CHAPTER 5

MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE CHAPTER

By the end of the chapter you will be able to:

� Describe content theories of motivation;� Describe process theories of motivation;� Understand the differences between content and process approaches;� Describe the effect of knowledge of results and goal setting on motivation;� Define the concept of job satisfaction;� Describe ways of assessing an individual’s affective response to work;� Describe the job characteristics and variance models of job satisfaction;� Detail the characteristics most commonly associated with job satisfaction;� Understand what is known of the relationship between job satisfaction and other variables

such as gender, personality, class and age;� Describe the relationship, as far as it is understood between job and general life

satisfaction;� Describe the predictive value of job satisfaction and objective workplace variables such

as absenteeism, turnover and productivity.

BRIEF OUTLINE OF CHAPTER

� Introduction� Content theories� Process theories� Knowledge of results and goal – setting� Job satisfaction and well – being� What is job satisfaction?� Global and facet satisfaction� Theories of job satisfaction� Variance theory� Job characteristics� Correlates of job satisfaction� Gender, Age, Personality, Social class� Job and life satisfaction� Behavioural correlates of job satisfaction� Job satisfaction and productivity� Conclusion

CHAPTER SYNOPSIS

Though relatively full employment is no longer a feature of the labour market,because of its practical implications interest in motivation and job satisfaction haspersisted. This chapter aims to examine research that has sought to identify theconditions that create a motivated and satisfied workforce.

ANNOTATED LECTURE OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF LECTURE

Point 1 – Introduction

This sets the context for the lecture and begins with the two categories of motivation theories.Motivational theories can be divided into two categories, content and process theories.

Content theories assume that all individuals possess the same set of needs andtherefore prescribe the characteristics that ought to be present in jobs.

Process theories stress the difference in people’s needs and focus on the cognitiveprocesses that create these differences.

Point 2 – Content theories

Maslow (1954) outlined the most influential of content theories. He suggested a hierarchy ofneeds up which progress. Once individuals have satisfied one need in the hierarchy, it ceasesto motivate their behaviour and they are motivated by the need at the next level up thehierarchy.

1. Physiological needs such as hunger and thirst are the first level on the hierarchy.2. Security needs such as shelter and protection are the next level.3. Social needs such as need for satisfactory and supportive relationships are the next level.4. From these needs, the individual can move up the hierarchy to higher order needs. Self –

esteem needs for recognition and a belief in oneself is the next level.5. Finally, the progression leads to the need to realize one’s full potential, which is termed

self – actualization. Only a small proportion of the population achieves this level.

This theory was not intended as an explanation of motivation in the workplace;however, many managerial theorists have enthusiastically adopted it. The theorysuggests that employees will always tend to want more from their employers. Whenthey have satisfied their subsistence needs, they strive to fulfil security needs. Whenjobs are secure they will seek ways of satisfying social needs and if successful willseek the means to the ultimate end of self – actualization.

Alderfer (1972) suggests that individual needs can be divided into three groups:

1. Existence needs, which include nutritional and material requirements (at work this wouldinclude pay and conditions.)

2. Relatedness needs, which are met through relationships with family and friends and atwork with colleagues.

3. Growth needs, which reflect a desire for personal psychological developments.

Alderfer’s theory differs from Maslow in a number of important respects.

Alderfer argued that it was better to think in terms of a continuum rather thana hierarchy; from concrete existence needs to least concrete growth needsand argued that you could move along this in either direction.

Maslow argued that when satisfied a need becomes less important to an individual,but Alderfer argues that relatedness or growth needs become more important whensatisfied. This means that team - working arrangements can continue to motivateemployees and are not necessarily superseded by growth needs.

Mumford (1976) argues that workers have:

1. Knowledge needs, work that utilizes their knowledge and skills.2. Psychological needs, such as recognition, responsibility, status and advancement.3. Task needs, which include the need for meaningful work and some degree of autonomy.4. Moral needs, to be treated in the way that employers would themselves wish to be treated.

Mumford’s assumption was that employees did not simply see their job as a means to an endby had needs which related to the nature of their work.

Hertzberg (1959) presented a two – factor theory, which looks at motivators and hygienesand proposed that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction appeared to be caused by two sets ofdifferent factors. The presence of motivators in the workplace caused enduring states ofmotivation in employees but their absence did not lead to dissatisfaction. Hygiene on theother hand produced an acceptable working environment but did not increase satisfaction –their absence did however cause job dissatisfaction.

Motivators HygienesResponsibility SupervisionRecognition SalaryPromotion Work environmentAchievement Company policiesIntrinsic aspects of the job Relationship with colleagues

This theory suggests how people’s jobs can be redesigned to incorporate more motivators.

Point 3 – Process theories

What all process theories have in common is an emphasis on the cognitiveprocesses in determining his or her level of motivation.

Equity theory assumes that one important cognitive process involves people looking aroundand observing what effort other people are putting into their work and what rewards followthem. This social comparison process is driven by our concern for fairness and equity.Research by Adams (1965) and others confirms equity theory as one of the most usefulframeworks for understanding work motivation.

Valence, instrumentality and expectancy (VIE) theory had resulted from Vroom’s (1964)work into motivation. His argument was that crucial to motivation at work was theperception of a link between effort and reward. Perceiving this link could be thought of as aprocess in which individuals calculated first whether there was a connection between effortand reward and then the probability (valences) would follow from high performance(instrumentality.) The motivational force of a job can therefore be calculated if theexpectancy, instrumentality and valence values are known. The individual’s abilities, traits,role perceptions and opportunities attenuate the motivational force.

The main contribution of both types of process theory has been to highlight the effects ofcognitive and perceptual processes on objective work conditions. It suggests that managersneed to pay attention to four main aspects of their subordinate’s perceptions:

1. Focus on the crucial expectancy values (the link between effort and their performance.)2. Managers should determine what outcome employee values.3. They need to link the reward that subordinates value to their performance.4. Managers need to ensure that wage rates are not perceived as inequitable.

Point 4 – Knowledge of results and goal – setting

Despite a wealth of research highlighting the positive motivational benefits of knowledge ofresults many organizations still provide employees with little or no information about theirperformance. Although feedback can have considerable impact on both motivation andlearning, implementing feedback systems can have wider implications. Feedback can affectthe relationship between employees and managers by disrupting existing authority structures.

Guirdham (1995) suggests for feedback to be effective it needs to be:

1. Generally positive – reward is more effective than punishment.2. Well timed – as soon as possible.3. Control – the feedback should be about behaviour the individual has control over.4. Specific feedback and not general.5. Publicly observed and not based on revelations or secrets.6. Sensitive so that it does not trigger the individuals defence mechanisms.

Locke (1968) offers the theory of goal – setting as a means of motivation. Here goals directeffort and provide guidelines for deciding how much effort to put into each activity whenthere are multiple goals. Participation in goal – setting increases the individual's sense ofcontrol and fairness in the process.

Point 5 – Job satisfaction and well – being

If people claim to be satisfied with their jobs what do they mean? It is more than a simplepleasure – displeasure response (Warr, 1998) and seeing it as a more complex processenhances the sophistication and quality of research.

Daniels et al (1997) identify five affective factors of job satisfaction; anxiety – comfort,depression – pleasure, positive affect, kindness and anger, which they claim can capture betterthe subtleties of emotional experience at work.

Point 6 – Theories of job satisfaction

The chapter presents two theories of job satisfaction, variance theory and the model of jobcharacteristics. Variance theory is based on a simple subjective idea: if you want x from yourwork then you are satisfied to the extent that it provides you with x. The major problem withthis theory is defining what people want from their work. The job characteristic modelsuggests the causes of job satisfaction are objective characteristics.

Hackman and Oldham (1975) suggested that jobs differ in the extent to which they involvefive core dimensions:

1. Skill variety.2. Task identity.3. Task significance.4. Autonomy.5. Task feedback.

They suggest that if jobs are designed in a way that increases the presence of thesecore characteristics three critical psychological states can occur in employees:

1. Experienced meaningfulness of work.2. Experienced responsibility for work outcomes.3. Knowledge of results of work activities.

According to Hackman and Oldham, when these critical psychological states are experienced,work motivation and job satisfaction will be high.

Point 7 – Correlates of job satisfaction

As well as the theories above, there have also been attempts to establish whetherspecific variables such as gender, age, personality or occupational status arepredictive of job satisfaction. Despite the findings presented in chapter 18 regardinggender and employment, women report similar levels of job satisfaction to men.However, there is evidence that job characteristics have a different impact on menand women. There is growing evidence that there is a relationship between age andjob satisfaction but not linear one. Age itself rather than the variables associated withit have a direct impact on job satisfaction. Variables such as socio – economic statusmay also cause different groups of workers to construct different meanings as towhat constitutes a satisfactory job.

Point 8 – Behavioural correlates of job satisfaction

The behavioural correlates of job satisfaction should be higher work performance,lower absenteeism and lower staff turnover. However, research has failed to

establish a strong direct link between job satisfaction and workplace behaviour. Jobsatisfaction and performance are relatively independent of each other. This isexplained firstly that in many jobs variations in satisfaction cannot lead to variationsin productivity (machine work) and secondly where correlations do occur they may bespurious in that both may be associated with other factors.

Conclusion

The centrality of work in modern economies has made an understanding of thepsychology of motivation and job satisfaction a key component of business andmanagement education syllabuses. It now suffers to some extent from being taughtas if it were true rather than as a set of sophisticated and problematic speculationsabout the nature of human motivations. However, there is a gap between the ideal ofpeople who are motivated and the real nature of work - this gap is the substance forthe latter half of the book.

DISCUSSION POINTS

1. What motivates you? Which of the theories best suits you? Could you developyour own theory of motivation?

2. In relation to content theories, the current level of job insecurity in the UKindicates that individual’s may have difficulty in fulfilling lower order deficiencyneeds. It can be argued that Maslow’s hierarchy of needs should be turned on itshead and that organizations should be looking to fulfil higher – order needs ratherthan deficiency needs. Discuss.

3. Think about any area of work you engage in, from academic work to employedwork. Why is it that you feel motivated to complete some tasks and not others?How could you use this information to improve your performance in these tasks?

4. How realistic is it for managers / employers to apply theories of motivation andjob satisfaction to the workplace?

5. What impact can management style and organizational policy have on themotivation levels of employees? Consider both content and process theories inyour answer.