motivating employees

MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES

Chapter 16

Learning Objectives

• You should learn to:– Define the motivation process– Describe three early motivation theories– Explain how goals motivate people– Differentiate reinforcement theory from

goal-setting theory– Identify ways to design motivating jobs

© Prentice Hall, 2002 16-2

Learning Objectives (cont.)

• You should learn to:– Describe the motivational implications of

equity theory– Explain the key relationships in expectancy

theory– Describe current motivation issues facing

managers– Identify management practices that are

likely to lead to more motivated employees


What is motivation?

Motivation refers to forces within an individual

that account for the level, direction, and

persistence of effort expended at work.– Direction — an individual’s choice when presented

with a number of possible alternatives.

– Level — the amount of effort a person puts forth.

– Persistence — the length of time a person stays with

a given action.

The Motivation Process

UnsatisfiedNeed

SatisfiedNeed

SearchBehaviorDrivesTension Reduction

of Tension


The Basic Motivational Model

1. Needs (deficiencies)

2. Search for ways to satisfy needs

3. Goals directed behaviors

4. performance

5. Rewards or punishments

6. Needs reassessed by the employee

The Employee

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory– each level in hierarchy must be satisfied

before the next is activated• once a need is substantially satisfied it

no longer motivates behavior– theory received wide recognition– little research support for the validity of

the theory

Early Theories Of Motivation


Maslow’s Hierarchy Of Needs

Physiological

Safety

Social

Esteem

Self-Actualization


Description Five Basic Needs • Physiological needs

- Required to sustain life- chemical needs of the body hunger, thirst, sleeplessness, sexual desire

• Safety needs:- security from threatening events or surroundings- living in safe environment, medical insurance, job security, financial reserves

• Social / affiliation needs: - friendship, belonging to a group, giving and receiving love

Description Five Basic Needs Esteem needs:falls into two categories:

i. Internal esteem needs:- desires for such feelings as power, achievement, confidence, freedom, independence

ii. External esteem needs:- derived from reputation, prestige, recognition. Attention and importanceBoth group of needs leads to more self confidenceSelf-actualization needs- realize or actualize one’s self potential- includes needs such as truth, justice, wisdom \, meaning

Ways to fulfill the five needs• Physiological Needs:

- lunch breaks, rest breaks, wages that are sufficient to purchase the essentials of life

• Safety needs:- safe work environment, job security, medical benefits, retirement benefits

• Social / affiliation needs:- create feeling of acceptance, belonging and community by reinforcing team dynamics

• Esteem needs:- recognize achievements, assign important projects, provide status to make employees feel important and valued

• Self actualization need :- provide challenging and meaningful work which enables innovation, creativity, and progress in the long term

Early Theories Of Motivation (cont.)• McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

– Theory X –– assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work,

want to avoid responsibility, and need to be closely controlled

• assumed that lower-order needs dominated– Theory Y– - assumes that workers can exercise self-direction, accept

and actually seek out responsibility, and consider work to be a natural activity

• assumed that higher-order needs dominated– no evidence that either set of assumptions is valid– no evidence that managing on the basis of Theory Y makes

employees more motivated


Early Theories Of Motivation (cont.)• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

– intrinsic characteristics consistently related to job satisfaction

»motivator factors energize employees– extrinsic characteristics consistently related to

job dissatisfaction• hygiene factors don’t motivate employees

– proposed dual continua for satisfaction and dissatisfaction

– theory enjoyed wide popularity• influenced job design

– theory was roundly criticized© Prentice Hall, 2002 16-13

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory


Contrasting Views Of Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction

Satisfaction No Satisfaction No Dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

Motivators Hygienes

Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzberg’s View

Traditional View


Contemporary Theories Of Motivation• Three-Needs Theory - McClelland

– need for achievement (nAch)– drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of

standards, and to strive to succeed• do not strive for trappings and rewards of success• prefer jobs that offer personal responsibility• want rapid and unambiguous feedback• set moderately challenging goals

– avoid very easy or very difficult tasks• high achievers don’t necessarily make good managers

– focus on their own accomplishments» good managers emphasize helping others to accomplish their

goals


Contemporary Theories Of Motivation (cont.)

• Three-Needs Theory (cont.)– need for power (nPow)

• need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise

– need for affiliation (nAff)• desire for friendly and close interpersonal

relationships– best managers tend to be high in the need for

power and low in the need for affiliation


Examples of Pictures used for Asscess Levels of nAch, nAff, and aPow



• Goal-Setting Theory– intention to work toward a goal is a major source of

job motivation– specific goals increase performance

• difficult goal, when accepted, results in higher performance than does an easy goal

• specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of “do your best”

– participation in goal setting is useful• reduces resistance to accepting difficult goals• increases goal acceptance


Contemporary Theories Of Motivation (cont.)• Goal-Setting Theory (cont.)

– feedback is useful• helps identify discrepancies between what has been

accomplished and what needs to be done• self-generated feedback is a powerful motivator

– contingencies in goal-setting theory• goal commitment - theory presupposes that individual is

determined to accomplish the goal– most likely to occur when:

» goals are made public» individual has an internal locus of control» goals are self-set rather than assigned



• Goal-Setting Theory (cont.)– contingencies (cont.)

• self-efficacy - an individual’s belief that s/he is capable of performing a task

– higher self-efficacy, greater motivation to attain goals

• national culture - theory is culture bound– main ideas align with North American cultures– goal setting may not lead to higher performance in other

cultures


Guidelines for Job Redesign


• Reinforcement Theory– behavior is solely a function of its consequences

• behavior is externally caused– reinforcers – – consequences that, when given immediately

following a behavior, affect the probability that the behavior will be repeated• managers can influence employees’ behavior by

reinforcing actions deemed desirable• emphasis in on positive reinforcement, not

punishment



The Practice of reinforcing

consequence

of

Contingent

Reward

( something desirable)

Noxious Stimuli

(Something aversive or undesirable)

Application Positive Reinforcement

Behavior Increase

Punishment

Behavior Decrease

Withdrawal Punishment/ extinction

Behavior Decrease

Negative Reinforcement

Behavior Decrease

• Designing Motivating Jobs– Job Design – the way tasks are combined to form complete jobs

• historically, concentrated on making jobs more specialized– Job Enlargement –– horizontal expansion of job

• job scope • the number of different tasks required in a job and the

frequency with which these tasks are repeated• provides few challenges, little meaning to workers’ activities• only addresses the lack of variety in specialized jobs



• Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)– Job Enrichment– vertical expansion of job

• job depth - degree of control employees have over their

work–empowers employees to do tasks typically

performed by their managers• research evidence has been inconclusive about

the effect of job enrichment on performance




• Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)– Job Characteristics Model (JCM) - conceptual

framework for analyzing jobs• jobs described in terms of five core characteristics

– skill variety - degree to which job requires a variety of activities

» more variety, greater need to use different skills– task identity - degree to which job requires completion of an

identifiable piece of work– task significance - degree to which job has substantial impact

on the lives of other people– these three characteristics create meaningful work


• Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)– JCM (cont.)

• core characteristics (cont.)– autonomy - degree to which job provides substantial

freedom, independence, and discretion in performing the work

» give employee a feeling of personal responsibility– feedback - degree to which carrying out the job results in

receiving clear information about the effectiveness with which it has been performed

» employee knows how effectively s/he is performing



Job Characteristics ModelCore JobDimensions

Skill VarietyTask IdentityTask Significance

Autonomy

Feedback

Experienced meaningfulnessof the work

Experienced responsibility for outcomes of work

Knowledge of the actualresults of the work

CriticalPsychological States

High Internal Work Motivation

High-QualityWork Performance

High Satisfaction with the Work

Low Absenteeismand Turnover

Personal andWork Outcomes

Strength of Employee Growth Need



• Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)– JCM (cont.)

• links between core characteristics and outcomes are moderated by the strength of the individual’s growth need

–growth need - person’s desire for self-esteem and self-actualization

• model offers specific guidance for job design


Guidelines For Job RedesignCore JobDimensions

SuggestedActions

Opening FeedbackChannels

Combining Tasks

Task Identity

Skill Variety

Forming Natural Work Units

Task Significance

Load Vertically Autonomy

Forming Natural Work Units

Feedback



• Equity Theory– proposes that employees perceive what they get from a job

(outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs)– input/outcome ratio compared with the ratios of relevant

others• equity - ratio is equal to that of relevant others• inequity - ratio is unequal to that of relevant others

– referent (relevant other) may be:• other - individuals with similar jobs• a system - includes organizational pay policies and administrative

systems• self - past personal experiences and contacts


Equity Theory


• Equity Theory (cont.)– when inequities are perceived, employees act to correct

the situation• distort either their own or others’ inputs or outputs• behave in a way to induce others to change their inputs or

outputs• behave in a way to change their own inputs or outputs• choose a different comparison person• quit their jobs

– theory leaves some issues unclear




• Expectancy Theory

–theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual


Simplified Expectancy Model

IndividualEffort

IndividualPerformanceA Organizational

RewardsB IndividualGoalsC

A = Effort-performance linkage

B = Performance-reward linkage

C = Attractiveness


Vroom’s Expectancy Theory“ the strength of tendency to act in a certain way depends on

the strength of an expectancy that an act will be followed by a given consequence for outcome and on the value or attractiveness of that consequence for outcome to the actor”

• Motivation according to Vroom, boils down to the decision about how much effort to exert in a specific task situation

• This choice is based on three-stage sequence of expectation1. Motivation is affected by an individual’s expectation that a

certain level of effort will produce the intended goal2. Motivation is also influenced by the individual’s perceived

chances of getting various outcomes as a result of accomplishing his or her performance goals

3. Individuals are motivated to the extent that they value the outcomes received

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory1. Expectancy:• Belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a

particular level of performance• It is an effort to performance expectation• Expectancy takes the form of subjective probabilities• Probability range from 0 – 1• An expectancy of 0 indicates effort has no anticipated

impact on performance• The following factors influence an employees expectancy

perceptions1. Self esteem2. Self-efficacy3. Previous success4. Help received from supervisor and subordinates5. Information necessary to complete the task6. Good material and equipment to work with

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory2. Instrumentality• An Instrumentality is a performance to outcome perceptions• It represents a person’s belief that a particular outcome is

contingent on accomplishing a specific level of performance• Instrumentalities range from -1 to +1• An instrumentality of +1 indicates that attainment of

particular outcome is totally dependent on task performance• An instrumentality of zero means that there is no relationship

between performance and outcome• An instrumentality of -1 reveals that high performance reduce

the chance of obtaining an outcome while low performance increases the outcome

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

3. Valence:• Refers to positive and negative value people

place on outcomes• Valence mirrors personal preferences• An outcome’s valence depends on personal

needs• Valence ranges from -1 to + 1

Vroom’s Expectancy Model

Motivational Force

F={valence x Expectancy

ExpectancyE P

1st level out come

Outcome 1

Outcome 2

instrumentality

P O2nd level outcome

1 a

1b

2a

2b

Expectancy Theory Application Example

Motivation Expectancy 1st level outcome instrumentality valence 2nd level outcome

6.3 0.5 Completion of project ahead of schedule 12.6

Pay raise

Promotion

Recognition

(8)

(10)

(4)

0.6

0.5

0.7

3.4 0.6Completion of project within schedule 5.6

0.3

0.2

0.3

(8)

(10)

(4)

Pay raise

Promotion

Recognition

- 5.9 0.8 Behind Schedule -7.4

- 0.5

- 0.3

- 0.1

(8)

(10)

(4)

Pay raise

Promotion

Recognition

Combination of Expectancy Theory Variables

Case Valence Instrumentality

Expectancy

Motivation

1. High High High High

2. High High Low Low

3. High Low High Low

4. Moderate

Moderate Moderate Moderate

5. low High High Low

6. Low Low Low Low

Porter and Lawler model • Extended Vroom’s model • This model attempt to :1. Identify source of people’s valences and expectancies2. Link effort with performance and job satisfaction• Predictor of effort: Effort is a function of two elements:i. The perceived value of reward which represents reward

valenceii. Perceived effort to reward probability which reflects an

expectancy i.e. the expectation that performance will lead to reward

Employees should exhibit more effort when they believe they will receive valued rewards for task accomplishment

Porter and Lawler model• Predictors of performance Performance is determined by more than effort The relationship between effort and performance is

contingent on an employees abilities and role perception

Employees with higher abilities attain higher performance for a given level of effort than employees with less ability

Employees effort results in higher performance when employees clearly understand , and are comfortable with their role.

This occurs because effort is channeled into most important job activities or tasks

Porter and Lawler model• Predictors of SatisfactionEmployees receive both intrinsic and extrinsic

rewards for performanceEmployees are more satisfied when they feel

they are equitably rewarded Job satisfaction affects employees’

subsequent valence for rewardsEmployees’ future effort to reward

probabilities are influenced by past experience with performance and rewards

The Porter-lawler motivation model

Value of

reward

Effort

Abilities & trait

Role perception

Performance

Intrinsic Rewards

Extrinsic Rewards

Satisfaction

Perceived E – P expectancy

Perceived Equitable Rewards

Organization Implication of Expectancy Theory

• Dealing with effort to performance expectancies Is the employee’s work reasonable, challenging, and

attainable? Is the employee able to perform the his/her work? Or more

education, training, experience, support, or coaching needed? Does the employee possess necessary self-confidence and

self esteem to do his/her work? Or is time and effort needed to enhance his/her level of confidence?

Is it clear to employee what acceptable level of performance are? Do we agree on it? Can this performance easily be measured?

Does the work provide employee with feeling of usefulness, involvement, and competence? How this feeling be reinforced?


• Dealing with (performance-outcome) instrumentality:

Does the employee trust his/her superiors? Does the organization keep promises made to employees? Does the organization avoid lying to their employees?

Is the organization fair and predictable in providing outcomes to the employees?

Is the organization consistent in the application of giving rewards? While the rewards may vary for differing employees are they perceived as being equitable?

Are the changes in outcome large enough to motivate employees


• Dealing with ( outcome – personal goals) valences: Are the personal goals of the employee congruent with the

goals of the organization? How can a greater alignment between these goals be accomplished?

Does the employee see the outcome as worth expenditure of time and effort?

What constraints of and on the job influence employee? Does the employee and the organization have realistic mutual expectations?

Does the organization reward employee with something he/she really values? Does the organization know which outcomes the employee values?

Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation


Current Issues In Motivation

• Motivating a Diverse Workforce– flexibility is the key to motivating a diverse

workforce• diverse array of rewards necessary to

satisfy diverse personal needs and goals– Flexible Working Schedule

• compressed workweek - employees work longer hours per day but fewer days per week


• Motivating a Diverse Workforce (cont.)– Flexible Working Schedule (cont.)

• flexible work hours (flextime) - employees required to work a specific number of hours a week but are free to vary those hours within certain limits

– system entails common core hours when all employees are required to be on the job

– starting, ending, and lunch-hour times are flexible• job sharing - two or more people split a full-time job• telecommuting - employees work at home and are

linked to the workplace by computer and modem

Current Issues In Motivation (cont.)



• Motivating a Diverse Workforce (cont.)– Cultural Differences in Motivation

• motivation theories developed in the U.S. and validated with American workers

• may be some cross-cultural consistencies

• Pay-for-Performance– instead of paying for time on the job, pay is adjusted to reflect

some performance measure– compatible with expectancy theory

• imparts strong performance-reward linkage– programs are gaining in popularity

• research suggests that programs affect performance


Current Issues In Motivation (cont.)• Open-Book Management

– involve employees in workplace decisions by opening up the financial statements

– workers treated as business partners– get workers to think like an owner– may also provide bonuses based on profit improvements

• Motivating the “New Workforce”– Motivating Professionals - professionals tend to derive

intrinsic satisfaction from their work and receive high pay

• more loyal to their profession than their employer • value challenging jobs and support for their work


Current Issues In Motivation (cont.)• Motivating the “New Workforce” (cont.)

– Motivating Contingent Workers - part-time, contract, or temporary workers

• less security and stability than permanent employees– receive fewer benefits

• display little identification or commitment to their employers• hard to motivate contingent workers

– opportunity to become a permanent employee– opportunity for training

• repercussions of mixing permanent and contingent workers when pay differentials are significant



• Motivating the “New Workforce” (cont.)– Motivating Low-Skilled, Minimum-Wage Employees

• difficult challenge to keep performance levels high• employee recognition programs

– highlight employees whose work performance has been good

– encourage others to perform better– power of praise

• in service industries, empower front-line employees to address customers’ problems

– tie compensation to customer satisfaction


From Theory To PracticeRecognize individual

differences

Ensure that goalsare perceived as

attainable

Check the systemfor equity

Individualizerewards

Link rewardsto performance

Suggestionsfor

MotivatingEmployees

Use goalsDon’t ignoremoney

Match peopleto jobs


Job Satisfaction• Is the degree to which individual feel

positively or negatively about their job• It is an attitude or emotional response to

one’s task as well as to the physical and social conditions of the work place

• The five facets of job satisfaction are:1. The work itself – responsibility, interest, and

growth2. Quality of supervision – technical help and

social support

Job Satisfaction3. Relationship with co workers – social harmony and

respect4. Promotion opportunities – chances for further

advancement5. Pay – adequacy of pay and perceived equity vis-à-vis

others

– Job satisfaction can be assessed:

• By managerial observation and interpretation.

• Through use of job satisfaction questionnaires.

Job Satisfaction and Performance• Implications of key work decisions for job

satisfaction.

– Joining and remaining a member of an organization.

• Satisfied workers have better attendance and less turnover.

– Working hard in pursuit of high levels of task performance.

• Three alternative relationships between performance and satisfaction.

Argument: satisfaction causes performance

• Managerial implication — to increase employees’ performance, make them happy

• Research indicates that no simple and direct relationship exist between employee job satisfaction at one point in time and work performance latter

• Job satisfaction alone is not a consistent predictor of individual work performance

Argument: performance causes satisfaction

Managerial implication — help people achieve high performance, then satisfaction will follow.

• Research indicates an empirical relationship between individual performance measured at a certain time period and later job satisfaction

• The expectancy model of Lawler and porter maintains that performance accomplishment leads to rewards, that in turn leads to satisfaction

Argument: performance causes satisfaction

• In this model rewards are intervening variable. In addition , a moderator variable is perceived equity of rewards that further affects the relationship

• This moderator indicates that performance leads to satisfaction only if rewards are perceived equitable

• If an individual feels that his/her performance is not equitably rewarded, the performance-cause satisfaction will not hold

Argument: rewards cause both satisfaction and performance

• “Proper” allocation of rewards can positively influence both performance and satisfaction

• Research indicates that people who receive high rewards report high job satisfaction

• Research also indicates that performance contingent rewards influence a person’s work performance

• Size and value of rewards vary in proportion to the level of one’s performance accomplishment

• Satisfaction and performance should be considered as two separate but interrelated work results that are allocated by the allocation of rewards

• Job satisfaction is not a good predictor of work performance, well managed rewards can have a positive influence on both satisfaction and performance

motivating employees

Documents

basic needs esteem needs

needsphysiological needs

internal esteem needs

essentials of lifesafety

life chemical needs

team dynamicsesteem

sexual desire safety

lowerorder needs domi