Motivation

“Hope is a good thing -maybe the best thing.

And good things never die.”Andy Duphrene

The Shawshank Redemption

Motivation

• An inner state (either a need or desire) that energizes & directs us and keeps us moving toward our goals– Why we do what we do

Instinct Theory• Instincts

– Inherited tendencies to produce organized and unalterable responses to particular stimuli

– Examples• Freud: instincts toward sex/aggression (i.e. the id)• Evolutionary theory: we are ‘hard-wired’ to

reproduce and perpetuate genetic makeup– 2 flaws

• Circular logic• Many so-called instinctual behaviors are learned,

shaped, and influenced by those around us

Drive-Reduction Theory• Drive

– A motivation that pushes you to reach a goal

– Tension induced by need• Food, water, sex

• Goal is to reduce the tension and restore homeostasis– Homeostasis: A tendency to maintain a

balanced or constant internal state• Flaw

– Drive-reduction theory can’t explain behavior that increases, rather than reduces, stress

Additional Theories• Arousal Theory

– People are motivated to achieve and maintain an optimum level of bodily arousal

– Studies show that too little arousal and we get bored; too much arousal and we withdraw, in an effort to lower our levels of arousal

• Incentive Theory– People are motivated to behave in ways

that produce a valued incentive– Incentives work when we expect that we

can gain the incentive and when we value the incentive

What DO motivation theorists agree on?

• The amazing diversity of human behavior!

BiologicalHungerThirstSex

TemperatureExcretion

Sleep/ActivityAggression

SocialAchievement

AffiliationAutonomyNurturanceDominanceExhibition

OrderPlay

More Theories on Motivation• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Physiological

Safety & Security

Belongingness & Love

Esteem

Cognitive & Aesthetic needs

Self-actualization

A closer look . . . at hunger • Influenced by

– Blood sugar level• Glucose - a simple sugar

– Dips in glucose levels lead to increases in hunger– Brain

• The lateral hypothalamus ‘starts’ the feeling of hunger, the ventromedial hypothalamus ‘stops’ feelings of hunger

– Hormones• Insulin - must be present to extract glucose from

blood– Insulin stimulates the storage of food molecules as

fat– Set point – the particular body weight that is

easiest for an animal to maintain• Are relatively constant but can go up with

prolonged over-eating (but does not tend to go down with prolonged under-eating)

A Closer Look . . . at hunger

• If it were only that simple…– Environmental factors which influence

hunger/eating• Learned preferences & habits• STRESS!!• External cues

– It’s “dinnertime”• Dietary restraints

• Problems with eating can result in all sorts of problems . . .

Problems with eating• Obesity

– More than 20% above norm for height/build• You can’t lose fat cells, only shrink them

– Basal metabolic rate• Rate at which body burns calories just to stay

alive• Aerobic activity will increase basal metabolic rate

• Anorexia– Eating disorder marked by self-starvation

• Bulimia– Eating disorder marked by binging &

purging• BOTH caused by combo of brain & social

malfunctioning

Affiliation Motive

• Need to associate with others & maintain social bonds– Baumeister & Leary’s Sociometer

hypothesis• Self-esteem is a measure of how well we

fit in with the group• Important because social bonds offer

survival & reproductive benefits

Achievement Motive

• Need to master difficult challenges, outperform others, & meet high standards– Behavior depends on:

• Incentive value• Expectancy