multifactor leadership questionnaire.doc
TRANSCRIPT
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Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire
Psychometric properties of the German translation by Jens Rowold
Dr. Jens Rowold, University of Muenster, Germany
Published by Mind Garden, Inc.
www.mindarden.com
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Table of contents
#ummary.................................................................................................................................$
Introduction.............................................................................................................................%
&he M'()%*......................................................................................................................%
M'()%* subscales of transformational and transactional leadershi+................................%
&he German translation of the M'()%*............................................................................
#am+les...............................................................................................................................-
alidity..................................................................................................................................../
0onstruct validity................................................................................................................/
1actor loadins....................................................................................................................2
Intercorrelations amon M'( factor scores.....................................................................!3
0onverent validity...........................................................................................................!$
Reliability..............................................................................................................................!%
4orms and descri+tive statistics............................................................................................!
Discussion.............................................................................................................................""
#ummary of results...........................................................................................................""
&he universality of the transformational 5 transactional leadershi+ +aradim.................""
Im+lications for theory......................................................................................................""
References............................................................................................................................."$
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Summary
&he state)of)the)art +aradim within leadershi+ is the theory of transformational 5
transactional leadershi+ +ro+osed by 7urns 87urns, !2-/9 and further develo+ed 7ass and
:volio 87ass ; :volio, "3339. in countries had been limited in a number of ways. In this +a+er,
we re+ort about a new translation of the M'( into the German lanuae 8Rowold, "33$b9 and
+rovide em+irical evidence for its sound +sychometric +ro+erties. &he newly translated
instrument was administered to subordinates in a number of heteroeneous sam+les. &he
results demonstrate hih factorial and converent validity as well as internal consistency, test)
retest)reliability, and interrater areement. In sum, the M'( with its nine leadershi+ scales
and three outcome scales is now a++licable in German conte?ts.
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Introduction
ithin the last two decades, both researchers and +ractitioners have e?+lored the
transformational and transactional leadershi+ +aradim. #tartin with 7assA seminal wor> on
the theory of transformational leadershi+ 87ass, !2/%9, consistent em+irical evidencedemonstrated the +ositive im+act this leadershi+ a++roach has on both subBective and
obBective +erformance. Recently, several meta analysis summariCed these em+irical studies
81uller, Patterson, =ester ; #triner, !22 'owe, Eroec> ; #ivasubramaniam, !22 Jude
; Piccolo, "33$9.
ithin transformational leadershi+, leaders em+hasiCe hiher motive develo+ment, and
arouse followersA motivation and +ositive emotions by means of creatin and re+resentin an
ins+irin vision of the future 87ass, !22-9. In contrast, transactional leaders rely on a clear
defined system of contracts and rewards.
The MLQ-!
&he Multifactor 'eadershi+ (uestionnaire 8M'()%*9 is the standard instrument for assessin
transformational and transactional leadershi+ behavior 87ass ; :volio, "333 :volio ; 7ass,
"33$9. It has been translated into many lanuaes and used successfully by both researchers
and +ractitioners around the world. &he M'()%* and its various translations are available
from Mind Garden, Inc.
Mind Garden +rovides services for both researchers and consultants. Researchers will want to
use Bust the M'( forms as survey instruments 8:volio ; 7ass, "33$9. &o use the M'( for
research it is essential to contact Mind Garden, Inc. to +urchase or license re+roduction of
these forms. Mind Garden also +rovides eb based collection of multi)rater data for
researchers interested in usin the web!
.1or consultants, Mind Garden +rovides both +a+er form)based and eb)based multi)rater
863 deree9 collection of ratins about a leader as well as a com+rehensive feedbac> re+ort.
&he M'( feedbac> is an individualiCed, com+uter)enerated re+ort, that +rovides an in)de+th
summary of how often leaders are +erceived to e?hibit s+ecific behaviors alon a full rane of
leadershi+ +erformance. &hese s+ecific behaviors are described in the ne?t section.
MLQ-! subscales of transformational and transactional leadership
In detail, five transformational, three transactional, one laisseC)faire, and three outcome scales
are included in the M'()%*. &he first of the transformational scales is Ins+irational
Motivation. 0entral to this subscale of transformational leadershi+ is the articulation andre+resentation of a vision by the leader. 0onseFuently, by viewin the future with a +ositive
attitude, followers are motivated. IdealiCed Influence 8attributed9 refers to the attribution of
charisma to the leader. 7ecause of the leaders +ositive attributes 8e. . +erceived +ower,
focusin on hiher)order ideals and values9, followers built close emotional ties to the leader.
&rust and confidence is li>ely to be built in followers. IdealiCed Influence 8behavior9
em+hasiCes a collective sense of mission and values, as well as actin u+on these values.
4e?t, Intellectual #timulation includes challenin the assum+tions of followers beliefs, their
analysis of +roblems they face and solutions they enerate. IndividualiCed 0onsideration is
defined by considerin individual needs of followers and develo+in their individual
strenths. s, while +rovidin
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followers with rewards 8material or +sycholoical9 on the fulfillment of these tas>s. In :ctive
Manaement)by)H?ce+tion, the leader watches and searches actively for deviations from rules
and standards in order to avoid these deviations if necessary, corrective actions are ta>en. In
contrast, in Manaement)by)H?ce+tion +assive intervenin only occurs after errors have been
detected or if standards have not been met. :n even more +assive a++roach is 'aisseC)1aire,
which is basically defined as the absence of leadershi+. :s such, 'aisseC)faire is used as anonleadershi+ contrast to the more active forms of transformational and transactional
leadershi+ a++roaches.
&he three outcome criteria which are included in the M'( are followersA H?tra Hffort 8HH19,
the Hffectiveness of leaderAs behavior 8H119, and followersA #atisfaction 8#:&9 with their
res+ective leader.
In combination, these scales form the 1ull Rane of 'eadershi+, a com+rehensive model
develo+ed by :volio and 7ass 8"33"9. In addition, the 1ull Rane of 'eadershi+ Develo+ment
Proram 81R'D9 has +roven its effectiveness 87ass ; :volio, !22- 7arlin, eber ;
Eelloway, !229. 'eaders in +rofit and non)+rofit oraniCations around the world enhance
their leadershi+ s>ills by means of the 1R'D and thus a++ly successfully the transformational
) transactional leadershi+ +aradim.It is im+ortant to notice that the 1ull Rane model offers a variety of leadershi+ styles for
many situations. &heir effectiveness has been documented in several meta)analysis 8Jude ;
Piccolo, "33$ 'owe et al., !229. :s a conseFuence, the 1ull Rane model is uniFue within
the field of leadershi+ 8:ntona>is ; =ouse, "33" :volio ; 7ass, "33"9.
The German translation of the MLQ-!
&he M'()%* 8short version9 has been translated in numerous lanuaes. Mind Garden
+rovides these translations as well as norms". =owever, until now, the 1ull Rane model of
'eadershi+ described above failed to show in German translations. 1or e?am+le, Geyer and#teyrer 8!22/9 e?+lored leadershi+ behavior of ban> branchesA manaers. 1actor analysis
failed to re+licate several of the above mentioned factors. &he reader is referred to Rowold
and Grabbe 8"33$9 for more details on earlier attem+ts to translate the M'( into the German
lanuae and validate the res+ective translation.
In conseFuence, it was deemed necessary to translate the M'()%* more carefully into the
German lanuae. In turn, we made a considerable effort to translate the M'()items 8c.f.
7rislin, !2/39. 1irst, a native Hnlish s+ea>er translated the items into German. 4e?t, a
+rofessional translator bac>translated the items. &wo inde+endent e?+erts in the fields of I<
+sycholoy com+ared the two sets of Hnlish items. &hey areed that there were virtually no
differences between the two Hnlish translations. &hus, the translation was deemed
successful. &he maBority of scales used for research in Germany rane from ! to %, contrary tothe 3 to $ rane of the M'(. 1or reasons of standardiCation, we chose to assin a five)+oint
res+onse scale ranin from ! 8stronly disaree9 to % 8stronly aree9 to each of the M'()
%* items. &he instrument is under co+yriht 6 and available from Mind Garden 8Rowold,
"33$b9.
" 1 or international norms, see Mind GardensA website www.mindarden.comdocsM'(internationalnorms.+df
6 Research Hdition &ranslation +erformed by Dr. Jens Rowold on July -, "33$. &ranslated and re+roduced bys+ecial +ermission of the Publisher, MI4D G:RDH4, Inc., Redwood 0ity, 0: 2$3! www.mindarden.com
from Multifactor 'eadershi+ (uestionnaire for Research by 7ernhard M 7ass and 7ruce J :volio. 0o+yriht!22%, "333 by 7ernhard M 7ass and 7ruce J :volio. :ll rihts reserved. 1urther re+roduction is +rohibitedwithout the PublisherAs written consent.
http://www.mindgarden.com/docs/MLQinternationalnorms.pdfhttp://www.mindgarden.com/http://www.mindgarden.com/docs/MLQinternationalnorms.pdfhttp://www.mindgarden.com/
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Samples
Diverse sam+le were chosen in order to evaluate the +sychometric +ro+erties of the new
German translation of the M'()%* 8Rowold, "33$b9. &able ! +rovides with an overview of
these sam+les.
&able !
Descri+tion of sam+les
#am+le 4umber
of raters
4umber
of leaders
Rater level +ercentae 8K9
8!9 Government "- -$ 'ower 8!33.39
8"9 Manufacturin : "" % #elf 8$3./9, =iher 86!.-9, 'ower
8"-.%9
869 Manufacturin 7 "% !$ #elf 8%".39, =iher 8$/.39
8$9 Manufacturin 0 !!" "" #elf 86.9, 'ower 86.$9
8%9 Public trans+ort "36 6$ 'ower 8!33989 0onvenience sam+le "6/ !"3 'ower 8!339
8-9 #tudent sam+le $! 6/ 'ower 8!339
1irst, within a overnment aency in western Germany, subordinates assessed their su+eriorsA
leadershi+ styles. #econd, in a erman)s+ea>in #wiss manufacturin firm, focal manaersA
leadershi+ style was evaluated by their res+ective subordinates, su+eriors as well as from their
own +ers+ective. &hird, for feedbac> +ur+oses, a sam+le of German manaers assessed their
own leadershi+ behaviors. In addition, they were assessed by their res+ective su+eriors.
1ourth, within a mid)siCed manufacturin com+any, manaers rated their own leadershi+
behavior and were evaluated by their res+ective subordinates. 1ifth, manaers from three
hierarchical levels of a lare +ublic trans+ort com+any in Germany were assessed by their subordinates. #i?th, a convenience sam+le included a re+resentative selection of manaers
with different demora+hic characteristics wor>in within different com+anies. 1inally, the
seventh sam+le was a student sam+le. #tudents rated world)class leadersA behavior as if they
were their subordinates 8c.f. 7ass, :volio ; Goodheim, !2/-9.
&hese heteroeneous sam+les were chosen for evaluatin the validity and reliability of the
German translation of the M'()%*. In the followin section, we re+ort about the results of
our +sychometric analyses.
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"alidity
#onstruct $aliditye conducted confirmatory factor analyses 801:s9 in order to test the factorial validity of the
M'()%*. In accordance with earlier research 8:ntona>is, :volio ; #ivasubramaniam, "336
:volio ; 7ass, "33$9, we tested different com+etin models which had been identified by
other scholars and are summariCed in &able ". 1or more detail about the factorial validity of
the M'()%*, the reader is referred to :ntona>is et al. 8"3369 and to the new M'( manual
available from Mind Garden 8:volio ; 7ass, "33$9.
&able "
0om+etin factorial models of M'(
Model Descri+tion
8!9 Null model
8"9 ett ; :llen, !22%9
8$9 &hree correlated first)order factors 8transformational, transactional, and laisseC)faire
leadershi+9 8c.f. Den =arto ; an MuiBen, !22-9
8%9 &hree correlated first)order factors 8transformational, transactional, and +assive
leadershi+9 8:volio et al., !2229
89 1ive correlated first)order factors 8transformational leadershi+, continent reward,
active manaement)by)e?ce+tion, manaement)by)e?ce+tion +assive and laisseC)
faire leadershi+9 8=owell ; :volio, !22698-9 #i? correlated first)order factors 8charisma, intellectual stimulation, individualiCed
consideration, continent reward, active manaement)by)e?ce+tion and +assive
leadershi+9 87ass, !2/% :volio et al., !2229
8/9 #even correlated first)order factors 8charisma, intellectual stimulation,
individualiCed consideration, continent reward, active manaement)by)e?ce+tion,
manaement)by)e?ce+tion +assive and laisseC)faire leadershi+9 8:volio et al., !2229
829 Hiht correlated first)order factors 8ins+irational motivation, idealiCed influence,
intellectual stimulation, individualiCed consideration, continent reward, active
manaement)by)e?ce+tion, manaement)by)e?ce+tion +assive and laisseC)faire
leadershi+9 8:volio et al., !2229
8!39 4ine correlated first)order factors 8ins+irational motivation, idealiCed influenceattributed, idealiCed influence behavior, intellectual stimulation, individualiCed
consideration, continent reward, active manaement)by)e?ce+tion, manaement)
by)e?ce+tion +assive and laisseC)faire leadershi+9 8:volio et al., !222 :ntona>is et
al., "3369
: series of multi)sam+le 01:s usin :Mle ; oth>e, !2229 was +erformed
on the data sets described in &able !. e only included one ty+e of raters, namely followers,
in order to minimiCe variance. &his yielded a sam+le siCe of N L !"-. 1ull)information
ma?imum li>elihood 81IM'9 01: was used to estimate the model +arameters 87ollen, !2/2
:ntona>is et al., "3369.
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&able 6
is et al., "3369. In sum, the German translation of the M'()%* 8Rowold, "33$b9
used here was able to re+licate the oriinal factor structure. In conseFuence, the nine factors
of transformational, transactional, and nonleadershi+ are valid in erman)s+ea>in countries.
7oth researchers and +ractitioners are now eFui++ed with an instrument ready to a++ly the
state)of)the)art +aradim of transformational and transactional leadershi+ in German)s+ea>in
countries.
%actor loadin&s
In addition to the fit indices, the 01:s +rovided information about the factor loadins for the
different subscales of the M'()%*. &ables $.! and $." +resent the item loadins. &hat is, for
each of the nine leadershi+ factors, the loadin of their res+ective four indicators are shown.
&able $.!
Item loadins with the nine)factor model
1actor 1actor 1actor 1actor 1actor
Item IM Item II8:9 Item II879 Item I# Item I0
IM2 3.-$ II8:9!3 3.-" II879 3.$! I#6" 3.% I06! 3.-
IM!6 3.6 II8:9!/ 3.%% II879!$ 3.%" I#63 3.-/ I0"2 3./
IM" 3.% II8:9"! 3.2 II879"6 3.- I#/ 3.-$ I0!2 3.62
IM6 3. II8:9"% 3.-6 II8796$ 3.$ I#" 3.6" I0!% 3.$%
2
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&able $."
Item loadins with the nine)factor model
1actor 1actor 1actor 1actor
Item 0R Item :MbH Item MbHP Item '1
0R6% 3.! :MbH"- 3.$2 MbHP6 3.%$ '1% 3.$0R! 3.$/ :MbH"$ 3.3 MbHP!" 3./" '1- 3.$2
0R!! 3.% :MbH"" 3.- MbHP!- 3."- '1"/ 3.2
0R! 3." :MbH$ 3.%6 MbHP"3 3.% '166 3.-!
Intercorrelations amon& MLQ factor scores
H?+lorin the factorial validity of the M'()%*, the latent intercorrelations of the nine
leadershi+ scales are of interest. It has been noted earlier that the five transformational factors
are hihly intercorrelated. In addition, 0ontinent Reward, one of the three transactionalfactors, showed a relatively hih correlation with the five transformational factors in earlier
research.
&o further e?+lore this issue, we +resent the intercorrelations of the M'()%* subscales from
our sam+les described in &able !.
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&able %.!
Intercorrelations amon M'( factor scores 8raters at a lower level than the focal leader9
- ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
.60** - ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
.64** .69** - ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
.35** .56** .54** - ** ** ** ** ** ** ** **
.40** .61** .53** .70** - ** ** ** ** ** **
.61** .64** .64** .53** .61** - ** ** ** ** ** **
.17** .13** .22** .13** .05 .21** - * ** **
-.21** -.43** -.28** -.39** -.34** -.34** .01 - ** ** ** **
-.32** -.54** -.43** -.48** -.48** -.49** -.07* .64** - * * ** **
.63** .72** .66** .49** .56** .67** .18** -.36** -.45** - ** **
.42** .62** .51** .63** .69** .62** .16** -.45** -.52** .65** - **
.39** .64** .50** .62** .69** .58** .04 -.45** -.49** .58** .74** -
Inspirational Motivation
Idealized Influene attri!uted
Idealized Influene !e"avior
Intelletual #ti$ulation
Individualized %onsideration
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
)tive Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption
Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption passive
aissez-aire
+,tra +ffort
+ffetiveness
#atisfation
Inspirational
Motivation
Idealized
Influene
attri!uted
Idealized
Influene
!e"avior
Intelletual
#ti$ulation
Individualized
%onsideration
%ontin&ent
'e(ard
)tive
Mana&e$ent-
!-+,eption
Mana&e$ent-
!-+,eption
passive aissez-aire +,tra +ffort +ffetiveness #atisfation
p / .01 t(o-tailed.**.
p / .05 t(o-tailed .*.
!!
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&able %."
Intercorrelations amon M'( factor scores 8raters at the same level than the focal leader9
- .02** .02** .02** .02** .02** .02 .02 .02** .02** .02** .02*
.50** - .02** .02** .02** .02** .02* .02 .02* .02** .02** .02**
.49** .40** - . 02** .02** .02** .02* .02 .02** .02** .02** .02*
.49** .45** .59** - .02** .02** .02 .02** .02** .02** .02** .02**
.39** .33** .43** .47** - .02** .02 .02 .02* .02** .02** .02*
.30** .28** .32** .21** .21** - .02 .02** .02** .02** .02** .02
.02 .17* .18* .14 .03 .09 - .02 .02 .02 .02 .02
.01 -.08 -.11 -.27** .06 -.22** .04 - .02** .02 .02 .02*
-.23** -.18* -.22** -.37** -.16* -.28** -.07 .30** - .02** .02** .02**
.66** .53** .60** .64** .51** .26** -.01 -.15 -.32** - .02** .02**
.38** .39** .31** .42** .37** .24** .07 -.11 -.33** .56** - .02**
.19* .34** .20* .32** .16* .15 .05 -.17* -.32** .40** .49** -
Inspirational Motivation
Idealized Influene attri!uted
Idealized Influene !e"avior
Intelletual #ti$ulation
Individualized %onsideration
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
)tive Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption
Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption passive
aissez-aire
+,tra +ffort
+ffetiveness
#atisfation
Inspirational
Motivation
Idealized
Influene
attri!uted
Idealized
Influene
!e"avior
Intelletual
#ti$ulation
Individualized
%onsideration
%ontin&ent
'e(ard
)tive
Mana&e$ent-
!-+,eption
Mana&e$ent-
!-+,eption
passive aissez-aire +,tra +ffort +ffetiveness #atisfation
p / .01 t(o-tailed.**.
p / .05 t(o-tailed .*.
!"
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&able %.6
Intercorrelations amon M'( factor scores 8raters at a hiher level than the focal leader9
- -.30** -.30** -.30** -.30** -.30** -.30 -.30 -.30** -.30** -.30** -.30**
.55** - -.30** -.30** -.30** -.30** -.30* -.30** -.30** -.30** -.30** -.30**
.54** .43** - -.30** -.30** -.30** -.30** -.30* -.30** -.30** -.30* -.30**
.42** .55** .40** - -.30** -.30** -.30** -.30* -.30** -.30** -.30** -.30**
.34** .44** .29** .46** - -.30** -.30 -.30* -.30* -.30** -.30** -.30**
.61** .61** .47** .38** .51** - -.30 -.30** -.30** -.30** -.30** -.30**
.16 .22* .29** .33** .06 .16 - -.30* -.30 -.30 -.30* -.30
-.10 -.28** -.21* -.22* -.26* -.33** -.23* - -.30** -.30** -.30* -.30**
-.30** -.60** -.43** -.35** -.25* -.50** -.16 .59** - -.30** -.30** -.30**
.51** .51** .37** .36** .47** .64** .11 -.30** -.46** - -. 30** -.30**
.51** .61** .22* .34** .48** .49** .23* -.21* -.38** .54** - -.30**
.32** .67** .36** .36** .42** .44** .05 -.30** -.49** .52** .60** -
Inspirational Motivation
Idealized Influene att ri!uted
Idealized Influene !e"avior
Intelletual #ti$ulation
Individualized %onsideration
%ontin&ent 'e(ard
)tive Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption
Mana&e$ent-!-+,eption passive
aissez-aire
+,tra +ffort
+ffetiveness
#atisfation
Inspirational
Motivation
Idealized
Influene
attri!uted
Idealized
Influene
!e"avior
Intelletual
#ti$ulation
Individualized
%onsideration
%ontin&ent
'e(ard
)tive
Mana&e$ent-
!-+,eption
Mana&e$ent-
!-+,eption
passive aissez-aire +,tra +ffort +ffetiveness #atisfation
p / .01 t(o-tailed.**.
p / .05 t(o-tailed .*.
!6
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#on$er&ent $alidity
&he M'()%* is the standard instrument for assessin a rane of transformational and
transactional leadershi+ behaviors. Des+ite its +redominance, other instruments were
develo+ed in order to ta+ different as+ect of transformational leadershi+. off andcolleaues 8Podsa>off, 4iehoff, MacEenCie ; illiams, !226 Podsa>off, MacEenCie ;
7ommer, !229.
1or the +ur+ose of assessin the converent validity of the M'()%*, both the M'()%* and
the &'I were administered to subordinates evaluatin their res+ective su+eriorsA leadershi+
styles. :ll of the +artici+ants from sam+le ! described in &able ! 8overnment sam+le9 were
included in this study 84 L "-9. &he transformational scales of the M'()%* showed hih
and sinificant converent validity to the transformational leadershi+ scales of the &'I 8.""
r .-29. &his lends further credibility to the validity of the M'()%*. 1or more details, the
reader is referred to &artler and Rowold 8"33$9.
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Reliability
In order to evaluate as+ects of reliability, the followin three inde+endent a++roaches were
chosen. In addition to internal consistency 80ronbachAs :l+ha9, the interrater areement 8I009
and the test)retest)reliability 8r tt 9 were calculated.1irst, internal consistency was calculated for each of the M'()%* subscales. :s a standard,
0ronbachAs :l+ha was calculated for each subscale of the M'()%* 80ortina, !2269. &ables
-.! ) -.6 +resent the reliabilities for each of the sam+le listed in &able ! se+arately. In sum, the
internal consistencies of the M'()%* scales as indicated by 0ronbachAs :l+ha are ood.
Given the fact that the nine leadershi+ scales consist of only four indicators, the internal
consistencies can be cateoriCed as very ood 80ortina, !2269.
4e?t, we calculated the interrater areement for each of the nine subscales. &he intraclass
correlation 8 ICC 9 is one +ossible indicator for interrater areement 8James, Demaree ; olf,
!2/$9. :reement is hih if several subordinates observe the same freFuency of su+eriorsA
behavior. ithin the manufacturin sam+le 0 described in &able !, for each focal leader, two
of hisher subordinates assessed leadershi+ behavior. In turn, it was +ossible to calculate the
ICC(1). :s can be seen from &able , the ICC s for each of the nine leadershi+ scales are
satisfactory or hih 8.-$ ICC .2-9. &hus, these results +rovide evidence for the interrater
areement for the M'()%*.
1inally, attem+ts were made to estimate the test)retest reliabilities of the M'()%* leadershi+
scales. &est)retest reliability r tt is an indicator of a constructsA tem+oral stability. ithin the
manufacturin : sam+le 8c. f. &able !9, N L !- manaers were evaluated two times. &he time
interval between these two +oints in time was three months. &able shows that the test)retest
reliabilities were enerally hih and sinificant. &he e?ce+tions are the subscales
IndividualiCed 0onsideration, Manaement)by)H?ce+tion +assive, and 'aisseC)1aire. 1urther
research is necessary to e?+lore the stability of leadersA behavior as measured with the M'()%*.
&able
I00s and test)retest reliabilities
M'()%* scale ICC(1) &est)retest reliability r tt IM 3./% 3.%/OO
IIa 3.2- 3.-3OO
IIb 3./2 3.$2OO
I# 3.2% 3.%-OO
I0 3.26 3.6"
0R 3./- 3.2OO:MbH 3./$ 3.%OO
MbHP 3.-$ 3."!
'1 3./" 3.6"
Notes. IM L Ins+irational Motivation IIa L IdealiCed Influence
attributed IIb L IdealiCed Influence behavior I# L Intellectual
#timulation I0 L IndividualiCed 0onsideration 0R L 0ontinent
Reward :MbH L :ctive Manaement by H?ce+tion MbHP L
Manaement by H?ce+tion Passive '1 L 'aisseC)1aire
O p .3% OO p .3!
!%
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'orms and descripti$e statistics
In cross)cultural research, it is im+ortant to have descri+tive data in order to com+are different
cultures. 0onseFuently, in this section we +resent descri+tive statistics for the sam+les used in
our research 8c. f. &able !9. &ables -.! 5 -.6 show the descri+tive statistics for each of thesam+les used in our analyses. 4ote that the means are relatively hih, due to the different
scalin format 8! ) %9. In accordance with earlier research, transformational leadershi+ was
observed more freFuently than transactional or nonleadershi+ behavior 87ass ; :volio, "333
:volio ; 7ass, "33$9.
&able -.!
Means, standard deviations, and internal consistency estimates
#am+le
Government 8 N L "-9 Manufacturin : 8 N L "369
M SD α M SD α
Transformational
leadership
!. IM 6.!$ .-2 .-- 6.-2 .6 .-2
". IIa 6."" ./2 ./$ 6.-/ .% .-
6. IIb 6."" .-2 .-% 6.-- .%2 .2
$. I# 6.62 .-- .-2 6./2 .%- .
%. I0 6."2 ./! .- 6.-/ .%% ."
Transactional leadership
.0R 6.6$ .-2 .- 6.2 .%3 .
-. :MbH "./ .- .-! 6."6 .-" .-/. MbHP "."% ./" .2 ".6/ .%/ .!
2. '1 "."6 ./! .2 !./$ .! .-6
Dependent Measures
!3. HH1 6.33 ./ .// 6.3 .- ./%
!!. H11 6.$- .-- ./! 6.// .$ .-%
!". #:& 6.%! ./ .-% 6./2 .%- ./$
Notes. IM L Ins+irational Motivation IIa L IdealiCed Influence attributed IIb L IdealiCed
Influence behavior I# L Intellectual #timulation I0 L IndividualiCed 0onsideration 0R L
0ontinent Reward :MbH L :ctive Manaement by H?ce+tion MbHP L Manaement by
H?ce+tion Passive '1 L 'aisseC)1aire HH1 L H?tra Hffort H11 L Hffectiveness #:& L
#atisfaction
!
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&able -."
Means, standard deviations, and internal consistency estimates
#am+le
Manufacturin 0 8 N L $!69 Public trans+ort 8 N L "369
M SD α M SD α
Transformational leadership
!. IM 6.-2 .6 .-! 6.! . .-
". IIa 6.-/ .% .-2 6."/ ./3 .-2
6. IIb 6.-- .%2 .% 6.66 .-$ .2
$. I# 6./2 .%- ./ 6.$/ ./% .-/
%. I0 6.-/ .%% .-- 6.$3 .-- .-
Transactional leadership
.0R 6.2 .%3 .%/ 6.$6 .-- .-3
-. :MbH 6."6 .-" .- 6.3! ./" .2
/. MbHP ".6/ .%/ . "."/ .-! .%
2. '1 !./$ .! .-! ".32 .- .-$ Dependent Measures
!3. HH1 6.3 .- .-2 6.!2 ./$ ./3
!!. H11 6.// .$ .-$ 6.% .- .-3
!". #:& 6./2 .%- .% 6.%3 .2! .--
Notes. IM L Ins+irational Motivation IIa L IdealiCed Influence attributed IIb L IdealiCed
Influence behavior I# L Intellectual #timulation I0 L IndividualiCed 0onsideration 0R L
0ontinent Reward :MbH L :ctive Manaement by H?ce+tion MbHP L Manaement by
H?ce+tion Passive '1 L 'aisseC)1aire HH1 L H?tra Hffort H11 L Hffectiveness #:& L
#atisfaction
!-
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&able -.6
Means, standard deviations, and internal consistency estimates
#am+le
0onvenience sam+le 8 N L "-9 #tudent sam+le 8 N L $!9
M SD α M SD α
Transformational leadership
!. IM 6.6- 3./$ .-6 6.6- 3./$ ./!
". IIa 6.!6 !.36 ./" 6.!6 !.36 .-3
6. IIb 6.$% 3./$ . 6.$% 3./$ .%
$. I# 6.6 3.23 .-/ 6.6 3.23 ./6
%. I0 6.63 !.3" ./! 6.63 !.3" .--
Transactional leadership
.0R 6.%2 3./ .-! 6.%2 3./ .%/
-. :MbH 6.3- 3./3 .- 6.3- 3./3 .-
/. MbHP "." 3.2! . "." 3.2! .
2. '1 ".6/ !.3% .-/ ".6/ !.3% .-! Dependent Measures
!3. HH1 6."! 3.22 .-2 6."! 3.22 .-!
!!. H11 6.$$ 3.2$ ./3 6.$$ 3.2$ .!
!". #:& 6."6 !.!/ ./" 6."6 !.!/ .2"
Notes. IM L Ins+irational Motivation IIa L IdealiCed Influence attributed IIb L IdealiCed
Influence behavior I# L Intellectual #timulation I0 L IndividualiCed 0onsideration 0R L
0ontinent Reward :MbH L :ctive Manaement by H?ce+tion MbHP L Manaement by
H?ce+tion Passive '1 L 'aisseC)1aire HH1 L H?tra Hffort H11 L Hffectiveness #:& L
#atisfaction
Moreover, we were interested in the norm for each of the nine leadershi+ behaviors. &hus,
&ables /.! 5 /.6 +resent the +ercentiles for the three different rater +ers+ectives. &hat is, &able
/.! includes only raters that were at a lower level than the focal leader &able /.". includes
only same)level raters &able /.6. +resents results for hiher)level raters. In eneral, the results
are com+arable to norms from other continents and nations 8:volio ; 7ass, "33$9. :s a
tendency, leaders from German)s+ea>in countries were e?hibitin less transformational
leadershi+ than their U.#. colleaues. &he reverse is true for transactional and nonleadershi+.
&hat is, manaers from the U.# show less of this +assive leadershi+ behavior than their
German)s+ea>in colleaues. &hus, the results +resented here re+licate findins from earlier
research 8Euchin>e, !2229. It should be >e+t in mind, however, that the cross)culturally
differences are very small and should be treated with caution. 1urther research is needed toclarify the nation)s+ecific differences.
In sum, the followin +aes 8&ables /.! 5 /.69 +resent for the first time s+ecific norms for
German)s+ea>in nations. :s such, they can be viewed as an im+ortant ste+ toward lanuae)
s+ecific norms that will hel+ for a more norm)based assessment and develo+ment of manaers
effective leadershi+ behaviors 8:volio, aldman ; Qammarino, !22! :volio, !2229.
!/
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&able /.!
Percentiles for individual scores based on ratins at a lower level than focal leader
1267 1267 1267 1267 1267 1266 1266 1267 1267 1261 1267 1265
3.51 3.51 3.58 3.41 3.29 3.56 3.05 2.35 2.15 3.39 3.50 3.78
.83 .93 .81 .91 .89 .75 .81 .81 .86 .89 .78 .89
4.00 5.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 5.00 4.00 4.50 4.00 5.00 4.00 3.51
2.25 1.75 2.25 1.75 1.75 2.25 1.75 1.25 1.00 2.00 2.00 .83
2.50 2.25 2.50 2.25 2.00 2.50 2.00 1.25 1.00 2.33 2.50 4.00
2.75 2.75 3.00 2.50 2.50 3.00 2.25 1.75 1.38 2.67 2.75 2.25
3.00 3.00 3.25 3.00 2.75 3.25 2.75 2.00 1.50 3.00 3.00 2.50
3.25 3.50 3.50 3.25 3.25 3.50 2.75 2.00 1.75 3.33 3.33 2.75
3.50 3.50 3.75 3.50 3.25 3.67 3.00 2.25 2.00 3.33 3.50 3.00
3.75 3.88 3.75 3.75 3.50 3.75 3.25 2.50 2.25 3.67 3.75 3.25
4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.75 4.00 3.50 2.75 2.50 4.00 4.00 3.50
4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.00 4.25 3.75 3.00 2.75 4.00 4.25 3.75
4.75 4.75 4.75 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.00 3.50 3.50 4.67 4.50 4.00
5.00 5.00 4.75 4.75 4.75 4.75 4.38 3.75 3.75 5.00 4.75 4.25
Mean
#tandard eviation
'an&e
5
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
95
erentile
Inspirational
Motivation
Idealized
Influene
attri!uted
Idealized
Influene
!e"avior
Intelletual
#ti$ulation
Individualized
%onsideration
%ontin&ent
'e(ard
)tive
Mana&e$ent-
!-+,eption
Mana&e$ent-
!-+,eption
passive aissez-aire +,tra +ffort +ffetiveness #atisfation
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&able /."
Percentiles for individual scores based on ratins at the same level than focal leader
155 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 154
3.93 3.90 3.94 4.05 4.00 3.74 3.09 2.22 1.60 3.73 3.95 4.10
.60 .40 .58 .54 .52 .48 .80 .60 .53 .65 .48 .50
2.75 2.00 3.00 2.75 2.50 2.75 4.00 3.75 2.75 4.00 3.25 3.00
2.98 3.25 2.75 3.25 3.23 3.00 1.75 1.25 1.00 2.67 3.20 3.00
3.25 3.38 3.25 3.48 3.28 3.13 2.00 1.50 1.00 3.00 3.25 3.50
3.50 3.50 3.50 3.65 3.50 3.25 2.50 1.75 1.00 3.33 3.63 3.95
3.63 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.50 2.74 2.00 1.25 3.50 3.75 4.00
3.75 3.75 3.85 4.00 3.75 3.63 3.00 2.00 1.25 3.67 3.88 4.00
4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.75 3.25 2.00 1.50 3.67 4.00 4.00
4.05 4.00 4.25 4.25 4.00 3.82 3.25 2.25 1.75 4.00 4.00 4.00
4.25 4.00 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.00 3.50 2.50 1.75 4.00 4.25 4.50
4.48 4.25 4.38 4.50 4.50 4.00 3.75 2.75 2.00 4.33 4.25 4.50
4.75 4.50 4.50 4.75 4.75 4.40 4.25 3.00 2.43 4.33 4.50 4.55
5.00 4.50 4.75 5.00 5.00 4.68 4.37 3.25 2.50 4.73 4.75 5.00
Mean
#tandard eviation
'an&e
5
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
95
erentile
Inspirational
Motivation
Idealized
Influene
attri!uted
Idealized
Influene
!e"avior
Intelletual
#ti$ulation
Individualized
%onsideration
%ontin&ent
'e(ard
)tive
Mana&e$ent-
!*-+,eption
Mana&e$ent-
!*-+,eption
passive aissez-aire +,tra +ffort +ffetiveness #atisfation
"3
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&able /.6
Percentiles for individual scores based on ratins at a hiher level than focal leader
91 90 91 91 90 91 91 91 91 90 90 90
3.74 3.74 3.73 3.77 3.75 3.77 3.19 2.38 1.96 3.42 3.86 3.75
.67 .64 .64 .60 .52 .48 .68 .65 .68 .62 .43 .63
3.00 2.50 2.75 2.75 2.25 2.25 3.00 3.00 2.75 3.00 2.00 2.90
2.40 2.75 2.25 2.75 3.00 3.00 2.00 1.15 1.00 2.18 3.25 2.50
3.00 2.88 2.80 3.00 3.00 3.04 2.25 1.50 1.25 2.67 3.25 2.91
3.25 3.03 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.25 2.50 1.75 1.25 2.95 3.50 3.50
3.50 3.25 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50 2.75 2.00 1.50 3.00 3.52 3.50
3.60 3.50 3.75 3.62 3.66 3.73 3.00 2.25 1.50 3.33 3.75 3.50
3.75 3.90 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.88 3.25 2.50 1.88 3.42 3.81 4.00
4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.90 4.00 3.50 2.50 2.25 3.67 4.00 4.00
4.25 4.25 4.00 4.10 4.00 4.00 3.75 2.75 2.50 3.67 4.00 4.00
4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 3.75 3.00 2.50 4.00 4.25 4.40
4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.32 4.00 3.25 2.96 4.30 4.50 4.50
4.75 4.75 4.75 4.75 4.75 4.50 4.25 3.25 3.25 4.33 4.50 4.73
Mean
#tandard evaition
'an&e
5
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
95
erentile
Inspirational
Motivation
Idealized
Influene
attri!uted
Idealized
Influene
!e"avior
Intelletual
#ti$ulation
Individualized
%onsideration
%ontin&ent
'e(ard
)tive
Mana&e$ent-
!*-+,eption
Mana&e$ent-
!*-+,eption
passive aissez-aire +,tra +ffort +ffetiveness #atisfation
"!
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(iscussion
Summary of results&he results +resented underline the ood +sychometric Fualities of the German translation of
the M'()%* 8Rowold, "33$b9. #everal analyses +rovided su++ort for hih construct and
converent validity. Moreover, three inde+endent methods were a++lied and yielded ood
reliabilities for the M'()%*. In sum, this translation of the M'()%* is a valid and reliable
instrument for assessin leadersA behavior. 7oth researchers and +ractitioners in German)
s+ea>in countries are now eFui++ed with an instrument ready to a++ly the state)of)the)art
+aradim of transformational and transactional leadershi+ available from Mind Garden, Inc.
:s has been shown in the validity section, our results lend further su++ort for the nine)factor
model of the M'()%*. &hus, results of recent lare sam+le)siCe research 8:ntona>is et al.,
"336 :volio ; 7ass, "33$9 have been re+licated by our confirmatory factor analyses. :s a
conseFuence, the 1ull Rane Model of 'eadershi+ 8:ntona>is ; =ouse, "33" :volio ; 7ass,"33"9 seems a valid a++roach to leadershi+ in German)s+ea>in countries. &his is es+ecially
im+ortant for leadershi+ trainin and develo+ment, one of the >ey factors for oraniCationsA
lon)term economic success 81uller et al., !229.
The uni$ersality of the transformational ) transactional leadershipparadi&m
&heory of transformational leadershi+ states that both transformational and transactional
leadershi+ styles are a++licable in a variety of settins. It has been observed in the military,
hos+ital, industry, overnment, education, church, and many more 87ass, !22/9. &heuniversality of the transformational 5 transactional leadershi+ +aradim can hel+ leaders to be
more successful, both in terms of economic success, but also in terms of their followersA
satisfaction and commitment 87arlin et al., !22 Den =arto, anMuiBen ; Eoo+man,
!229.
Many areas of a++lication are still waitin to be e?+lored by leadershi+ research. &hese areas
miht benefit from the a++lication of the transformational 5 transactional leadershi+
+aradim. :t +resent, we conduct research with s+ort leaders 8Rowold, "33$a9, with clery
8Rowold, "33$c9, and with musical conductors 8Rowold, "33$d9. :s we are validatin
modified versions of the M'()%* in these conte?ts, we are e?cited about the +ossible
+ositive im+act transformational leadershi+ miht have on followersA satisfaction, e?tra effort,
and leadersA effectiveness. It is our intention to hel+ leaders in a variety of settins to learnmore about effective leadershi+ styles.
Implications for theory
More research with additional sam+les is needed to further su++ort these results. &he author is
conductin research +roBects that aim at +rovidin more em+irical data on the +sychometric
+ro+erties of the M'()%*. &his is es+ecially im+ortant for more differentiated norms based
on larer sam+le siCes. :s the sam+le siCes for a9 the lower level rater form and b9 the hiher
level rater form were limited, it seems eliible to obtain larer sam+le for a better em+irical
foundation of the res+ective norms.
Moreover, althouh we were able to show hih converent validity between different
a++roach to measurin transformational leadershi+ 8&'I and M'()%*9, still other instruments
need to be considered. More s+ecifically, the a++roach to charismatic leadershi+ as +ro+osed
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by 0oner and Eanuno 8!22/9 shows some theoretical overla+ with the transformational
leadershi+ a++roach. :s a conseFuence, the converent validity between charismatic and
transformational leadershi+ should be e?+lored 8=unt ; 0oner, !222 0oner ; =unt,
!2229.
"6
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and Jermier situational leadershi+ model. .rani,ational Aeha*ior and ;uman Decision
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Rowold, J. 8"33$b9. MLQ74B% erman translation of Aass / $*olio's Multifactor
Leadership Questionnaire Redwood 0ity Mind Garden.
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Rowold, J. 8"33$d9. MLQ74B for musical conductors% erman translation and
adaptation of Aass / $*olio's Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire Redwood 0ity Mind
Garden.
Rowold, J. 8"33$a9. MLQ74B for sport coaches% erman translation and adaptation of
Aass / $*olio's Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire Redwood 0ity Mind Garden.
Rowold, J. 8"33$c9. MLQ74B for the cler% erman translation and adaptation of
Aass / $*olio's Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire Redwood 0ity Mind Garden.
Rowold, J. ; Grabbe, Q. 8"33$9. GSte>riterien einer deutschen :da+tation des
Multifactor 'eadershi+ (uestionnaire 8M'()%*9. Manuscript su+mitted for pu+lication.
&artler, E. ; Rowold, J. GSte>riterien einer deutschen :da+tation des
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