module 17: infancy & childhood

Module 17: Infancy & Module 17: Infancy & ChildhoodChildhood

Studying Children Studying Children

Who:Who: Developmental psychologists study a Developmental psychologists study a

person’s biological, emotional, cognitive, person’s biological, emotional, cognitive, personal, and social development from personal, and social development from infancy through late childhood. infancy through late childhood.

How:How:Methods of research:Methods of research: Longitudinal- same group studied Longitudinal- same group studied

repeatedly at many different points in repeatedly at many different points in time.time.

Cross-sectional-several groups of different-Cross-sectional-several groups of different-aged individuals studied at the same time. aged individuals studied at the same time.

Nature vs. NurtureNature vs. Nurture

A major issue in child developmentA major issue in child development Asks how much nature (genetic factors) Asks how much nature (genetic factors)

and how much nurture (environmental and how much nurture (environmental factors) contribute to a person’s factors) contribute to a person’s biological, emotional, cognitive, biological, emotional, cognitive, personal, and social development. personal, and social development.

Implications: Implications: – Case of Baby Jessica & Michael & other Case of Baby Jessica & Michael & other

adoptions adoptions – prodigiesprodigies

Prenatal Period: Prenatal Period: TeratogensTeratogens

Teratogen: agent that can harm a Teratogen: agent that can harm a developing fetus, such as a disease, developing fetus, such as a disease, drug, or environmental agent. drug, or environmental agent.

Teratogens:Teratogens:– Cocaine & other drugs: causes low Cocaine & other drugs: causes low

birth weights, poor feeding habits, birth weights, poor feeding habits, greater risk for developing other greater risk for developing other psychological problems; psychological problems;

Cocaine with other drugs: can cause Cocaine with other drugs: can cause deficits in cognitive functioning & deficits in cognitive functioning & behavioral problemsbehavioral problems

Prenatal Period; Prenatal Period; TeratogensTeratogens

Smoking & nicotine: increases risk Smoking & nicotine: increases risk of low birth weight, pre-term of low birth weight, pre-term deliveries, and possible physical deliveries, and possible physical problems, Sudden Infant Death problems, Sudden Infant Death Syndrome & respiratory infections Syndrome & respiratory infections

Lead: large amounts can lead to Lead: large amounts can lead to interference with brain interference with brain development & deficits in IQ scoresdevelopment & deficits in IQ scores


Fetal alcohol syndrome: Fetal alcohol syndrome: – In U.S., leading known cause of mental In U.S., leading known cause of mental

retardationretardation– Alcohol is a teratogen that crosses placenta Alcohol is a teratogen that crosses placenta

& affects fetus& affects fetus– Results from a mother drinking heavily, Results from a mother drinking heavily,

especially during first 12 weeks. especially during first 12 weeks. – Results in physical changes, neurological Results in physical changes, neurological

changes, psychological & behavioral changes, psychological & behavioral problems problems

– Children with FAS have problems into Children with FAS have problems into adolescence & adulthood adolescence & adulthood


Fetal alcohol exposure (FAE):Fetal alcohol exposure (FAE):– results from moderate drinking (7-14 results from moderate drinking (7-14

drinks per week) by pregnant womendrinks per week) by pregnant women– Less severe than FAS, but more Less severe than FAS, but more

prevalentprevalent– Results in: deficits in number of cognitive Results in: deficits in number of cognitive

tasks & fine motor speed & coordinationtasks & fine motor speed & coordinationModerate drinking may result in serious Moderate drinking may result in serious

problems, so researchers recommend problems, so researchers recommend women who are pregnant or planning a women who are pregnant or planning a pregnancy should not drink alcohol pregnancy should not drink alcohol

Child AbuseChild Abuse

Child abuse & neglect (physical & Child abuse & neglect (physical & emotional) result from inadequate care emotional) result from inadequate care or acts of the parent that put the child or acts of the parent that put the child in danger, cause physical harm or in danger, cause physical harm or injury, or involve sexual molestation. injury, or involve sexual molestation.

In the U.S., about 3 million allegations In the U.S., about 3 million allegations of childhood abuse & neglect annually. of childhood abuse & neglect annually.

About 500, 000 of allegations are for About 500, 000 of allegations are for sexual abusesexual abuse

Peak age of vulnerability is 7 to 13Peak age of vulnerability is 7 to 13

Child Abuse cont.Child Abuse cont.

Child Abuse: Sexual Child Abuse: Sexual AbuseAbuse

Very often the abuser knows the Very often the abuser knows the child child

Many children are too fearful of the Many children are too fearful of the abuser to report the maltreatment abuser to report the maltreatment

Prevalence: survey of 21 different Prevalence: survey of 21 different countries showed:countries showed:– 7- 36% women & 3- 29% of men are 7- 36% women & 3- 29% of men are

sexually abused sexually abused – Females are 2-3 times more likely to Females are 2-3 times more likely to

suffer abuse than malessuffer abuse than males

Child Abuse: Who Child Abuse: Who Abuses Children?Abuses Children?

Parents who abuse their children are likely to Parents who abuse their children are likely to have low self-esteem have low self-esteem

a wide range of personal problems; may also be a wide range of personal problems; may also be more impulsive, anxious, defensive, aggressive, more impulsive, anxious, defensive, aggressive, and socially isolated and socially isolated

60% of physical abuse is committed by mothers 60% of physical abuse is committed by mothers 90% of sexual abuse is committed by fathers or 90% of sexual abuse is committed by fathers or

stepfathersstepfathers About 30% of abused children become parents About 30% of abused children become parents

who abuse their own children, who abuse their own children, compensatory factors that prevent this from compensatory factors that prevent this from

happeninghappening

Child Abuse: Who Child Abuse: Who Abuses Children?Abuses Children?

a child's traits may make them a child's traits may make them more likely to be abused-if difficult more likely to be abused-if difficult to care for to care for

Principle of bidirectionality: a child's Principle of bidirectionality: a child's behaviors influence how his/her behaviors influence how his/her parents respond, and in turn the parents respond, and in turn the parents' behaviors influence how parents' behaviors influence how the child responds. the child responds.

What Problems Do What Problems Do Abused Children Have?Abused Children Have?

Children who suffer abuse may experience:Children who suffer abuse may experience:– physicalphysical– NeurologicalNeurological– psychological problems psychological problems

Problems continue in teenage years and can take Problems continue in teenage years and can take form of depression, delinquent behaviors. form of depression, delinquent behaviors.

Can have long-lasting negative effects on a Can have long-lasting negative effects on a child's brain development and neural child's brain development and neural functioningfunctioning

How Are Abusive Parents How Are Abusive Parents Helped?Helped?

Programs with combination of cognitive-behavior Programs with combination of cognitive-behavior therapy& parent-training programs have proven therapy& parent-training programs have proven successful in decreasing child abuse. These programs successful in decreasing child abuse. These programs have two goals:have two goals:

1. Help parents overcome their personal problems 1. Help parents overcome their personal problems Some may need long-term professional therapy Some may need long-term professional therapy 2. Changing parent-child interactions by 2. Changing parent-child interactions by -use behavior modification techniques to teach parents -use behavior modification techniques to teach parents

more positive ways of interacting with their childrenmore positive ways of interacting with their children Current issue: Neglect, physical abuse & sexual abuse Current issue: Neglect, physical abuse & sexual abuse

are serious social problems that deserve more attention are serious social problems that deserve more attention & treatment than they currently receive. & treatment than they currently receive.

Newborns’ AbilitiesNewborns’ Abilities

Brain growth: after birth, the genetic program Brain growth: after birth, the genetic program regulates how the brain develops --making regulates how the brain develops --making connections between neurons; neural connections between neurons; neural connections cause baby’s brain to increase connections cause baby’s brain to increase from 340 grams at birth to 900 grams at 2 from 340 grams at birth to 900 grams at 2 years oldyears old

Newborns’ Abilities Newborns’ Abilities

Sensory growth:Sensory growth:– Faces: show a preference for Faces: show a preference for

mother’s face; first learn to recognize mother’s face; first learn to recognize a person’s eyesa person’s eyes

By 3 to 6 months, can visually distinguish By 3 to 6 months, can visually distinguish his or her mother’s face from a stranger’s his or her mother’s face from a stranger’s or animal’s or animal’s

By 3 to 4 years of age, infant’s visual By 3 to 4 years of age, infant’s visual abilities equal to those of an adultabilities equal to those of an adult

Newborns’ Abilities cont.Newborns’ Abilities cont.

HearingHearing: one-month-old infants have keen hearing and : one-month-old infants have keen hearing and can discriminate small sound variationscan discriminate small sound variations– By 6 months, infants can make all sounds necessary By 6 months, infants can make all sounds necessary

to learn the language in which they are raised to learn the language in which they are raised TouchTouch: have well-developed sense of touch; touch will : have well-developed sense of touch; touch will

elicit a number of reflexeselicit a number of reflexesSmell & tasteSmell & taste

-1-day- old infants could discriminate between a -1-day- old infants could discriminate between a citrus & floral odor citrus & floral odor -six-week-old infants can smell the difference -six-week-old infants can smell the difference between their mother & a stranger between their mother & a stranger

-inborn preference for sweet & salt & dislike of bitter--inborn preference for sweet & salt & dislike of bitter-tasting thingstasting things

Newborns’ Abilities cont.Newborns’ Abilities cont.

Depth perceptionDepth perception– Developed by 6 monthsDeveloped by 6 months– Tested by Tested by visual visual cliff, table with uses cliff, table with uses

a checkerboard pattern that creates a checkerboard pattern that creates the illusion of a clifflike drop to the the illusion of a clifflike drop to the floor floor

– Environmental stimulation helps Environmental stimulation helps develop these abilities develop these abilities

Motor DevelopmentMotor Development

Motor development: stages of motor skills Motor development: stages of motor skills that all infants pass through as they that all infants pass through as they acquire the muscular control necessary acquire the muscular control necessary for making coordinated movementsfor making coordinated movements

Follows two principles:Follows two principles:– ProximodistalProximodistal-parts -parts closer to the centercloser to the center of the of the

infant’s body develop before parts farther infant’s body develop before parts farther away away

– CephalocaudalCephalocaudal-parts of the body closer to the -parts of the body closer to the head develop before parts closer to the feet. head develop before parts closer to the feet.

– These are part of maturationThese are part of maturation

Motor DevelopmentMotor Development

Developmental norms: the average age Developmental norms: the average age at which children perform various kinds at which children perform various kinds of skills or exhibit abilities or behaviors of skills or exhibit abilities or behaviors

- Infants develop skills & abilities at Infants develop skills & abilities at different times because neural different times because neural connections develop at different rates. connections develop at different rates.

- Nature & nurture interact to encourage Nature & nurture interact to encourage or discourage development or discourage development

Emotional DevelopmentEmotional Development

Emotional development: emotional Emotional development: emotional behaviors, expressions, thoughts, behaviors, expressions, thoughts, and feelingsand feelings

Temperament: relatively stable Temperament: relatively stable and long-lasting individuals and long-lasting individuals differences in mood & emotional differences in mood & emotional behaviorbehavior

Emotional DevelopmentEmotional Development

Categories of temperament:Categories of temperament:– 1. easy: happy & cheerful, regular sleeping 1. easy: happy & cheerful, regular sleeping

habits, adapt quickly to new situations habits, adapt quickly to new situations – 2. Slow-to-warm-up: more withdrawn, moody 2. Slow-to-warm-up: more withdrawn, moody

& take longer to adapt to new situations & take longer to adapt to new situations – 3. difficult: fussy, fearful of new situations, 3. difficult: fussy, fearful of new situations,

more intense reactionsmore intense reactionsGenetic influence: develop distinct Genetic influence: develop distinct

temperaments in first 2-3 months of life; due temperaments in first 2-3 months of life; due to genetic factors to genetic factors

Environmental influence: family influence, Environmental influence: family influence, educational opportunities, poverty level can educational opportunities, poverty level can affect affect

Emotional Development Emotional Development cont.cont.

Jerome KaganJerome Kagan: conducted longitudinal research : conducted longitudinal research which changed the way we think about children’s which changed the way we think about children’s temperaments. temperaments.

LongitudinalLongitudinal: pros & cons: pros & cons+ must wait for participants to grow older or may + must wait for participants to grow older or may

drop out of studydrop out of study-researchers can track & analyze development in new -researchers can track & analyze development in new

environmental conditions environmental conditions Cross-sectional methodCross-sectional method: pros & cons:: pros & cons:+ can compare any developmental differences across + can compare any developmental differences across

many age groups at the the same time; lower drop many age groups at the the same time; lower drop out rateout rate

-participants & conditions are different, allows for -participants & conditions are different, allows for more error & bias in interpreting results more error & bias in interpreting results

Emotional Development Emotional Development cont. cont.

ResearchResearch– Kagan used longitudinal methodKagan used longitudinal method– Started studying temperaments of 4-month-Started studying temperaments of 4-month-

old infantsold infants– Retested at different ages, until reached 20sRetested at different ages, until reached 20s– Findings indicated two categories: fearless Findings indicated two categories: fearless

or fearful/inhibited or fearful/inhibited – Inhibited/fearful children show avoidance, Inhibited/fearful children show avoidance,

anxiety, or fear, when in strange or novel anxiety, or fear, when in strange or novel environment; also showed increased environment; also showed increased physiological arousal & brain activity or physiological arousal & brain activity or amygdala to strange/novel situations amygdala to strange/novel situations


Study findings: Study findings: -23% inhibited (fearful) -23% inhibited (fearful) -37% uninhibited (fearless)-37% uninhibited (fearless)

-two groups did not differ in IQ scores, -two groups did not differ in IQ scores, intellectual abilities, language, memory, or intellectual abilities, language, memory, or reasoning abilities reasoning abilities

-Having a fearful temperament at infancy puts a -Having a fearful temperament at infancy puts a person at risk for becoming a fearful child, but person at risk for becoming a fearful child, but some become less fearful (but never fearless)some become less fearful (but never fearless)

-Infant born with overactive amygdala at risk for -Infant born with overactive amygdala at risk for having a fearful temperament & developing having a fearful temperament & developing into a fearful or shy person into a fearful or shy person

-Help fearful children by being caring & -Help fearful children by being caring & supportive & help deal with stressorssupportive & help deal with stressors


Attachment: close, fundamental Attachment: close, fundamental emotional bond that develops emotional bond that develops between the infant & his/her between the infant & his/her parents/caregiver. parents/caregiver.

Psychologist John Bowlby believed Psychologist John Bowlby believed attachment has adaptive value--attachment has adaptive value--parents provide care & protection. parents provide care & protection.

Mary Ainsworth initiated much of Mary Ainsworth initiated much of research on attachment research on attachment


AttachmentAttachmentSeparation anxietySeparation anxiety: infant’s distress whenever the infant’s : infant’s distress whenever the infant’s

parents temporarily leave; shows infant has become parents temporarily leave; shows infant has become attached. attached.

Ainsworth’s research helped identify the quality of Ainsworth’s research helped identify the quality of attachment; determined 4 types; attachment; determined 4 types;

Two of the types:Two of the types: Secure attachmentSecure attachment: infants who use their parents as a safe : infants who use their parents as a safe

home base from which they can wander off & explore their home base from which they can wander off & explore their environments environments

Insecure attachmentInsecure attachment: infants who avoid or show : infants who avoid or show ambivalence toward their parent or caregiver ambivalence toward their parent or caregiver

-Mother’s sensitivity, caring & responsiveness to infant’s -Mother’s sensitivity, caring & responsiveness to infant’s needs affects attachmentneeds affects attachment

-not affected by whether or how long a child was in day care-not affected by whether or how long a child was in day care-some research says: attachment formed in infancy is -some research says: attachment formed in infancy is

associated with success of future adult relationships associated with success of future adult relationships

module 17: infancy & childhood

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