieved 26 February 2012.Olson, Harry F. (1967). Music, Physics and Engineering (http://books.google.com/?id=RUDTFBbb7jAC). NewYork: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-21769-8.Miguel, Roig-Francoli (2011). Harmony in Context, Second edition, McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN0073137944.Owen, Harold (2000). Music Theory Resource Book. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511539-2.Seashore, Carl (1933). Approaches to the Science of Music and Speech. Iowa City: The University.Seashore, Carl (1938). Psychology of Music (http://books.google.com/books?id=p9gUknYfpjYC&printsec=frontcover). New York, London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.Sorce, Richard (1995). Music Theory for the Music Professional. [N.p.]: Ardsley House. ISBN 1-880157-20-9.Taruskin, Richard (2009). "Music from the Earliest Notations to the Sixteenth Century: The Oxford History ofWestern Music." Oxford University Press ISBN 0195384814.Taylor, Eric (1989). AB Guide to Music Theory, Part 1. London: Associated Board of the Royal Schools ofMusic. ISBN 1-85472-446-0.Taylor, Eric (1991). AB Guide to Music Theory, Part 2. London: Associated Board of the Royal Schools ofMusic. ISBN 1-85472-447-9.Yamaguchi, Masaya (2006). The Complete Thesaurus of Musical Scales, revised edition. New York: MasayaMusic Services. ISBN 0-9676353-0-6.

External linksDillen, Oscar van, Outline of basic music theory

(http://www.oscarvandillen.com/Outline_of_basic_music_theory) (2011)http://www.musictheoryhelp.co.ukhttps://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/music/music-basics-notes-rhythm-musichttp://www.musictheoryis.com

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