Motivation From Concepts to Applications

Defining Motivation

The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal.

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Three Approaches to Motivation

Individual Differences Approach

Treats motivation as a characteristic of the individual

Job & Organization

Approach

Emphasizes the design of jobs and the general organizational environment

Managerial Approach

Focuses on behaviors of managers, in particular, their use of goals and rewards

Motivation

Theories of MotivationEarly Theories of Motivation• Maslow’s Hierarchy of

Needs • Alderfer’s ERG (Existence,

Relatedness, and Growth)• McGregor’s Theory X and

Theory Y• Herzberg’s Two-Factor

Theory

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation• McClelland’s Theory of Learned

Needs• Equity Theory• Expectancy Theory• Goal-Setting & feedback

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsThere is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

Assumptions– Individuals cannot move

to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are

satisfied – Must move in

hierarchical order– Satisfaction-progression

process

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Self-Actualization

Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological

Lower OrderExternal

Higher OrderInternal

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

A reworking of Maslow to fit empirical research.

•Three groups of core needs:Existence (Maslow: physiological and safety)Relatedness (Maslow: social and status)Growth (Maslow: esteem and self-actualization)

•Removed the hierarchical assumption– Frustration-regression process– Can be motivated by all three at once

•Popular, but not accurate, theory© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights

reserved. 6-6

Existence

Growth

Relatedness

McClelland's Theory Learned Needs

Need for Achievement (nAch)

• Want reasonably challenging goals

• Set their own goalsLike to work alone than in teams

• .Prefer task with immediate feedback

• Money is a symbol of achievement. Desire recognition than money.

Need for Affiliation (nAff)

• Desire to seek approval of others, conform to others wishes, avoid conflict

• Like to work with others than alone

• Effective in jobs that require social interaction

• Can be indecisive and unfair in allocating resources

Need for Power (nPow)

• Desire to control one’s environment-people + resources

• Personalized versus socialized power

• Leaders need to have high social power than personal power.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene Factors Motivators

Achievement

Responsibility

Growth

Recognition

Work Conditions

Supervision

Salary

Company Policies

Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites butseparate constructs

Extrinsic and Related to

Dissatisfaction

Intrinsic and Related to Satisfaction

Outcome 1+ or -

Effort Performance

Outcome 3+ or -

Outcome 2+ or -

Expectancy Theory of Motivation(Victor Vroom)

E-to-P Expectancy• Assuring employees have

competencies• Person-job fit • Provide role clarification and

sufficient resources• Provide training, positive

feedback and coaching

P-to-O Instrumentality • Measure

performance accurately

• Give valued rewards for good performance

• Explain how rewards is linked to performance

Outcomes &valence• Ensure rewards

are valued• Individualize

rewards

Equity TheoryIndividuals compare their job inputs ( effort, experience, education,

competence) and outputs (salary levels ,pay raises, recognition) with those

of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.

Reduce our inputs Less organizational citizenship

Increase our outcomes Ask for pay increase

Reduce other’s outputs Ask boss to stop giving other preferred treatment

Change our perceptions Start thinking that other’s perks aren’t really so valuable

Change comparison other Compare self to someone closer to your situation

Leave the field Quit job

Actions to correct inequity Example

Emotions• Anger• Stress

Attitudes• Org Commitment• Job satisfaction

Behaviors• Task Performance• Org Citizenship• Counterproductive • work behavior

Distributive Justice

Perceptions

Procedural Justice

Perceptions

Structural RulesFairness in policies & practices

Social RulesBeing treated with dignity & respect

Organizational Justice Components

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DistributionPrinciples

Fairness in outcomes

Goal-Setting Theory

Specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 6-12

Specific -- measureable change within a time frame

Relevant – relevant to job, within employee’s control and responsibilities

Challenging – raise level of effort

Accepted (commitment) – motivated to accomplish the goal

Participative (sometimes) – improves acceptance and goal quality

Feedback – information available about progress toward goal

Motivation through Rewards

Pay for performance the concept that monetary rewards are in whole, or

in part, linked to performance (individual or team).

Motivation through Rewards

Organizationalrewards

• Profit sharing • Stock options• Balanced scorecard

Teamrewards

• Bonuses• Gainsharing

Individualrewards

• Bonuses• Commissions• Piece rate

Performance-Based Rewards

Employee Recognition Programs– Stimulates Intrinsic Motivation– Fulfill employees’ desire for recognition– Inexpensive to implement – Encourages repetition of desired behaviors

Examples– Monthly awards – “Bragging Board”– Notes and messages appreciating employee efforts– Publicly appreciating employees

Motivation through Non-Financial Rewards

Motivation Through Job Design

• Job design – Assigning tasks to a job, including the interdependency

of those tasks with other jobs– Purpose: to create jobs that allow work to be

performed efficiently yet employees are motivated and engaged

• Scientific management (Fredrick Taylor)

Sought to improve work efficiency by– Emphasizing person-job matching– Creating small, repetitive tasks – Training workers to do these tasks well– Goal setting, work incentives & supportive work

conditions Job specializationDividing work into separate jobs that include a subset of the tasks required to complete the product or service- Intent was to increase efficiency, but decreased motivation due to unappealing jobs.

Motivation Through Job Design

Job Enlargement• Adding tasks to an existing job • Worker performs more tasks but at the same level of

responsibility– Example: video journalist

Employee 1Operates camera

Employee 2Operates sound

Employee 3Reports story

Traditional news teamVideo journalist• Operates camera• Operates sound• Reports story

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Job RotationPeriodically shifting workers among jobs involving different tasks.– Increases worker’s

skills and task variety – Potentially reduces

job boredom caused by repetitive work

Job ‘A’

Job ‘B’

Job ‘C’

Job ‘D’

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Job Enrichment• Given more responsibility for scheduling,

coordinating, and planning one’s own work– Clustering interdependent tasks into one job – Give autonomy– Establishing direct responsibility for specific clients– Provide performance feedback

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Job Characteristic Model

J. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldman

Skill VarietyThe degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities or skillsTask IdentityThe degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work (from beginning to end) Task SignificanceThe degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other peopleAutonomyThe degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it outFeedbackThe degree to an individual obtain direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance after performing job

Job Characteristic Model

Guidelines for Managers

• Design jobs with high motivating potential

• State the behaviors and performance achievements that are desired and explain how they will be rewarded

• Provide frequent and constructive feedback

• Provide rewards for desired behaviors and outcomes

• Provide rewards that employees value

• Provide equitable rewards

• Diagnose and remove barriers to performance

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