mora i okeani
TRANSCRIPT
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MORA I OKEANI FIZIČKI I HEMIJSKI USLOVI ŽIVOTA U MORU
ZONALNI RASPORED ŽIVOG SVETA U MORU
Jasmina Krpo-Ćetković
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OSNOVNE KARAKTERISTIKE MORSKOG EKOSISTEMA
ZAPREMINA 1368 x 106 km3 11:1
POVRŠINA 360 x 106 km2 5/7 : 2/7
TEŽINA 1419 x 1018 t 0,25‰
SREDNJA DUBINA 3800 m (srednja visina
kopna 875 m)
kad bi se ispeglala površina Zemlje, nastao bio vodeni omotač dubok oko 2400 m
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Ogromna vodena masa koja je povezana i neprekidno u pokretu (horizontalno i
vertikalno), sa sličnim ili jednakim hemijskim i fizičkim osobinama
• Od 1979. godine na svakih deset dana otkriva se nova vrsta
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ŽIVOTNI PROSTOR
MORSKO DNO (BENTAL)
MORSKA VODA (PELAGIJAL)
BRZINA KRETANJA MORE 50 (110) km/h
KOPNO 160-322 km/h
PLANKTON GUSTINA TREĆA DIMENZIJA SESILNI NAČIN ŽIVOTA
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Istiophorus platypterus
110 km/h na malim distancama
Falco peregrinus 288 (389) km/h
Hirundapus caudacutus 171 km/h
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NAJVEĆE DUBINE PACIFIK (kotlina Challenger, Marijanska brazda, ostrvo Guam)
11033 m
ATLANTIK (kotlina Portorika) 9200 m
INDIJSKI OKEAN (Sunda kotlina) 8000 m
• Podmornica ALVIN spušta se na 4500 m dubine
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Izgrađen 1964; zaronio više od 4200 puta; može da dosegne 63%
okeanskog dna http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=8422
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• Jacques Piccard – švajcarski okeanograf i inženjer • Don Walsh – oficir američke vojske i okeanograf • 23. januara 1960 spustili su se u batiskafu Trieste na dno Marijanske brazde (10,911 m) • spuštanje je trajalo 4 sata i 48 minuta (brzina 0,9 m/sec), penjanje 3 sata i 15 minuta • na dnu proveli 20 minuta; u kabini je bilo 7°C
James Cameron “DEEPSEA CHALLENGER”
26. mart 2012
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KONTINENTALNI ŠELF do 200 m
KONTINENTALNA PADINA 200 – 4000 m
ABISALNA RAVNICA 4000 – 6000 m
KOTLINE/JARCI/ROVOVI 7000 – 11000 m
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PELAGIJAL
NERIT OKEAN
BENTAL
LITORAL BATIJAL ABISAL HADAL
PELAGIJAL
EPIPELAGIJAL
MEZOPELAGIJAL
INFRAPELAGIJAL
BATIPELAGIJAL
ABISOPELAGIJAL
HADOPELAGIJAL
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NERIT – neproziran, najveći broj morskih organizama i glavne zone ribolova
OKEAN – plava pustinja, proziran, planktona ima samo na mestima vertikalnih strujanja gde nutrijenti (nitrati, fosfati...) mogu da stignu sa
dna (gde se odvija razgradnja organske materije) do površine (gde se odvija fotosinteza)
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Plima
Oseka
Fotička zona
Afotička zona
Pelagijal
Ben
tal
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SUPRALITORAL (mlatna zona talasa) PLIMA
MEDIOLITORAL OSEKA
INFRALITORAL 30-50 m
(FOTOFILNE ALGE,
CVETNICE,
KORALNI GREBENI)
CIRKALITORAL do 200 m
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gornja granica jake plime (EHWS - extreme high water of spring tides)
donja granica jake oseke (ELWS - extreme low water of spring tides)
Mediolitoral (vitičari -
Cirripedia, morska trava,
dagnje)
granica supralitorala
granica infralitorala
ZONACIJA ZAJEDNICA
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DNO
a) ČVRSTO STENA (EPIFLORA, EPIFAUNA)
b) POKRETNO PESAK (EPIFLORA, EPIFAUNA + ENDOFAUNA) MULJ
SEDIMENTI:
TERIGENI ORGANSKI 0,01-0,05% (2/3 Si) NEORGANSKI 99,99-99,95%
ORGANSKI (do 4000 m CO3 – GLOBIGERINSKI)
(4000-6000 m Si – RADIOLARIJSKI)
PELAGIČKI NEORGANSKI (>6000 m – CRVENA GLINA >40% DNA)
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Terigeni sedimenti nastaju erozijom kopna – mineralne materije koje nanose reke, lednici, talasi; vulkanski mulj i pesak od raspada korala
Pelagički sedimenti se javljaju dublje od kontinentalnog šelfa
Mogućnost života na dnu zavisi od količine organske materije koja stigne odozgo
Sedimentacija je spora – u litoralu 40 m za 1 milion godina; u abisalu – neprekriveni zubi ajkula iz tercijera (70 mil. godina)
Globigerinida (CO3)
Radiolaria (Si)
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Endofauna (infauna) – između čestica sedimenta
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TEMPERATURA Godišnja amplituda kolebanja površinskih slojeva
– na ekvatoru i polovima 1-2 °C, u zatvorenim morima i pri obali veća (Mediteran 14 °C)
Dnevna amplituda kolebanja – površinski slojevi 0,5-1 °C, dublje (>150-200 m) nikakva
TERMOKLINA STALNA (TOPLA MORA)
SEZONSKA (UMERENA ZONA)
TEMPERATURA POVRŠINE – OTVORENA MORA 0-28 °C
– ZATVORENA MORA 33-35 °C
Crveno more 34 °C; ledena mora -1,3 °C do -1,7 °C
JADRAN – površina leti 25°C, zimi 6-12°C severni deo, 13-15°C južni deo;
dublji slojevi 11-12°C
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stalno mešanje talasima i strujama
temperatura brzo opada sa dubinom
temperatura je relativno konstantna
topli površinski sloj
temoklina
hladan duboki sloj ispod termokline
Termoklina je sloj vode koji predstavlja zonu temperaturnog gradijenta sa oštrim padom temperature između gornjih, toplijih površinskih
slojeva vode i donjih, hladnih. Termoklina može da bude stalna (topla mora) i sezonska (umerena zona).
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• Termoklina – sloj vode u kome temperatura brzo opada sa dubinom (od 200 do 1000 m)
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Temperatura utiče i na metabolizam i na fizičke procese
Glavni način prenošenja toplote je konvekcija (kretanje vodenih čestica); kondukcija je slaba (100 m za 100 godina)
Mora severne polulopte su toplija zbog nagnutosti zemljine ose
stenotermni (pelagični, dubinski, korali) euritermni
pojkilotermni
homeotermni (sekundarno prilagođeni)
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• endotermne ribe: tune, ajkule iz porodice Lamnidae (npr. velika bela ajkula Carcharodon carcharias, mako ajkula Isurus oxyrinchus), mesečeva riba Lampris guttatus
Lampris guttatus
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28 • “Pompeii worms”, Alvinella pompejana, žive na +80°C
Hidrotermalni ventil
Kiwa hirsuta (Yeti Crab)
Vulcanoctopus hydrothermalis
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SVETLOST
EUFOTIČKA ZONA 0-50 (100) m
DISFOTIČKA (OLIGOFOTIČKA) ZONA
50 (100) – 200 (500) m (u tropskim prozirnim morima do 1000 m)
AFOTIČKA ZONA > 200 (500) m
Izvor energije, utiče na rasprostranjenje organizama i na migracije
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odbijena, propuštena, absorbovana u plitkim neprozirnim vodama na 25 m ostaje samo 1% svetla nad kont. šelfom - 1% na 45 m u prozirnim vodama Golfska struja i prozirni Sargas - 1% ostaje na 65 m zbog zagrevanja u plićaku često izostaju alge – providni plankton propušta a ne absorbuje svetlo (zaštitni mehanizmi) odbrana od jakog svetla – plastidi (biljke) i pigment (životinje)
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SASTAV I SALINITET
Slatka voda → 1-1,5 g soli/l (preovladavaju CO3)
Slana voda → 35 g soli/l (preovladavaju Cl i Na) 11 elemenata čini 99,98% ukupne količine jonskog
rastvora soli
ANJONI Cl- SO42- HCO3
- Br- BO32- F-
KATJONI Na+ Mg2+ Ca2+ K+ Sr2+
JADRAN 38‰ BALTIK 12-0,6‰
CRVENO MORE 45-48‰ CRNO MORE 18‰
Ostalo su oligoelementi (oko 50); N i P su limitirajući (azota ima kao gasa, ali nema nitrata); slana voda sporije isparava zbog povećane napetosti površine
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RASTVORENI GASOVI KOLIČINA ZAVISI OD PRITISKA, TEMPERATURE I
SALINITETA
ODNOS N : O – U VAZDUHU 4 : 1, U MORU 2 : 1
CO2 delimično prisutan kao gas; u ravnoteži sa bikarbonatima i karbonatima ALKALINITET – POSLEDICA OTAPANJA H2CO3 I VEZIVANJA JAKIH BAZA (skoro isključivo Ca, uz Na, K, Mg) pH 7,5-8,4, u dubini opada pH površinskih slojeva i sporednih mora 8,0-8,3
KOMPENZACIONA DUBINA – izjednačenje potrošenog i oslobođenog O2
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PROCENAT U ATMOSFERI
PROCENAT U POVRŠINSKOJ
VODI OKEANA
PROCENAT U CELOM OKEANU
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PRITISAK
EURIBATI – PELAGIČKE VRSTE (PROMENE OD 30-40 ATM)
STENOBATI – ABISALNE VRSTE
NA SVAKIH 10 m RASTE ZA 1 ATMOSFERU
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morski sisari - pri imerziji koriste O2 iz mioglobina mnogi uranjaju gotovo praznih pluća podnose niske koncentracije O2 i visoke CO2 usporavaju rad srca i perifernu cirkulaciju
mišići sadrže velike količine mioglobina i manje su osetljivi na mlečnu kiselinu
hemoglobin Cetacea može da oslobodi skoro čitav kiseonik koji nosi
krv se pumpa u vitalne organe kao što je mozak
moždano stablo manje osetljivo na CO2
mozak
vazduh se izbacuje iz pluća da bi životinja lakše potonula
srčani ritam
usporava
brz transfer O2 iz krvi do pluća
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Ulješura, Physeter macrocephalus, roni više od 2200 m, 90 minuta
Kljunasti kit, Hyperoodon, 1453 m, 70 minuta
Morski slon, Mirounga, 1500 m, 80 minuta
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Patrick Musimu
No Limits: Musimu 209,6 m (7’), Nitsch 214 (253) m Gomes sa opremom 318 m http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0J8GVGkw7Yc https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U4VaGMknMCE http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zFUZCp22JkE
Nuno Gomes
Herbert Nitsch
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KRETANJE
MORSKE STRUJE – horizontalne i vertikalne
– kompenzacione
TALASI
MORSKA DOBA (PLIMA I OSEKA) – 2 puta za vreme lunarnog dana (24 h 50’) – Mesec ima 2,34 puta veću privlačnu silu od Sunca
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morske struje – horizontalne i vertikalne izazvane dejstvom vetra i razlikama u gustini (pritisak, temperatura i salinitet) kompenzacione struje – odnete vode se nadoknađuju novim zbog dejstva zemljine rotacije na severnoj polulopti skreću udesno a na južnoj ulevo (Koriolisov efekat) pasati utiču na stvaranje ekvatorijalnih struja (glavna osnova sistema površinskih strujanja) 5 (2 Atlantik, 2 Pacifik, 1 Indijski okean)
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upwelling=uviranje
downwelling=poniranje
plankton buja tamo gde nutrijenti stižu do površine uzlazne struje
nose nutrijente do površine
smer vetra
smer vetra
površinske vode nošene od obale
uginule ribe i
plankton
padaju na dno
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MEDITERAN – zbog isparavanja ima manje vode - unutrašnje more s manjkom vode (nivo pada ispod nivoa
Atlantika) zbog čega se javlja površinska struja koja preliva vodu iz Atlantika i, kao posledica, suprotna
struja u dubini koja odnosi mineralne i org. materije
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Talasi nastaju dejstvom vetra
Utiču na bentos plićaka i pelagijal površinskih slojeva
Na izloženim peščanim obalama je manja raznovrsnost
Povećavaju razmenu gasova
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dubina vode = ½ dužine talasa (talasi dodiruju dno)
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centrifugalna sila (CF) veća od gravitacione sile (GF), što izaziva pomeranje morske
vode od meseca
gravitaciona sila (GF) jednaka centrifugalnoj sili (CF);
rastojanje između Zemlje i Meseca se ne menja
gravitaciona sila (GF) veća od centrifugalne sile (GF), što izaziva pomeranje morske
vode ka mesecu
PLIMA I OSEKA
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51 •visoka (jaka) plima javlja se 2x mesecno kad je mlad i kad je pun mesec (mesec i zemlja su u liniji -
sizigijumu), dok se mrtva (kvadraturna) plima javlja kad su I i III cetvrt
visoka (jaka) plima
mrtva (kvadraturna) plima
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KRUŽENJE MATERIJE I PROTICANJE ENERGIJE
INTENZITET PRODUKCIJE MERI SE U gC/m2/dan ILI gC/m3/dan
ISKORIŠĆAVANJE ORG. MAT. OD JEDNE KARIKE DO DRUGE U PROSEKU IZNOSI SAMO 10%
100 10 1
PLANKTON KRIL KIT
AUTOTROFI – ALGE I CVETNICE (Zostera, Posidonia, Cymodocea)
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bakterije – fundamentalna uloga – mineralizacija org. mat. (nedovoljna količina se nanosi rekama sa kopna) na površini ima malo bakterija – UV zraci imaju baktericidno dejstvo, fitoplankton sintetiše antibiotike najgušće na dnu u muljevitom sedimentu aerobne su brojnije, a broj anaerobnih raste sa dubinom
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Sand-dwelling marine fungus (Corollospora) http://fungi.life.illinois.edu/articles/Aquati%20fungal%20biodiversity%20Shearer%20et%20al.07.pdf
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Gustina planktona merena u vidu koncentracije hlorofila od površine vode do dubine od 25 m (prosek za 10 godina). Boja označava konc. hlorofila na log skali: od ljubičaste (<0.06 mg m-3), preko tamnoplave, svetloplave i zelene do naranžaste i crvene (1-10 mg m-3) (snimci NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center).
• leto na sev. hemisferi – juni-avgust
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61 • jesen na sev. hemisferi – septembar-novembar
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62 • zima na sev. hemisferi – decembar-februar
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63 • proleće na sev. hemisferi – mart-maj
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Primarna produkcija u svetskom moru u miligramima fiksiranog ugljenika po m2 na dan. Produkcija je najveća iznad kontinentalnog šelfa i u regionima uviranja na zapadnim obalama Afrike i Južne i Centralne Amerike.
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ŽIVOTNE FORME
PLANKTON ►HOLOPLANKTON ►NERITIČKI ►ULTRA/NANO/MIKROPLANKTON
►MEROPLANKTON ►OKEANSKI ►MREŽNI (makroplankton)
NEKTON (aktivni plivači) → mnoge ribe, sisari, glavonošci
BENTOS → stalno ili privremeno vezani za dno
(hrana, skrovište, razmnožavanje)
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To su organizmi koji pasivno lebde ili pak čije su lokomotorne sposobnosti nedovoljne da bi im omogućile kretanje suprotno kretanju vodene mase.
PLANKTON = pelagičke alge (fitoplankton) ili životinje (zooplankton) koje nisu u stanju da održavaju svoj položaj plivajući nasuprot fizičkom kretanju vode
HOLOPLANKTON MEROPLANKTON
ULTRAPLANKTON (< 5 μm) NANOPLANKTON (5-20 μm) MIKROPLANKTON (20-50 μm) MAKRO (mrežni) PLANKTON (> 50 μm)
Zooplanktonski organizmi koji čitav život provode kao plankton (holoplankton) dominiraju u otvorenim vodama, dok se uz obalu nalazi veći broj vrsta koje samo deo životnog ciklusa provode kao plankton (meroplankton), kao što su larve bentoskih invertebrata ili larve riba.
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A – Cirripedia
B – riba
C – koral
D – puž
E – hlap
F – meduza
G – morska zvezda
H – poliheta
I – kraba
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Fluktuacije fitoplanktona u zavisnosti od količine nutrijenata
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JADRANSKO MORE JUŽNI DEO – MEZOZOIK
SEVERNI DEO – POSTGLACIJALNO POREKLO
DUŽINA 783 km ŠIRINA 248,3 km DUBINA 50-1000 m (1233 m)
LITORAL (FITALNI SISTEM) NAJVEĆI DEO
BATIJAL (AFITALNI SISTEM) JABUČKA KOTLINA I KOTLINA JUŽNOG JADRANA
SPECIJALNI REZERVATI U MORU
Limski kanal (Rovinj) Malostonski zaliv (Pelješac)
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JABUČKA KOTLINA PALAGRUŠKI PRAG KOTLINA JUŽNOG JADRANA OTRANTSKA VRATA DELTA REKE PO
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fauna – prelaz zapadnog u istočni Mediteran najveći deo kont. šelf (litoralni, fitalni sistem) kotlina Jabuke i južnog Jadrana – afitalni sistem 90% mediteranske vrste (59% mediteranskih endemita); 10% endemiti (uglavnom Anthozoa)
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I SUPRALITORALChthamalus depressus vitičar, lopar CirripediaLigia italica babura IsopodaLittorina neritoides ProsobranchiaLittorina saxatilis ProsobranchiaOphelia radiata PolychaetaPatella lusitanica prilepak ProsobranchiaTalitrus saltator obalska buva AmphipodaTylos ponticus mokrica Isopoda------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------Catenella opuntia RhodophyceaeSalicornia herbacea caklenjača zeljasta 1-god.Verrucaria adriatica lišaj
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Ligia italica
Littorina neritoides Littorina saxatilis
Ophelia radiata
Patella lusitanica
Talitrus saltator Tylos ponticus
Chthamalus depressus
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Actinia equina moruzgva AnthozoaAnemonia sulcata vlasulja AnthozoaArbacia lixula crni jež EchinoideaBonelia viridis EchiuroideaChthamalus stellatus vitičar, lopar CirripediaGammarus olivii AmphipodaHolothuria tubulosa obični trp HolothuroideaLithophaga lithophaga prstac BivalviaMiddendorfia caprearum hiton AmphineuraMonodonta turbinata puž ogrc ProsobranchiaMytilus galloprovincialis dagnja BivalviaPachygrapsus marmoratus kraba DecapodaPatella aspera prilepak Prosobranchia------------------------------------- -------------------- -------------------------Catenella opuntia RhodophyceaeCystoseira spicata PhaeophyceaeEnteromorpha compressa ChlorophyceaeLithophyllum tortuosum kamenjača RhodophyceaeFucus virsoides bračić Phaeophyceae
II MEDIOLITORAL
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Actinia equina Anemonia
sulcata Arbacia lixula
Bonelia viridis
Middendorfia (Lepidochitona)
Pachygrapsus
Gammarus olivii Holothuria tubulosa
Litophaga
Mytilus galloprovincialis
Patella aspera Monodonta turbinata
Chthamalus stellatus
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Aplysia depilans morski zec OpisthobranchiaArca barbata mala barka BivalviaAscidia mentula TunicataAsterina pancerii AsteroideaBlennius galerita slingurica BlenniidaeBonellia viridis EchiuroideaCarcinus maenas obična kraba DecapodaCardium tuberculatum čančica BivalviaCoris julis knez LabridaeDentex dentex zubatac SparidaeHippocampus brevirostris morski konjić SyngnathidaeHippocampus guttulatus morski konjić SyngnathidaeHolothuria impatiens trp Holothuroidea
Lepadogaster microcephalus prilepnjak GobiesocidaeMaja squinado morski pauk DecapodaMurex brandaris volak ProsobranchiaOctopus vulgaris hobotnica CephalopodaPinna nobilis periska BivalviaScorpaena porcus škrpina Scorpaenidae----------------------------------------- ---------------------- ----------------------Acetabularia mediterranea ChlorophyceaeCymodocea nodosa cvetnicaCystoseira adriatica PhaeophyceaeEnteromorpha intestinalis ChlorophyceaePosidonia oceanica cvetnicaSargassum linifolium PhaeophyceaeUlva lactuca ChlorophyceaeZostera nana cvetnica
III INFRALITORAL
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Blennius galerita
Aplysia depilans Arca barbata Ascidia mentula
Asterina pancerii Carcinus maenas
Cardium tuberculatum
Coris julis Dentex dentex
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Hippocampus brevirostris
H. guttulatus
Holothuria impatiens
Lepadogaster microcephalus
Maja squinado
Murex brandaris
Octopus vulgaris
Pinna nobilis
Scorpaena porcus
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Alcyonium palmatum AnthozoaAphrodite aculeata morski miš PolychaetaArca noae Noina barka BivalviaAscidia virginea TunicataBonellia viridis EchiuroideaCardium echinatum BivalviaCorralium rubrum crveni koral AnthozoaDolium galea bačva ProsobranchiaEchinus acutus EchinoideaHomarus vulgaris hlap DecapodaLabrus merula vrana LabridaeMaja verrucosa morski pauk DecapodaMullus barbatus barbun MullidaeOblada melanura ušata, crnorep SparidaeOphiura texturata zmijača OphiuroideaPagellus erythrinus arbun SparidaePalinurus vulgaris jastog DecapodaPecten jacobaeus Jakobova lepeza BivalviaPleuronectes platessa iverak PleuronectidaeSepiola rondeleti mala sipica CephalopodaSolea vulgaris list SoleidaeSpongia officinalis obični sunđer PoriferaTrachinus draco pauk bijelac TrachinidaeZeus faber kovač Zeidae---------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------Halimeda tuna ChlorophyceaePadina pavonia PhaeophyceaeSargassum vulgare Phaeophyceae
IV CIRKALITORAL
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Astropecten irregularis AsteroideaCidaris cidaris jež turban EchinoideaDolium galea bačvaš ProsobranchiaEchinus acutus EchinoideaMadrepora oculata koral kameni AnthozoaMerluccius merluccius oslić GadidaeNephrops norvegicus škamp Decapoda
V BATIJAL
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Nephrops norvegicus
Echinus acutus
Madrepora oculata
Dolium galea
Merluccius merluccius
Astropecten irregularis
Cidaris cidaris