Chapter 5Section 1

MOTIVATINGEMPLOYEES

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Section 1—Focus on

Motivation Early and current theories of motivation

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Learning ObjectivesYou should learn to:

What Is Motivation?• Define motivation.• Explain motivation as a need-satisfying process.

Early Theories of Motivation• Describe the five levels in Maslow’s hierarchy and how

Maslow’s hierarchy can be used in motivational efforts.• Discuss how Theory X and Theory Y managers approach

motivation.• Describe Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory.• Explain Herzberg’s views of satisfaction and dissatisfaction.

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Learning Objectives (cont.)Contemporary Theories of Motivation

• Describe the three needs McClelland proposed as being present in work settings.

• Explain how goal-setting and reinforcement theories explain employee motivation.

• Describe the job characteristics model as a way to design motivating jobs.

• Discuss the motivation implications of equity theory.

• Explain the three key linkages in expectancy theory and their role in motivation.

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Introduction What Is Motivation? Early Theories of Motivation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Contemporary Theories of Motivation Three-Needs Theory Goal-Setting Theory Reinforcement Theory Designing Motivating Jobs

Job Enlargement Job Enrichment Job Characteristics Model

Equity Theory Expectancy Theory Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation

引言

什么是动机？

早期激励理论

马斯洛的需要层次理论

麦格雷戈的 X 和 Y 理论

赫兹伯格的激励－保健理论

当代激励理论

三种需要理论

目标设定理论

强化理论

设计具激励性的职务

职务扩大化

职务丰富化

职务特征模型

公平理论

期望理论

当代激励理论的综合

Lecture Outline

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What Is Motivation?Motivation

– The processes that account for an individual’s willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.

• Effort: a measure of intensity or drive.• Direction: toward organizational goals• Need: personalized reason to exert effort

– Motivation works best when individual needs are compatible with organizational goals.

Need– An internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive.– An unsatisfied need creates tension which is reduced by an

individual’s efforts to satisfy the need.Jing Yu

The Motivation Process

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– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs– McGregor’s Theories X and Y– Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

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Early Theories of Motivation

Early Theories of MotivationMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory– Needs were categorized as five levels of lower- to higher-order

needs.– lower-order needs - largely satisfied externally

• physiological - food, drink, shelter, sexual satisfaction• safety - security and protection from physical and

emotional harm– assurance that physiological needs will be satisfied

– Higher-order needs - largely satisfied internally• social - affection, belongingness, acceptance• esteem - internal factors like self-respect, autonomy, and

achievement– external factors like status, recognition, attention

• self-actualization - achieving one’s potentialas each need is substantially satisfied, the next need

becomes dominant Jing Yu

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (cont.)• Individuals must satisfy lower-order needs before

they can satisfy higher order needs.• Satisfied needs will no longer motivate.• Motivating a person depends on knowing at what

level that person is on the hierarchy.

Early Theories of Motivation (cont.)

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Early Theories of Motivation (cont.)McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

– Theory X - Assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, avoid responsibility, and require close supervision

– assumed that lower-order needs dominated– Theory Y - Assumes that workers can exercise self-

direction, desire responsibility, and like to work– assumed that higher-order needs dominated– no evidence that either set of assumptions is valid– no evidence that managing on the basis of Theory Y

makes employees more motivated

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Theory XTheory XWorkersWorkers

Dislike WorkDislike Work

Avoid ResponsibilityAvoid Responsibility

Little AmbitionLittle Ambition

Theory YTheory YWorkersWorkers Enjoy WorkEnjoy Work

Accept ResponsibilityAccept Responsibility

SelfSelf--DirectedDirected

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Early Theories of Motivation (cont.)Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

– Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by different factors.• Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors

that create job dissatisfaction.• Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that

create job satisfaction.– Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does not result

in increased performance.• The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but

rather no satisfaction.

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Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation

Three-Needs Theory

Goal-Setting Theory

Reinforcement Theory

Designing Motivating Jobs

Equity Theory

Expectancy Theory

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The Theoryof Needs

DavidMcClelland

The TheoryThe Theoryof Needsof Needs

DavidDavidMcClellandMcClelland

Need forAchievement

(nAch)

Need forNeed forAchievementAchievement

((nAchnAch))

Need forPower(nPow)

Need forNeed forPowerPower((nPownPow))

Need forAffiliation

(nAff)

Need forNeed forAffiliationAffiliation

((nAffnAff))

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Contemporary Theories of MotivationThree-Needs Theory - McClelland

– Need for achievement (nAch)• The drive to excel and succeed• drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of

standards, and to strive to succeedhigh achievers:• prefer jobs that offer personal responsibility• want rapid and unambiguous feedback• set moderately challenging goals

– avoid very easy or very difficult tasks-high achievers don’t necessarily make good managers

– focus on their own accomplishments» good managers emphasize helping others to

accomplish their goalsJing Yu

Contemporary Theories of Motivation (cont.)

Three-Needs Theory (cont.)– Need for power (nPow)

• The need to influence the behavior of others– Need of affiliation (nAff)

• The desire for interpersonal relationships

– best managers tend to be high in the need for power and low in the need for affiliation

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation (cont.)

Three-Needs Theory (cont.)– conclusion

• high achievers prefer and are strongly motivated in job situations with personal responsibility, feedback, and an intermediate degree of risk

• high achievers do not necessarily make a good manager, especially in large organizations

• a low need for affiliation and a high need for power are closely related to managerial success

• employees can be trained to stimulate their achievement need

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation (cont.)Goal-Setting Theory

– Proposes that setting goals that are accepted, specific, and challenging yet achievable will result in higher performance than having no or easy goals.

Benefits of Participation in Goal-Setting– Increases the acceptance of goals.– Fosters commitment to difficult, public goals.– Provides for self-feedback (internal locus of control)

that guides behavior and motivates performance (self-efficacy).

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation (cont.)Goal-Setting Theory (cont.)

– specific goals increase performance• difficult goal, when accepted, results in higher

performance than does an easy goal• specific hard goals produce a higher level of output

than does the generalized goal of “do your best”– feedback is useful

• helps identify discrepancies between what has been accomplished and what needs to be done

• self-generated feedback is a powerful motivator

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation (cont.)Goal-Setting Theory (cont.)

– contingencies in goal-setting theory• feedback - influences the goal-performance

relationship• goal commitment - theory presupposes that

individual is determined to accomplish the goal– most likely to occur when:

» goals are made public» individual has an internal locus of control» goals are self-set rather than assigned

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation (cont.)Goal-Setting Theory (cont.)

– contingencies (cont.)• self-efficacy - an individual’s belief that s/he is

capable of performing a task– higher self-efficacy, greater motivation to attain

goals• national culture - theory is culture bound

– main ideas align with North American cultures– goal setting may not lead to higher performance

in other cultures

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Guidelines for Job Redesign

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Reinforcement Theory– Assumes that a desired behavior is a function of its

consequences, is externally caused, and if reinforced, is likely to be repeated.• Positive reinforcement is preferred for its long-term

effects on performance• Ignoring undesired behavior is better than punishment

which may create additional dysfunctional behaviors.• emphasis in on positive reinforcement, not

punishment

Contemporary Theories of Motivation (cont.)

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Designing Motivating JobsJob Design

– The way into which tasks can be combined to form complete jobs.

– Factors influencing job design:• Changing organizational environment/structure• The organization’s technology• Employees’ skill, abilities, and preferences

– Job enlargement• Increasing the scope (number of tasks) in a job.

– Job enrichment• Increasing responsibility and autonomy (depth) in a job.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation (cont.)

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation (cont.)Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)

– Job Characteristics Model (JCM) - A conceptual framework for designing motivating jobs that create meaningful work experiences that satisfy employees’ growth needs.

– Five primary job characteristics:• Skill variety: how many skills and talents are needed?• Task identity: does the job produce a complete work?• Task significance: how important is the job?• Autonomy: how much independence does the jobholder

have?• Feedback: do workers know how well they are doing?

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Job Characteristics Model

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Guidelines For Job Redesign

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation (cont.)Equity Theory

– Proposes that employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put in (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others.• If the ratios are perceived as equal then a state of

equity (fairness) exists.• If the ratios are perceived as unequal, inequity exists

and the person feels under- or over-rewarded.• When inequities occur, employees will attempt to do

something to rebalance the ratios (seek justice).

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation (cont.)Equity Theory

– referent (relevant other) may be:• other - individuals with similar jobs• a system - includes organizational pay policies and

administrative systems• self - past personal experiences and contacts

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Ratio Comparison*

Employee’sPerception

Outcomes A

Inputs A

Outcomes A

Inputs A

Outcomes A

Inputs A

Outcomes B

Inputs B

Outcomes B

Inputs B

Outcomes B

Inputs B

<

=

>

Inequity (Under-Rewarded)

Equity

Inequity (Over-Rewarded)

*Where A is the employee, and B is a relevant other or referent.

Equity Theory

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Equity Theory (cont.)– when inequities are perceived, employees act to correct the

situation– Employee responses to perceived inequities:

• Distort own or others’ ratios.• Induce others to change their own inputs or outcomes.• Change own inputs (increase or decrease efforts) or outcomes

(seek greater rewards).• Choose a different comparison (referent) other (person,

systems, or self).• Quit their job.

– Employees are concerned with both the absolute and relative nature of organizational rewards.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation (cont.)

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation (cont.)Expectancy Theory

– theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual

– Key to the theory is understanding and managing employee goals and the linkages among and between effort, performance and rewards.

• Effort: employee abilities and training/development• Performance: valid appraisal systems• Rewards (goals): understanding employee needs

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Simplified Expectancy Model

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation (cont.)Expectancy Theory (cont.)

– theory emphasizes rewards• organizational rewards must align with the

individual’s wants– no universal principle for explaining what motivates

individuals• managers must understand why employees view

certain outcomes as attractive or unattractive– most comprehensive and widely accepted explanation of

employee motivation

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Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation

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Case 5Is This Any Way to Motivate

Employees?

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Answers to Case Questions1. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Ferro’s

motivational approach using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, reinforcement theory, and expectancy theory.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsAdvantages

Gives programmers a chance to experience achievement through a different avenue (esteem needs).May lead to the self-actualization of one’s full potential by seeing how their programming is sold to customers and how to meet their customers’ needs.

DisadvantagesProgrammers may see that their status has been reduced.The acceptance that the programmers felt doing their previous job may vanish.

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Reinforcement Theory

AdvantagesShows that the programmers’ behavior and cockiness results in consequences—a stint in the sales department.The consequence happens after the behavior occurs, so the programmers associate that with acting negatively.

DisadvantagesProgrammers who are burned out have the same “punishment” as programmers with attitude problems.The sales department employees may feel that their job is not important if it is being used as punishment for other departments.

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Expectancy Theory

AdvantageIndividuals may act the way that the CEO wants if the consequence is ending up in the sales department.

DisadvantageGood programmers may end up liking sales and not wanting to go back to programming.

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2. If you were a Click programmer, what would you think about being assigned to the penalty box?

I really don’t believe this would be a good practice. I don’t believe programmers were hired to sell. Also, the business may lose potential customers because my personality is not be suited for sales. And, finally, I am a grown-up and my attitude should be addressed in a traditional fashion, not with the punishment of moving to the sales department for a brief time.

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3. Log on to Click Commerce’s Web site [www.clickinteractive.com] and find the information on Careers. Click on two of the job titles listed there and assess these jobs according to the job characteristics model.

Student responses are going to vary, but the following would represent one possible answer. www.clickinteractive.com →Under the Company tab, click on Careers http://www. clickinteractive.com/html/careers.html → At the bottom of the page is a drop-down menu of “Opportunities Listed by Department” that has the departments with job openings listedJob Characteristics Core DimensionsSkill varietyTask identityTask significanceAutonomyFeedback

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4. At a time when most managers are encouraged to be nice to their employees, would you suggest to Ferro that he change his motivational approach? Explain your answer.If Ferro is satisfied with the current status quo, and the following indicators have not shown any reasons for change, he should continue. Some indicators to consider include: Have revenues been affected?Has employee turnover changed?Has employee satisfaction changed?Have profits been affected? He should change his motivational approach if these indicators begin to fall.

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