module 14. “life cycle assessment (lca)” 4 steps of lca ... · pdf file“life...

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MODULE 14. MODULE 14. ““Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)””4 steps of LCA, approaches, software, databases, 4 steps of LCA, approaches, software, databases, subjectivity, sensitivity analysis, application to a subjectivity, sensitivity analysis, application to a classic example. classic example.

Module 14 – Life Cycle Assessment 22

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What is the structure of this module?What is the structure of this module?

Module 14 is intended to convey the basic aspects of Life Cycle Module 14 is intended to convey the basic aspects of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methods and tools, using a case study approach.Assessment (LCA) methods and tools, using a case study approach.

This module is divided into 3 This module is divided into 3 ““tierstiers””, each with a specific goal:, each with a specific goal:Tier I: Basic Concepts.Tier I: Basic Concepts.Tier II: Tier II: How to use computer tools.How to use computer tools.Tier III: Tier III: How to Apply the Tool in a real world context.How to Apply the Tool in a real world context.

These tiers are intended to be completed in that particular ordeThese tiers are intended to be completed in that particular order. r. Students are quizzed at various points to measure their degree oStudents are quizzed at various points to measure their degree of f understanding, before proceeding to the next level.understanding, before proceeding to the next level.

Structure of Module 14Structure of Module 14


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Tier IBackground Information


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What is the purpose of this tier?What is the purpose of this tier?

Background Information.Background Information. It will provide a general overview of life It will provide a general overview of life

cycle assessment (LCA) and its potential applicationscycle assessment (LCA) and its potential applications

Purpose of Module 14Purpose of Module 14


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GaudreaultGaudreault, C., Samson, R., Stuart, P. (2004). , C., Samson, R., Stuart, P. (2004). ““Survey of LCA Applications and Survey of LCA Applications and Methodologies in the Pulp and Paper IndustryMethodologies in the Pulp and Paper Industry””. Paper submitted to TAPPI Journal.. Paper submitted to TAPPI Journal.

GoedkoopGoedkoop andand OeleOele. 2002. . 2002. ””User Manual Introduction into LLCA methodology and User Manual Introduction into LLCA methodology and practice with practice with SimaProSimaPro 5.15.1““..

International Organization for Standardization.2000.International Organization for Standardization.2000.““Environmental Management Environmental Management –– Life Life Cycle Assessment Cycle Assessment –– Principles and FrameworkPrinciples and Framework””. Geneva, Switzerland. Notes: ISO 14040. Geneva, Switzerland. Notes: ISO 14040

International Organization for Standardization.2000 International Organization for Standardization.2000 ““Environmental Management Environmental Management –– Life Life Cycle Assessment Cycle Assessment –– Goal and Scope Definition and Inventory AnalysisGoal and Scope Definition and Inventory Analysis””. Geneva, . Geneva, Switzerland. Notes: ISO 14041Switzerland. Notes: ISO 14041

International Organization for Standardization.2000.International Organization for Standardization.2000.““Environmental Management Environmental Management –– Life Life Cycle Assessment Cycle Assessment –– Life Cycle Impact AssessmentLife Cycle Impact Assessment””. Geneva, Switzerland. Notes: ISO . Geneva, Switzerland. Notes: ISO 1404214042

International Organization for Standardization.2000.International Organization for Standardization.2000.““Environmental Management Environmental Management –– Life Life Cycle Assessment Cycle Assessment –– Life Cycle InterpretationLife Cycle Interpretation””. Geneva, Switzerland. Notes: ISO 14043. Geneva, Switzerland. Notes: ISO 14043

ReferencesReferences


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International Organization for Standardization.2000.International Organization for Standardization.2000.““Environmental Management Environmental Management –– Life Cycle Assessment Life Cycle Assessment –– Life Cycle InterpretationLife Cycle Interpretation””. Geneva, Switzerland. Notes: . Geneva, Switzerland. Notes: ISO 14043ISO 14043

Lopes, Dias, Lopes, Dias, ArrojaArroja, , CapelaCapela and Pereira, 2003 and Pereira, 2003 ““Application of life cycle Application of life cycle assessment to the Portuguese pulp and paper industryassessment to the Portuguese pulp and paper industry””. Journal of Cleaner . Journal of Cleaner Production.Production.

Pollution Prevention Pollution Prevention –– A Federal Strategy for Action, 1995A Federal Strategy for Action, 1995

Svoboda S. (1995). Svoboda S. (1995). ““Note of Life Cycle AnalysisNote of Life Cycle Analysis””. National Pollution Prevention . National Pollution Prevention Center for Higher Education.Center for Higher Education.

Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), www.setac.orgwww.setac.org

United Nations Environment United Nations Environment ProgrammeProgramme (UNEP),(UNEP), http://http://www.unep.orgwww.unep.org

ReferencesReferences


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1.1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).(LCA).

2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology.Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology.

3.3. Survey of life cycle applications in the pulp and paper Survey of life cycle applications in the pulp and paper industry.industry.

4.4. Proposal of Proposal of ““life cycle thinkinglife cycle thinking”” concept: using LCA as a tool concept: using LCA as a tool for practical applications in the operation of a facility.for practical applications in the operation of a facility.

5.5. Multiple choice questions.Multiple choice questions.

Tier I: OutlineTier I: Outline


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1.1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).1.1. The origin1.1. The origin



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1.1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).Assessment (LCA).

1.1. The origin1.1. The origin

LCA has its roots in the 1960LCA has its roots in the 1960’’s, when scientists concerned about the rapid depletion of s, when scientists concerned about the rapid depletion of fossil fuels developed it as an approach to understanding the imfossil fuels developed it as an approach to understanding the impacts of energy pacts of energy consumption.consumption.In the early 1970In the early 1970’’s, s, LCALCA’’ss concentrated mainly on energy and raw materials but later concentrated mainly on energy and raw materials but later air emissions, water emissions and solid waste were included in air emissions, water emissions and solid waste were included in the calculation.the calculation.


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In the late 1970In the late 1970’’s and early 1980s and early 1980’’s, the environmental concern shifted to issues of s, the environmental concern shifted to issues of hazardous waste management.hazardous waste management.The SETAC conference of 1990 in Vermont was the first to analyzeThe SETAC conference of 1990 in Vermont was the first to analyze LCALCA’’ss into three into three main stages. These stages are:main stages. These stages are:

Inventory Inventory –– In which the data describing the system are collected and conveIn which the data describing the system are collected and converted to a rted to a standard format to provide a description of the physical charactstandard format to provide a description of the physical characteristics of the system of eristics of the system of interest.interest.InterpretationInterpretation –– In which the physical In which the physical datasdatas from the inventory are related to from the inventory are related to observable environmental problems.observable environmental problems.Improvement Improvement –– In which the system is modified in some way to reduce or amelioIn which the system is modified in some way to reduce or ameliorate rate the observed environmental impacts.the observed environmental impacts.

Inventory

Interpretation Improvement



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1.1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).1.1. The origin1.1. The origin1.2. Introduction1.2. Introduction



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1.2. 1.2. IntroductionIntroduction

A fundamental part in the application of the LCA is that a compaA fundamental part in the application of the LCA is that a company that makes and ny that makes and uses a LCA uses a LCA --in the long runin the long run-- is going to the same demand to its suppliers and clients is going to the same demand to its suppliers and clients within the commercial chain.within the commercial chain.

Generally using a LCA causes a rain of ideas that can help to sGenerally using a LCA causes a rain of ideas that can help to seeeethe problem from an extensive point of view. The LCA is a tool the problem from an extensive point of view. The LCA is a tool ofofsupport for the decision making.support for the decision making.

For what kind of applications do we use the LCAFor what kind of applications do we use the LCA ??

The potential applications of LCA include (ISO 1997):The potential applications of LCA include (ISO 1997):

Identification of improvement opportunities for environmental Identification of improvement opportunities for environmental aspects.aspects.As a decision making tool in strategic planning, priorities As a decision making tool in strategic planning, priorities definition and product or process design.definition and product or process design.Selection and evaluation of relevant environmental performance Selection and evaluation of relevant environmental performance indicators. indicators. Marketing Marketing programs.programs.

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1.1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).1.1. The origin1.1. The origin1.2. Introduction1.2. Introduction1.3. Definition1.3. Definition



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1.3. 1.3. DefinitionDefinition

Life Cycle :Life Cycle :

Consecutive and interlinked stages of a product or a service sysConsecutive and interlinked stages of a product or a service system, from the tem, from the

extraction of natural resources to the final disposal.extraction of natural resources to the final disposal.

In this module,In this module, LCALCA is utilised asis utilised as a quantitative process used to evaluate the associate a quantitative process used to evaluate the associate

environmental loads to a product, a process or an activity identenvironmental loads to a product, a process or an activity identifying the use of mass ifying the use of mass

and energy and the discharges to the surroundings; in order to dand energy and the discharges to the surroundings; in order to determine it potential etermine it potential

impactimpact..

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The study takes into account the stages of extraction and procesThe study takes into account the stages of extraction and processing of raw materials; sing of raw materials;

production, transportation and distribution of raw materials production, transportation and distribution of raw materials andand products; use, products; use,

reusability reusability andand/or/or recyclingrecycling as well as theas well as the disposition of the remainder.disposition of the remainder.

Energy Resource

Emissions

Extraction&

Processing

Production

Transport&

Distribution

Use, reusability&

maintenance

Recycled & Disposal of the remainder

Energy Resource

Emissions

Extraction&

Processing

Production

Transport&

Distribution

Use, reusability&

maintenance

Recycled & Disposal of the remainder

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The ISO 14040 standard defines LCA as The ISO 14040 standard defines LCA as aa compilation and evaluation of the inputs and compilation and evaluation of the inputs and

outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a product system product system through its life through its life

cyclecycle. The Life. The Life--Cycle Assessment framework as laid down in this standard is showCycle Assessment framework as laid down in this standard is shown n

below:below:

Goal and scopeDefinition(ISO 14041)

InventoryAnalysis

(ISO 14041)

ImpactAssessment(ISO 14042)

Interpretation(ISO 14043)

Direct application:• Product development

and improvement• Strategic planning• Public policy making• Marketing

Principles and Framework (ISO 14040)

Other tools:TechniquesEconomicSocial

(Based on ISO 14040)


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The base of LCA consists of making a mass and energy balances ofThe base of LCA consists of making a mass and energy balances of the studied the studied

system. In this way the inputs and outputs are identified, and lsystem. In this way the inputs and outputs are identified, and later the potential ater the potential

environmental impacts environmental impacts are evaluated.are evaluated.

A A cradlecradle--toto--gravegrave manner involves all the steps in the product production: from rmanner involves all the steps in the product production: from raw aw

material extraction and transport to production and consumption,material extraction and transport to production and consumption, until the reuntil the re--use or use or

the disposal.the disposal.

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Life Cycle Analysis must be used cautiously, and in the interpreLife Cycle Analysis must be used cautiously, and in the interpretation of the impact tation of the impact

assessment, care must be taken with subjective judgments.assessment, care must be taken with subjective judgments.

When first conceived, it was predicted that LCA would enable defWhen first conceived, it was predicted that LCA would enable definitive judgments to initive judgments to

be made. That misplaced belief has now been discredited.be made. That misplaced belief has now been discredited.

In combination with the trend towards more open disclosure of In combination with the trend towards more open disclosure of

environmental information by companies and the desire by environmental information by companies and the desire by

consumers to be guided towards the least harmful purchases, consumers to be guided towards the least harmful purchases,

LCA appears to be a vital tool.LCA appears to be a vital tool.


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1.1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).1.1. The origin1.1. The origin1.2. Introduction1.2. Introduction1.3. Definition1.3. Definition1.4. The ISO 14040 family 1.4. The ISO 14040 family



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ISO 14040 : Environmental Management ISO 14040 : Environmental Management -- LCA LCA –– Principles and FrameworkPrinciples and Framework

ISO 14041 : Environmental Management ISO 14041 : Environmental Management -- LCALCA–– Goal and Scope Definition & Goal and Scope Definition & Inventory AnalysisInventory Analysis

ISO 14042 : Environmental Management ISO 14042 : Environmental Management -- LCALCA–– Life Cycle Impact AssessmentLife Cycle Impact Assessment

ISO 14043 : Environmental Management ISO 14043 : Environmental Management -- LCALCA–– Life Cycle InterpretationLife Cycle Interpretation

ISO 14047 : Illustrative Examples on how to apply ISO 14042 ISO 14047 : Illustrative Examples on how to apply ISO 14042 -- Life Cycle Life Cycle Assessment Assessment –– Life Cycle Impact AssessmentLife Cycle Impact Assessment

ISO 14048 : Environmental Management ISO 14048 : Environmental Management -- LCALCA–– Data Documentation FormatData Documentation Format

ISO 14049 : Environmental Management ISO 14049 : Environmental Management -- LCALCA–– Examples of Application of ISO Examples of Application of ISO 14041 to Goal and Scope Definition and Inventory Analysis14041 to Goal and Scope Definition and Inventory Analysis


1.4. 1.4. The ISO 14040 FamilyThe ISO 14040 Family


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ISO 14040 : ISO 14040 : Environmental Management Environmental Management -- Life Cycle Assessment Life Cycle Assessment ––Principles and FrameworkPrinciples and Framework

This international standard specifies the general framework, This international standard specifies the general framework, principles and requirements for conducting and reporting life principles and requirements for conducting and reporting life cycle assessment studies. This international standard does cycle assessment studies. This international standard does not describe the life cycle assessment technique in details.not describe the life cycle assessment technique in details.

In this definition, it is clear that impact assessment is an In this definition, it is clear that impact assessment is an integral part of LCA. ISO 14040 is an excellent integral part of LCA. ISO 14040 is an excellent compromise compromise between what makes up a Life Cycle Assessment and that between what makes up a Life Cycle Assessment and that what is to be achieved at all.what is to be achieved at all.


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ISO 14041 : ISO 14041 : Environmental Management Environmental Management -- Life Cycle Assessment Life Cycle Assessment ––Goal and Scope Definition & Inventory AnalysisGoal and Scope Definition & Inventory Analysis

This international standard in addition to ISO 14040 specifies This international standard in addition to ISO 14040 specifies the requirements and procedures necessary for the the requirements and procedures necessary for the compilation and preparation of the definition of the goal and compilation and preparation of the definition of the goal and scope of a Life Cycle Assessment study and for performing, scope of a Life Cycle Assessment study and for performing, interpreting and reporting a Life Cycle Inventory analysis interpreting and reporting a Life Cycle Inventory analysis (LCI). (LCI).

This international standard does not describe the life cycle This international standard does not describe the life cycle assessment technique in detail.assessment technique in detail.


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ISO 14042 : ISO 14042 : Environmental Management Environmental Management -- Life Cycle Assessment Life Cycle Assessment ––Life Cycle Impact AssessmentLife Cycle Impact Assessment

ISO 14042 describes and gives guidance on a general ISO 14042 describes and gives guidance on a general framework for the Life Cycle Impact Assessment phase framework for the Life Cycle Impact Assessment phase (LCIA) of LCA as well as its key features and inherent (LCIA) of LCA as well as its key features and inherent limitations. It specifies requirements for conducting LCIA and limitations. It specifies requirements for conducting LCIA and its relationship to other LCA phases. its relationship to other LCA phases.

The standard is supported with a technical report illustrating The standard is supported with a technical report illustrating examples on how to apply ISO 14042. In the ISO 14042 examples on how to apply ISO 14042. In the ISO 14042 document a large range of issues are mentioned that need document a large range of issues are mentioned that need to be decided and described. to be decided and described.


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ISO 14043 : ISO 14043 : Environmental Management Environmental Management -- Life Cycle Assessment Life Cycle Assessment ––Life Cycle InterpretationLife Cycle Interpretation

This international standard provides requirements and This international standard provides requirements and recommendations for conducting the life cycle interpretation recommendations for conducting the life cycle interpretation phase in LCA or LCI studies. This document is intended to phase in LCA or LCI studies. This document is intended to provide guidance on the interpretation of LCA results in provide guidance on the interpretation of LCA results in relation to the goal definition phase of the LCA study, relation to the goal definition phase of the LCA study, involving review of the scope of the LCA.involving review of the scope of the LCA.

This international standard does not describe specific This international standard does not describe specific methodologies for the life cycle interpretation phase of LCA methodologies for the life cycle interpretation phase of LCA and LCI studies. This standard is short, clear and and LCI studies. This standard is short, clear and illustrated. The aim of the working group was to illustrated. The aim of the working group was to demonstrate that the LCA interpretation can be done demonstrate that the LCA interpretation can be done simply, by referring essentially to common sense.simply, by referring essentially to common sense.


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ISO/DTR 14047: ISO/DTR 14047: Illustrative Examples on how to apply ISO Illustrative Examples on how to apply ISO 14042 14042 -- Life Cycle Assessment Life Cycle Assessment –– Life Cycle Impact AssessmentLife Cycle Impact Assessment

The purpose of this Technical Report is to provide examples The purpose of this Technical Report is to provide examples to illustrate practice in carrying out a life cycle impact to illustrate practice in carrying out a life cycle impact assessment according to ISO 14042. These examples are assessment according to ISO 14042. These examples are only a sample of the total possible examples that could only a sample of the total possible examples that could satisfy the provisions of the standard. They should be read satisfy the provisions of the standard. They should be read as offering as offering ““a waya way”” or or ““waysways”” rather than the rather than the ““unique wayunique way””of applying the standard. They reflect the key elements of of applying the standard. They reflect the key elements of the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) phase of the LCA. It the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) phase of the LCA. It should be noted that the examples presented in this should be noted that the examples presented in this technical report are not exclusive and that other examples technical report are not exclusive and that other examples exist to illustrate the methodological issues described.exist to illustrate the methodological issues described.


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ISO/DTR 14048: ISO/DTR 14048: Environmental Management Environmental Management -- Life Cycle Life Cycle Assessment Assessment –– Data Documentation FormatData Documentation Format

This technical specification is applicable to the specification This technical specification is applicable to the specification and and structuring of questionnaire forms and information system. structuring of questionnaire forms and information system. However, it can also be applied to other aspects of the However, it can also be applied to other aspects of the management of the environmental data.management of the environmental data.The technical specification does not include requirements on The technical specification does not include requirements on completeness of data documentation. The data documentation completeness of data documentation. The data documentation format in independent of any software of database platform for format in independent of any software of database platform for implementation.implementation.The technical specification does not require any specific The technical specification does not require any specific sequential, graphic or procedural solutions for the presentationsequential, graphic or procedural solutions for the presentationor treatment of or treatment of datasdatas, nor does it describe specific modeling , nor does it describe specific modeling methodologies for LCA and LCI data.methodologies for LCA and LCI data.


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ISO/DTR 14049: ISO/DTR 14049: Environmental Management Environmental Management -- Life Cycle Life Cycle Assessment Assessment –– Examples of Application of ISO 14041 to Goal and Examples of Application of ISO 14041 to Goal and Scope Definition and Inventory AnalysisScope Definition and Inventory Analysis

This technical report provides examples about practices in This technical report provides examples about practices in carrying out a Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCI) as means carrying out a Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCI) as means of satisfying certain provisions of the standard. They should of satisfying certain provisions of the standard. They should be read as offering a way or ways rather than the unique be read as offering a way or ways rather than the unique way of applying the standard. Also they reflect only certain way of applying the standard. Also they reflect only certain portions of an LCI study.portions of an LCI study.It should be noted that the examples presented in this It should be noted that the examples presented in this technical Report are not exclusive and that many other technical Report are not exclusive and that many other examples exist illustrating the methodological issues examples exist illustrating the methodological issues described. The examples are only portions of complete LCI described. The examples are only portions of complete LCI studies.studies.


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1.1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology.Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology.

2.1. Methodology2.1. Methodology



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2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodologyOverview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology

2.1. 2.1. MethodologyMethodology

The The ISO 14040ISO 14040 general framework of an general framework of an LCALCA study consists of four steps:study consists of four steps:

1.1. Defining the Defining the goal and scopegoal and scope of the study.of the study.

2.2. Making a model of the product life cycle with all the environmenMaking a model of the product life cycle with all the environmental inflows tal inflows

and outflows. This is usually referred to as the and outflows. This is usually referred to as the life cycle inventorylife cycle inventory (LCI) (LCI)

stages.stages.

3.3. Understanding the environmental relevance of all the inflows andUnderstanding the environmental relevance of all the inflows and outflows, outflows,

this is referred to as the this is referred to as the life cyclelife cycle impact assessmentimpact assessment (LCIA) phase.(LCIA) phase.

4.4. The The interpretationinterpretation of the study.of the study.


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Goal and scopeDefinition(ISO 14041)

InventoryAnalysis

(ISO 14041)

ImpactAssessment(ISO 14042)

LifeCycle

Interpretation(ISO 14043)

Direct application:• Product development

and improvement• Strategic planning• Public policy making• Marketing• Other

Principles and Framework (ISO 14040)

Other tools:TechniquesEconomicSocial


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The challenge for the LCA practitioner is to develop the models The challenge for the LCA practitioner is to develop the models in such a way that the in such a way that the

simplifications and thus uncertainties do not influence the resusimplifications and thus uncertainties do not influence the results too much.lts too much.

The best way to deal with this problem is to carefully define a The best way to deal with this problem is to carefully define a goal and scope of the LCA goal and scope of the LCA

study before starting.study before starting.

The goal and scope definition is a guide that helps you to ensurThe goal and scope definition is a guide that helps you to ensure the consistency of the e the consistency of the

LCA you perform.LCA you perform.

Example :Example :

LCA methodology was applied to Portuguese production of printingLCA methodology was applied to Portuguese production of printing and writing paper in and writing paper in

order to evaluate its environmental performance and also to makeorder to evaluate its environmental performance and also to make a a

comparative, environmental assessment of fuel oil and natural gacomparative, environmental assessment of fuel oil and natural gas,s,

respectively, as energy sources in the manufacturing process. respectively, as energy sources in the manufacturing process.

(Lopes et al. 2003)(Lopes et al. 2003)


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2.1. Methodology2.1. Methodology2.2. Goal and Scope2.2. Goal and Scope



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2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodologyOverview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology2.2. 2.2. Goal and scope Goal and scope

Goal & Scope Definition Goal & Scope Definition (ISO 14041).(ISO 14041). That is to state, the reasons of the study, the That is to state, the reasons of the study, the information that is expected to obtain, how it is going to be usinformation that is expected to obtain, how it is going to be used, the intended audience ed, the intended audience of the report, the analysis of the scope and the limits of the sof the report, the analysis of the scope and the limits of the system.ystem.

1.1. Defining the goal:Defining the goal:

The goal of any study shall unambiguously state the intended appThe goal of any study shall unambiguously state the intended application, the reasons lication, the reasons for carrying out the study and the intended audience, I.e. to whfor carrying out the study and the intended audience, I.e. to whom the results of the om the results of the study are intended to be communicated. study are intended to be communicated. Some LCA studies serve more than one purpose. The results may beSome LCA studies serve more than one purpose. The results may be both used internally both used internally and externally. In that case, consequences of such double use shand externally. In that case, consequences of such double use should be clearly ould be clearly described. described. ((GoedkoopGoedkoop andand OeleOele. 2002). 2002)


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It is obvious that an LCA should have goal. However, in ISO theIt is obvious that an LCA should have goal. However, in ISO there are some particular re are some particular requirements for the goal definition:requirements for the goal definition:

TheThe application and intended audiences shall be described unambiguoapplication and intended audiences shall be described unambiguously. This is usly. This is important, asimportant, as a study that aims to provide data that is applied internally caa study that aims to provide data that is applied internally can be n be quitequitedifferently structured than a study that aims at making public cdifferently structured than a study that aims at making public comparisons omparisons betweenbetween two two products.products.

TheThe reasons for carrying out the study should be clearly described.reasons for carrying out the study should be clearly described. Is the Is the commissionercommissioneroror practitioner trying to prove something, is the practitioner trying to prove something, is the commissioner intending to provide commissioner intending to provide informationinformation only, etc.only, etc.

2.2. Defining the scope:Defining the scope:

The scope of the study describes the most important methodologicThe scope of the study describes the most important methodological choices, al choices, assumptions and limitations. One starts with initial assumptions and limitations. One starts with initial system boundariessystem boundaries and initial and initial data data qualityquality requirements that can be adapted later if more information becomrequirements that can be adapted later if more information becomes available es available or necessary.or necessary.

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The scope of any LCA study should be efficiently well defined toThe scope of any LCA study should be efficiently well defined to ensure that the breadth ensure that the breadth and the inherent details in which the study is conducted are botand the inherent details in which the study is conducted are both compatibles with and h compatibles with and sufficientessufficientes to address the stated study goal. to address the stated study goal. ((GoedkoopGoedkoop andand OeleOele. 2002). 2002)

Factors that should be considered and stated clearly in the ScopFactors that should be considered and stated clearly in the Scope of Study include:e of Study include:

The The function(sfunction(s) of the system to be analyzed) of the system to be analyzedThe functional unit on which the study will be basedThe functional unit on which the study will be basedThe system boundariesThe system boundariesAllocation procedures adoptedAllocation procedures adoptedData quality requirementsData quality requirementsAny assumptions madeAny assumptions madeStudy limitationsStudy limitationsThe type and format of the study reportsThe type and format of the study reports

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Function, Function, functional unitfunctional unit and and reference flowreference flow

A particularly important issue in product comparisons is the funA particularly important issue in product comparisons is the functional unit or ctional unit or comparison basis. In many cases, one cannot simply compare producomparison basis. In many cases, one cannot simply compare product A and B, ct A and B, as they may have different performance characteristics. Definingas they may have different performance characteristics. Defining a functional unit a functional unit can be quite difficult, as the performance of products is not alcan be quite difficult, as the performance of products is not always easy to ways easy to describe. For instance, if the objective of the study is to compdescribe. For instance, if the objective of the study is to compare paper towels are paper towels with hand dryers, the function of these products is to dry handswith hand dryers, the function of these products is to dry hands and the and the functional unit can be defined as x pair of dried hands. functional unit can be defined as x pair of dried hands.

Initial System BoundariesInitial System Boundaries

Product systems tend to be interrelated in a very complex way. IProduct systems tend to be interrelated in a very complex way. It is helpful t is helpful

to draw a diagram of the system and to identify the boundaries ito draw a diagram of the system and to identify the boundaries in this n this

diagram. Important choices in this area are:diagram. Important choices in this area are:

What is the boundary with nature? For example, in What is the boundary with nature? For example, in

an LCA on paper it is important to decide if the growing of aan LCA on paper it is important to decide if the growing of a

tree is included. If it is, one can include the COtree is included. If it is, one can include the CO22 uptake and the uptake and the

land use effect.land use effect.


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Will the production and disposal of capital goods be included? OWill the production and disposal of capital goods be included? One can ne can distinguish three orders:distinguish three orders:

•• First Order : Only the production of materials and transport aFirst Order : Only the production of materials and transport are included.re included.•• Second Order : All processes during the life cycle are includeSecond Order : All processes during the life cycle are included, but the capital d, but the capital

goods are left out.goods are left out.•• Third Order : Now the capital goods are included.Third Order : Now the capital goods are included.

Criteria for inclusion of inputs and outputsCriteria for inclusion of inputs and outputs

Apart from the criteria for system boundaries, one can also use Apart from the criteria for system boundaries, one can also use a certain a certain threshold below which you consider it is useless to collect datathreshold below which you consider it is useless to collect data for an inflow or an for an inflow or an outflow. ISO recommends using one or more of the following basesoutflow. ISO recommends using one or more of the following bases for such a for such a threshold:threshold:

If the mass of the inflow is lower than a certain percentage.If the mass of the inflow is lower than a certain percentage.If the economic value of an inflow is lower than a certain peIf the economic value of an inflow is lower than a certain percentage of the rcentage of the

total value of the product system.total value of the product system.If the contribution from an inflow to the environmental load If the contribution from an inflow to the environmental load is below a certain is below a certain

percentage.percentage.


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Data CategoriesData Categories

It defines the kind of data necessary for the study. They can bIt defines the kind of data necessary for the study. They can be collected at the e collected at the production sites (i.e. primary data) or be obtained or calculateproduction sites (i.e. primary data) or be obtained or calculated from published d from published references or databases (i.e. secondary data). ISO recommends treferences or databases (i.e. secondary data). ISO recommends the use of he use of primary data for those processes that contribute with most of thprimary data for those processes that contribute with most of the mass and e mass and energy flows or processes with significant environmental emissioenergy flows or processes with significant environmental emissions (ISO 1999).ns (ISO 1999).

Data Quality RequirementsData Quality Requirements

The quality of the data used in the life cycle inventory is natuThe quality of the data used in the life cycle inventory is naturally reflected in the rally reflected in the quality of the final LCA. The data quality can be described and quality of the final LCA. The data quality can be described and assessed in assessed in different ways. It is important that the data quality is describdifferent ways. It is important that the data quality is described and assessed in a ed and assessed in a systematic way that allows others to understand and control the systematic way that allows others to understand and control the actual data actual data quality.quality.

Initial data quality requirements shall be established which defInitial data quality requirements shall be established which define that following ine that following parameters: parameters:

TimeTime--related coveragerelated coverage..Geographical coverageGeographical coverage..Technology coverageTechnology coverage..


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In all studies, the following additional data quality indicatorsIn all studies, the following additional data quality indicators shall shall be taken into consideration in a level of detail depending on gobe taken into consideration in a level of detail depending on goal al and scope definition:and scope definition:

PrecisionPrecisionCompletenessCompletenessRepresentativenessRepresentativenessConsistencyConsistencyReproducibilityReproducibility

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


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ISO recommends the following procedure in order to deal with allISO recommends the following procedure in order to deal with allocation issues:ocation issues:Avoid allocation, by splitting the processes in such a way thaAvoid allocation, by splitting the processes in such a way that can be described t can be described

as two separated processes that each has a single output.as two separated processes that each has a single output.Another way to avoid allocation is to extend the system boundaAnother way to avoid allocation is to extend the system boundaries, and by ries, and by

including process is that would be needed to make a similar outpincluding process is that would be needed to make a similar output.ut.If it is not possible to avoid allocation in either way, the IIf it is not possible to avoid allocation in either way, the ISO standard suggest SO standard suggest

allocating the environmental load based on a physical causality,allocating the environmental load based on a physical causality, such as mass or such as mass or energy content of the outputs.energy content of the outputs.

If this procedure cannot be applied, ISO suggests using socioIf this procedure cannot be applied, ISO suggests using socio--economic allocation economic allocation basis, such as the economic value.basis, such as the economic value.Although ISO mentions the socioAlthough ISO mentions the socio--economic basis as a last resource, it is used economic basis as a last resource, it is used very often. The advantage is that economic value is a good way tvery often. The advantage is that economic value is a good way to distinguish o distinguish waste from an output, and it expresses the relative importance owaste from an output, and it expresses the relative importance of an output.f an output.

AllocationAllocation


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2.1. Methodology2.1. Methodology2.2. Goal and Scope2.2. Goal and Scope2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.3. Goal and Scope : Example



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2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodologyOverview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology2.3. 2.3. Goal and scope: ExampleGoal and scope: Example

The purpose of this study is the identification and assessment oThe purpose of this study is the identification and assessment of the f the environmental impacts associated with the production, use and fienvironmental impacts associated with the production, use and final disposal of nal disposal of printing and writing paper produced in Portugal from Eucalyptus printing and writing paper produced in Portugal from Eucalyptus globulusglobulus and and consumed in Portugal. The schema below shows the system consumed in Portugal. The schema below shows the system boudariesboudaries..

Eucalyptus forestEucalyptus forest

Eucalyptus pulpproduction


Paper productionPaper production

Softwood pulpproduction


Softwood forestSoftwood forest

ConsumersConsumers

CompostingComposting

LandfillingLandfilling

RecyclingRecycling

ChemicalProductionChemical

ProductionElectricityProductionElectricityProduction TransportsTransports

Other systemsOther systems Fuel productionFuel production


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In this example, the functional unit was defined as 1 In this example, the functional unit was defined as 1 tonnetonne of white of white printing and writing paper, with a standard weight of 80 g/mprinting and writing paper, with a standard weight of 80 g/m22, , produced from Portuguese Eucalyptus produced from Portuguese Eucalyptus globulusglobulus kraftkraft pulp and pulp and consumed in Portugal.consumed in Portugal.

The impact assessment conducted in this study considers the The impact assessment conducted in this study considers the following impact categories:following impact categories:

Global Warming potential for 100 yearsGlobal Warming potential for 100 yearsAcidificationAcidificationEutrophicationEutrophicationNonNon--renewable resource depletionrenewable resource depletionPhotochemical oxidant formationPhotochemical oxidant formation


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2.1. Methodology2.1. Methodology2.2. Goal and Scope2.2. Goal and Scope2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis



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2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodologyOverview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology2.4. 2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory AnalysisISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis

Phase of Life Cycle Assessment involving the compilation and Phase of Life Cycle Assessment involving the compilation and

quantification of inputs and outputs, for a given product systemquantification of inputs and outputs, for a given product system

throughout its life cycle. (International Organization for throughout its life cycle. (International Organization for

Standardization 1997)Standardization 1997)


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Inventory AnalysisInventory Analysis

Inventory analysis is the stage in which data are collected and Inventory analysis is the stage in which data are collected and where where calculations are performed in order to quantify the relevant incalculations are performed in order to quantify the relevant inputs and outputs puts and outputs of the system as a whole. Typically, inventory data include raw of the system as a whole. Typically, inventory data include raw materials and materials and energy consumption, and the emission of solid, liquid and gaseouenergy consumption, and the emission of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes. s wastes. Inventory data may be provided for full life cycles or for partiInventory data may be provided for full life cycles or for partial life cycles. al life cycles. (Susan Svoboda, 1995)(Susan Svoboda, 1995)

Raw Materials

Energy

Water

Emissions to AirReleases to WaterSolid WasteUsable ProductsOther Environmental Releases

System

InputsInputs OutputsOutputs


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An important step in the inventory is the creation of a An important step in the inventory is the creation of a process flow diagramprocess flow diagram that that will serve as the will serve as the ““blueprintblueprint”” for the data to be collected. Each step in the system for the data to be collected. Each step in the system should be represented in the diagram, including the steps of theshould be represented in the diagram, including the steps of the production of production of ancillary products such as chemicals and packaging. This step isancillary products such as chemicals and packaging. This step is important because it important because it clearly depicts the relative contribution of each subsystem to tclearly depicts the relative contribution of each subsystem to the entire production he entire production system and the final product.system and the final product.The following is a synopsis of the various issues that can be anThe following is a synopsis of the various issues that can be analyzed in an inventory alyzed in an inventory analysis:analysis:

Data CollectionData CollectionRefining System BoundariesRefining System BoundariesCalculationCalculationValidation of DataValidation of DataRelating data to the specific systemRelating data to the specific systemAllocation and RecyclingAllocation and Recycling


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1.1. Data CollectionData Collection

Inventory Analysis involves data collection and calculation procInventory Analysis involves data collection and calculation procedures to quantify edures to quantify relevant inputs and outputs of a product system. These inputs anrelevant inputs and outputs of a product system. These inputs and outputs may d outputs may include the use of resources and releases to air, water and landinclude the use of resources and releases to air, water and land associated with the associated with the system. Interpretation may be draw from these data, depending onsystem. Interpretation may be draw from these data, depending on the goals and the goals and scope of the LCA. These data also constitute the input to the liscope of the LCA. These data also constitute the input to the life cycle impact fe cycle impact assessment.assessment.

The qualitative and quantitative data for inclusion in the invenThe qualitative and quantitative data for inclusion in the inventory shall be collected tory shall be collected for each for each unit process unit process that is included within the system boundaries. The procedures that is included within the system boundaries. The procedures used for data collection may vary depending on the scope, unit pused for data collection may vary depending on the scope, unit process or intended rocess or intended application of the study.application of the study.

The technical specification provides comprehensive formats for dThe technical specification provides comprehensive formats for data collection and ata collection and treatment and the following concept can be used,treatment and the following concept can be used,

Description of the process as well as description of inputs andDescription of the process as well as description of inputs and outputs.outputs.Description of modeling and validationDescription of modeling and validationDescription of administrative informationDescription of administrative information


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2.2. Refining System BoundariesRefining System Boundaries

The system boundaries are defined as a part of the scope definitThe system boundaries are defined as a part of the scope definition procedure. After ion procedure. After the initial data collection, the system boundaries can be refinethe initial data collection, the system boundaries can be refined e.g. as a result of d e.g. as a result of decisions of exclusion life stages or subdecisions of exclusion life stages or sub--systems, exclusion of material flows or systems, exclusion of material flows or inclusion of new unit processes shown to be significant accordininclusion of new unit processes shown to be significant according to the sensitivity g to the sensitivity analysis. The following is a synopsis of the various subsystems analysis. The following is a synopsis of the various subsystems that can be analyzed that can be analyzed in an inventory analysis:in an inventory analysis:

Raw Materials

Energy

Water

Emissions to Air

Releases to Water

Solid Waste

Usable Products

Other Environmental Releases

Raw Material Acquisition

Material Manufacture

Final Product Assembly

Transportation/Distribution

Consumer Use and Disposal

InputsInputs OutputsOutputs

System Boundary


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Raw Materials Acquisition. Raw Materials Acquisition.

Data are collected for this subsystems an all activities requireData are collected for this subsystems an all activities required to obtain raw d to obtain raw materials, including transportation of the materials to the poinmaterials, including transportation of the materials to the point of manufacture. t of manufacture. The inventory should also include all inputs of energy, materialThe inventory should also include all inputs of energy, materials, and equipment s, and equipment necessary for acquiring each raw material. Because this dramaticnecessary for acquiring each raw material. Because this dramatically increases ally increases the complexity of the analysis, criteria must be determined to ethe complexity of the analysis, criteria must be determined to eliminate liminate insignificant contributions (usually any component contributing insignificant contributions (usually any component contributing less than five less than five percent of inputs might be ignored).percent of inputs might be ignored).

EnergyMaterials

Infrastructure and Capital Equipment

Exploration and ExtractionCultivation, Harvest, and Replenishment

Handling and Transportation

Inputs

Inputs

Outputs

Outputs


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Product System. Product System.

Data collected for this subsystem includes all energy, material,Data collected for this subsystem includes all energy, material, or water inputs or water inputs and environmental releases that occur during the manufacturing pand environmental releases that occur during the manufacturing processes rocesses required to convert each raw materials input into intermediate mrequired to convert each raw materials input into intermediate materials ready aterials ready for fabrication. If industrial scrap is used in another subsystefor fabrication. If industrial scrap is used in another subsystem, it is considered m, it is considered to the same consumption and emission rates required to produce tto the same consumption and emission rates required to produce that primary hat primary material.material.

FuelProducingIndustries

ProductionOf Ancillary

Materials

Main Productions SystemRaw

MaterialsAcquisition

Emissions to AirReleases to WaterSolid WasteUsable ProductCo-Products


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Transportation/Distribution. Transportation/Distribution.

An inventory of the related transportation activities of the prAn inventory of the related transportation activities of the product to oduct to warehouses and endwarehouses and end--users maybe simplified by using standards for the users maybe simplified by using standards for the average distance transported and the typical mode of transportataverage distance transported and the typical mode of transportation used. As ion used. As in previous stages, clear boundaries must be established to defiin previous stages, clear boundaries must be established to define the extent ne the extent to which issues such as building and maintaining transportationto which issues such as building and maintaining transportation and and distribution equipment will be included into the inventory resuldistribution equipment will be included into the inventory results.ts.


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Consumer Use/Disposal. Consumer Use/Disposal.

Data collected for this subsystem cover consumer activities inclData collected for this subsystem cover consumer activities including use uding use (product consumption, storage, preparation, or operation), maint(product consumption, storage, preparation, or operation), maintenance (repair) enance (repair) and reuse. Issues to consider when defining the scope of the suband reuse. Issues to consider when defining the scope of the subsystem system include:include:

Time of product use before it is discardedTime of product use before it is discardedInputs used in the maintenance processInputs used in the maintenance processThe typical frequency of repair The typical frequency of repair Potential product reuse and recycling optionsPotential product reuse and recycling options

Transportation/Distribution

PointOf Use

Use

Maintenance

Re-Use

Disposal

Recycle

WasteManagement


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3.3. Calculation proceduresCalculation procedures

No formal demands exist for calculation in life cycle assessmentNo formal demands exist for calculation in life cycle assessment except the described except the described demands for allocation procedures. Due to the amount of data it demands for allocation procedures. Due to the amount of data it is recommended as is recommended as a minimum to develop a spreadsheet for the specific purpose. A na minimum to develop a spreadsheet for the specific purpose. A number of general umber of general PCPC--programs/software for calculation are available e.g. spreadsheetprograms/software for calculation are available e.g. spreadsheets/spreadsheet s/spreadsheet applications (EXCEL/Lotus etc), together with many software progapplications (EXCEL/Lotus etc), together with many software programs developed rams developed specially for life cycle assessment. The appropriate program canspecially for life cycle assessment. The appropriate program can be chosen depending be chosen depending on the kind and amount of data to be handled.on the kind and amount of data to be handled.

4.4. Validation of DataValidation of Data

The validation of data has to be conducted during the data colleThe validation of data has to be conducted during the data collection process in order ction process in order to improve the overall data quality. Systematic data validation to improve the overall data quality. Systematic data validation may point out areas may point out areas where data quality must be improved or data must be found in simwhere data quality must be improved or data must be found in similar ilar processes or processes or unit processes.unit processes.For each data category and for each reporting location where misFor each data category and for each reporting location where missing data are sing data are identified, the treatment of the missing data should result in:identified, the treatment of the missing data should result in:

An acceptable reported data value;An acceptable reported data value;A A ““zerozero”” data value of justifies; ordata value of justifies; orA calculated value based on the reported values from unit proceA calculated value based on the reported values from unit processes employing sses employing similar technology.similar technology.


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5.5. Relating data to the specific systemRelating data to the specific system

The fundamental inputs and outputs data are often delivered fromThe fundamental inputs and outputs data are often delivered from industry in arbitrary industry in arbitrary units e.g. energy consumption as MJ/machine/week or emissions tounits e.g. energy consumption as MJ/machine/week or emissions to the sewage system as the sewage system as mg metals/liter wastewater.mg metals/liter wastewater.For each unit process, an appropriate reference flow shall be deFor each unit process, an appropriate reference flow shall be determine (e.g. one kilogram termine (e.g. one kilogram of material or one mega joule for energy). The quantitative inpuof material or one mega joule for energy). The quantitative input and output data of the t and output data of the unit process shall be calculated in relation to this reference funit process shall be calculated in relation to this reference flow.low.Based on the refined chart and systemBased on the refined chart and system’’s boundaries, unit processes are interconnected to s boundaries, unit processes are interconnected to allow calculations of the complete system.allow calculations of the complete system.

6.6. Allocation and RecyclingAllocation and Recycling

When performing a life cycle assessment of a complex system, it When performing a life cycle assessment of a complex system, it may not be possible to may not be possible to handle all the impacts and outputs inside the system boundaries.handle all the impacts and outputs inside the system boundaries. This problem can be This problem can be solved either by:solved either by:1.1. Expanding the system boundaries to include all the inputs and oExpanding the system boundaries to include all the inputs and outputs, or byutputs, or by2.2. Allocating the relevant environmental impacts to the studied syAllocating the relevant environmental impacts to the studied system.stem.Since the inventory is intrinsically based on material balances Since the inventory is intrinsically based on material balances between inputs and outputs, between inputs and outputs, allocation procedures should approximate as much as possible sucallocation procedures should approximate as much as possible such fundamental inputh fundamental input--output relationships and characteristics. Some principles shouldoutput relationships and characteristics. Some principles should be kept in mind when be kept in mind when allocating loadings.allocating loadings.


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Allocation can be necessary when dealing with:Allocation can be necessary when dealing with:

MultiMulti--output output ““black boxblack box”” processes, i.e. when more than one product is produced and processes, i.e. when more than one product is produced and some of those product flows are crossing the system boundaries.some of those product flows are crossing the system boundaries.

MultiMulti--input processes, such as waste treatment, where a strict quantitinput processes, such as waste treatment, where a strict quantitative causality ative causality between inputs and emissions etc. seldom exists.between inputs and emissions etc. seldom exists.

OpenOpen--loop recycling, where a waste material leaving the system boundaloop recycling, where a waste material leaving the system boundaries is used as ries is used as a raw material by another system, outside the boundaries of the a raw material by another system, outside the boundaries of the studied system.studied system.

Recycling technology is expected to improve greatly in the futurRecycling technology is expected to improve greatly in the future. Therefore, content e. Therefore, content levels and recycling rates should always be reported at current levels and recycling rates should always be reported at current rates with rates with documentation of study dates. Advances in technology will both idocumentation of study dates. Advances in technology will both increase rates and the ncrease rates and the number of products that are recyclable, altering both number of products that are recyclable, altering both openopen--looploop and and closedclosed--looplooprecycling options.recycling options.

Re c y c l i n gSu b s y s t e m

C l o s e d - l o pO p e n - l o p

P ro d u c e V irg in M a te ria l

C o n v e rt to P ro d u c t 1

W a ste M a n a g e m e n t

R e c y c lin g


C o n ve rt to P ro d u c t 1


Re c y c l i n gSu b s y s t e m

C l o s e d - l o pO p e n - l o p




R e c y c lin g




R e c y c lin g








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2.1. Methodology2.1. Methodology2.2. Goal and Scope2.2. Goal and Scope2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example



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2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodologyOverview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology2.5. 2.5. Inventory Analysis: ExampleInventory Analysis: Example








ConsumersConsumers



RecyclingRecycling




The production of Eucalyptus includes forest installation, forest

growth and wood harvesting. Forest installation and growth comprises

path opening, land preparation, soil preparation, deep fertilization, plantation, pest control, soil

mobilization and soil fertilization.


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ConsumersConsumers



RecyclingRecycling




This subsystem includes pine growth and pine harvesting,

75% of which is done by regeneration felling and 25% by

thinking.


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ConsumersConsumers



RecyclingRecycling




Data on the production of softwood pulp include the

pulping process.


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ConsumersConsumers



RecyclingRecycling




To perform this study, two scenarios were defined:• Actual scenario (AS):

Eucalyptus pulp and paper integrated production using

heavy fuel oil.• Natural gas scenario (NGS):

Eucalyptus pulp and paper integrated production using

natural gas.


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ConsumersConsumers



RecyclingRecycling




The printing and writing paper production include eucalyptus pulp transfer, softwood pulp bales pulping, pulp refining,

cleaning, and screening, broke recovery, paper machine,

finishing, wastewater treatment in an activated sludge plant and

on site energy production.


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ConsumersConsumers



RecyclingRecycling




Final disposal alternatives in Portugal for printing and writing wastepaper are recycling (11%), landfilling (84%) and composting

(5%).


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ConsumersConsumers



RecyclingRecycling




The production of hydrogen peroxide and sodium chlorate was

included because, they are energy-insensitive

process.


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ConsumersConsumers



RecyclingRecycling




Some subsystems purchase electricity from the national grid, while

others have a surplus of electricity production.


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ConsumersConsumers



RecyclingRecycling




This subsystem includes the circulation, between subsystems, of wood, softwood pulp, paper,

wastepaper, chemicals and fuels by 16 tonne, 28 tonne and garbage trucks, ocean ships and electric

trains.


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ConsumersConsumers



RecyclingRecycling




The fuels considered are heavy fuel oil, light fuel

oil, diesel oil and natural gas.


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2.1. Methodology2.1. Methodology2.2. Goal and Scope2.2. Goal and Scope2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.6. Impact Assessment2.6. Impact Assessment



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2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodologyOverview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology2.6. 2.6. Impact AssessmentImpact Assessment

The purpose of The purpose of Life Cycle Impact AssessmentLife Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) is to assess a system(LCIA) is to assess a system’’s Life s Life Cycle Inventory results with the aim of improving understanding Cycle Inventory results with the aim of improving understanding with regard to their with regard to their potential environmental significance. LCIA specifically uses imppotential environmental significance. LCIA specifically uses impact categories and act categories and associated indicators to simplify LCI results with regard to oneassociated indicators to simplify LCI results with regard to one or more environmental or more environmental issues. An LCA shall include LCIA to help identify potential envissues. An LCA shall include LCIA to help identify potential environmental problems ironmental problems associated with various manassociated with various man--made activities.made activities.

Life Cycle Impact Assessment is defined as the phase in the LCA Life Cycle Impact Assessment is defined as the phase in the LCA aimed at understanding aimed at understanding and evaluating the magnitude and significance of the potential eand evaluating the magnitude and significance of the potential environmental impacts of nvironmental impacts of a product systems.a product systems.


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2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodologyOverview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology2.6. 2.6. Impact AssessmentImpact Assessment

Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) is the third phase in a lifeLife Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) is the third phase in a life cycle cycle assessment containing the following main issues:assessment containing the following main issues:

Mandatory ElementsMandatory Elements

Selection of impact categories and category indicatorsSelection of impact categories and category indicatorsAssignment of LCI results (Assignment of LCI results (ClassificationClassification))CharacterizationCharacterization

Optional ElementsOptional Elements

NormalizationNormalizationGroupingGroupingWeightingWeightingData Quality AnalysisData Quality Analysis


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An important step in an LCIA is the selection of the appropriateAn important step in an LCIA is the selection of the appropriate impact categories. impact categories. The choice is guided by the goal of the study. It requires some The choice is guided by the goal of the study. It requires some expert judgment to expert judgment to make such a list, and to understand which make such a list, and to understand which impact categoriesimpact categories should be defined to should be defined to cover all these issues.cover all these issues.

An important help in the process of selecting impact categories An important help in the process of selecting impact categories is the definition of sois the definition of so--called called endpointendpoint. Endpoints are to be understood as issues of environmental conc. Endpoints are to be understood as issues of environmental concern, ern, like human health, extinction of species, availability of resourlike human health, extinction of species, availability of resources for future ces for future generation. Endpoints can be selected by the practitioner, as logeneration. Endpoints can be selected by the practitioner, as long as the reasons for ng as the reasons for including or excluding endpoints are clearly documented.including or excluding endpoints are clearly documented.

Category endpoints Category endpoints are variables which are of direct social concern, such as human are variables which are of direct social concern, such as human life span, natural resources, valuable ecosystems or species, etlife span, natural resources, valuable ecosystems or species, etc. The level of the c. The level of the endpoints is also called endpoints is also called ““damage leveldamage level””. Category midpoints are variables in the . Category midpoints are variables in the environmental mechanism of an impact category between the enviroenvironmental mechanism of an impact category between the environmental nmental interventions and the category endpoints, like the concentrationinterventions and the category endpoints, like the concentration of toxic substances, of toxic substances, the deposition of acidifying substances, etc. the deposition of acidifying substances, etc.

Selection of Impact CategoriesSelection of Impact Categories


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The level of the endpoints is also called The level of the endpoints is also called ““damage leveldamage level””. Category midpoints are . Category midpoints are variables in the environmental mechanism of an impact category bvariables in the environmental mechanism of an impact category between the etween the environmental interventions and the category endpoints, like theenvironmental interventions and the category endpoints, like the concentration of concentration of toxic substances, the deposition of acidifying substances, etc. toxic substances, the deposition of acidifying substances, etc. The level of midpoints The level of midpoints is also called is also called ““problem levelproblem level”” ((UdoUdo de de HaesHaes et al. 1999a). According to ISO, the et al. 1999a). According to ISO, the category indicator can be defined at any level of the environmencategory indicator can be defined at any level of the environmental mechanism (ISO tal mechanism (ISO 2001a).2001a).

The inventory results of an LCA usually contains hundreds of difThe inventory results of an LCA usually contains hundreds of different emissions and ferent emissions and resource extraction parameters. Once the relevant impact categorresource extraction parameters. Once the relevant impact categories are determined, ies are determined, these LCI results must be assigned to these impact categories.these LCI results must be assigned to these impact categories.

Once the impact categories are defined and the LCI results are aOnce the impact categories are defined and the LCI results are assigned to these ssigned to these impact categories, it is necessary to define characterization faimpact categories, it is necessary to define characterization factors. These factors ctors. These factors should reflect the relative contribution of an LCI result to theshould reflect the relative contribution of an LCI result to the impact category impact category indicator result.indicator result.


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General overview of the structure of an impact assessment methodGeneral overview of the structure of an impact assessment method. The LCI result . The LCI result are characterized to produce a number of impact categories indicare characterized to produce a number of impact categories indicators. According to ators. According to ISO, one must document the environmental relevance of each indicISO, one must document the environmental relevance of each indicator by describing ator by describing the link to the endpoints. the link to the endpoints.

EndpointsEndpoints

MidpointsMidpoints

InventoryInventory

Ozo

ne la

yer

Ozo

ne la

yer

Acid

ifica

tion

Acid

ifica

tion

Clim

ate

Clim

ate

Land

- use

Land

-use

Nut

riphi

catio

nN

utrip

hica

tion

Ecot

oxic

ityEc

otox

icity

Car

cino

gen

Car

cino

gen

Smog

Smog

Rad

iatio

nR

adia

tion

Min

eral

sM

iner

als

LCI resultsLCI resultsFo

ssil

fuel

Foss

il fu

el

Envi

ronm

enta

l Mec

hani

smEn

viro

nmen

tal M

echa

nism

Reduced resource

base

Reduced resource

base

Dieing forest

Dieing forest

CancerCancer

Extinction of speciesExtinction of species

Seawarlevel

Seawaterlevel

Respiratory deceases

Respiratory deceases


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The impact category The impact category ““human toxicological impactshuman toxicological impacts”” is one of the most difficult is one of the most difficult categories to handle. The potential effect on humans depends as categories to handle. The potential effect on humans depends as for for ecotoxicologicalecotoxicologicalimpacts an the actual emission and fate of the specific substancimpacts an the actual emission and fate of the specific substances emitted to the es emitted to the environment.environment.

The human toxicological effects can be: The human toxicological effects can be:

Acute toxicological effectsAcute toxicological effects

IrritationIrritation

Allergenic reactionsAllergenic reactions

GenotoxicityGenotoxicity

CecinogenicityCecinogenicity

NeurotoxicityNeurotoxicity

TeratogenicityTeratogenicity


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The choice of the impact assessment method depends largely on thThe choice of the impact assessment method depends largely on the addressed e addressed audience.audience.

Implementation plan for of LCA

Implementation plan for of LCA

Goal: Why use LCAGoal: Why use LCA

Scope:•Which applications?•How are results reported, and to who?•Who will do it

Scope:•Which applications?•How are results reported, and to who?•Who will do it In

terf

ace

with

you

r or

gani

zatio

nIn

terf

ace

with

you

r or

gani

zatio

n EcodesignEcodesign

Strategy development

Strategy development

Product declaration

Product declaration

Benchmarking EMS, process improvement

Benchmarking EMS, process improvement

LCCLCC

LCA experts

LCA experts

DesignersDesigners

EMS specialist

EMS specialist

Product managersProduct

managers

Eco-indicators

Aggregated scores and some details

All details


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Assignment of LCI results to impact categories should consider tAssignment of LCI results to impact categories should consider the following, unless he following, unless otherwise required by the goal and scope:otherwise required by the goal and scope:

Assignment if LCI results which are exclusive to one impact catAssignment if LCI results which are exclusive to one impact category;egory;Identification of LCI results which relate to more than one impIdentification of LCI results which relate to more than one impact category, act category,

including impact categories of human and acidification andincluding impact categories of human and acidification andAllocation among serial mechanism, e.g. NOAllocation among serial mechanism, e.g. NOXX may be assigned to ground level may be assigned to ground level

ozone formation and acidification.ozone formation and acidification.

Classification is a qualitative step based on scientific analysiClassification is a qualitative step based on scientific analysis of relevant s of relevant environmental processes. The classification has to assign the inenvironmental processes. The classification has to assign the inventory input and ventory input and output data to potential environmental impacts i.e. impact categoutput data to potential environmental impacts i.e. impact categories. Some outputs ories. Some outputs contribute to different impact categories and therefore, they hacontribute to different impact categories and therefore, they have to be mentioned ve to be mentioned twice.twice.

Assignment of LCI results (Classification)Assignment of LCI results (Classification)


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The method of calculating indicators results shall be identifiedThe method of calculating indicators results shall be identified and documented, and documented, including the valueincluding the value--choices and assumptions used.choices and assumptions used.

The usefulness of the indicator results for a given goal and scoThe usefulness of the indicator results for a given goal and scope depends on the pe depends on the accuracy, validity and characteristic of the models and characteaccuracy, validity and characteristic of the models and characterization factors. The rization factors. The number and kind of simplifying assumptions and valuenumber and kind of simplifying assumptions and value--choices used in the choices used in the characterization model for the category indicator will also varycharacterization model for the category indicator will also vary between impact between impact categories. A trade off often exist between characterization modcategories. A trade off often exist between characterization model simplicity and el simplicity and accuracy. accuracy.

Variation in the quality of indicators among impact categories mVariation in the quality of indicators among impact categories may influence the ay influence the overall accuracy of the LCA study, for example:overall accuracy of the LCA study, for example:

The complexity of the environmental mechanism between the systeThe complexity of the environmental mechanism between the system boundary m boundary and the category endpoint,and the category endpoint,

CharacterizationCharacterization


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The spatial and temporal characteristics, for example the persThe spatial and temporal characteristics, for example the persistence of a istence of a

substance in the environment, andsubstance in the environment, and

The doseThe dose--response characteristicsresponse characteristics

Calculation of indicator results occur in two steps:Calculation of indicator results occur in two steps:

a.a. Selection and use a characterization factor to convert the assSelection and use a characterization factor to convert the assigned LCI results to igned LCI results to

common units;common units;

b.b. Aggregation of the converted LCI results into the indicator reAggregation of the converted LCI results into the indicator results.sults.


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This procedure transform an indicator result by diving with a seThis procedure transform an indicator result by diving with a selected value. Some lected value. Some examples of reference values areexamples of reference values are

The total emissions or resource use for a given area which mayThe total emissions or resource use for a given area which may be global, be global, regional, national or localregional, national or local

The total emissions or resource use for a given area on per caThe total emissions or resource use for a given area on per capita basispita basisA baseline scenario such as the indicator result under consideA baseline scenario such as the indicator result under consideration divided by the ration divided by the

calculated indicator result of a given alternative product systecalculated indicator result of a given alternative product system.m.

The selection of the reference system should consider the consisThe selection of the reference system should consider the consistency of the spatial tency of the spatial and temporal scales of the environmental mechanism and the referand temporal scales of the environmental mechanism and the reference value.ence value.

NormalizationNormalization


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Grouping is assigning impact categories into one or more sets, sGrouping is assigning impact categories into one or more sets, sets are predefined in ets are predefined in the goal and scope, and it may involve sorting and/or ranking. Gthe goal and scope, and it may involve sorting and/or ranking. Grouping is an rouping is an optional element with two possible procedures:optional element with two possible procedures:

To sort the impact categories on a nominal basis e.g. by charaTo sort the impact categories on a nominal basis e.g. by characteristics such as cteristics such as emissions and resources or global, regional spatial scales;emissions and resources or global, regional spatial scales;

To rank the indicators in a given order or hierarchy, e.g. medTo rank the indicators in a given order or hierarchy, e.g. medium and low priority.ium and low priority.

Ranking is based on value choices.Ranking is based on value choices.

GroupingGrouping


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Weighting is the process of converting indicator results of diffWeighting is the process of converting indicator results of different impact categories erent impact categories by using numerical factors based on valuesby using numerical factors based on values--choices. It may include aggregation of choices. It may include aggregation of the weighted indicator results. Weighting is an optional elementthe weighted indicator results. Weighting is an optional element with two possible with two possible procedures:procedures:

To convert the indicator results or normalized results with seTo convert the indicator results or normalized results with selected weighting lected weighting factors;factors;

To possibly aggregate these converted indicator results or norTo possibly aggregate these converted indicator results or normalized across malized across impact categories.impact categories.

Weighting steps are based on valueWeighting steps are based on value--choices and are not based on natural science.choices and are not based on natural science.

The application and use of weighting methods shall be consistentThe application and use of weighting methods shall be consistent with the goal and with the goal and scope of the LCA study and it shall be fully transparent. Differscope of the LCA study and it shall be fully transparent. Different individuals, ent individuals, organizations and societies may have different preferences, therorganizations and societies may have different preferences, therefore it is possible efore it is possible that different parties will reach different weighting results bathat different parties will reach different weighting results based on the same sed on the same indicator results or normalized indicator results. indicator results or normalized indicator results.

WeightingWeighting


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In an LCA study it may be desirable to use several different weiIn an LCA study it may be desirable to use several different weighting methods and ghting methods and to conduct sensitivity analysis to assess the consequences on thto conduct sensitivity analysis to assess the consequences on the LCIA results of e LCIA results of different valuedifferent value--choices and weighting methods.choices and weighting methods.

Normalization: Calculation of magnitude of CI results relative to reference information Grouping: Assignment of impact categories to groups or ranking categoriesWeighting: Conversion and possible aggregation of CI results through impact categories using numerical factors based on value choicesData Quality Analysis

Optional Elements

Category indicator results (LCIA profile)

Selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterization models

Classification: Assignment of LCI results to selected impact categories

Characterization: Calculation of category indicator (CI) results for each impact category

Obligatory Elements

Elements of LCIA phase according to ISO 14042


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2.1. Methodology2.1. Methodology2.2. Goal and Scope2.2. Goal and Scope2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.6. Impact Assessment2.6. Impact Assessment2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact Assessment2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact Assessment



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2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodologyOverview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology2.7. ISO guidelines; 2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact AssessmentImpact Assessment

Better understanding the reliability of the collection of indicator results, the LCA profile. (International Organization for Standardization 2000)

Data quality analysis

Convert and possibly aggregating indicator results across impact categories using numerical factors based on values-choice. (International Organization for Standardization 2000)

Weighting

Sorting and possibly ranking of the impact categories. (International Organization for Standardization 2000)

Grouping

Calculation of the magnitude of category indicator relative to reference information. (International Organization for Standardization 2000)

Normalization

LCIA – Optional Elements

Calculation of category indicator results. (International Organization for Standardization 2000)Characterization

Assignment of LCI results. (International Organization for Standardization 2000)Classification

Class representing environmental issues of concern to which LCI results may be assigned. (International Organization for Standardization 2000)

Impact Categories

LCIA – Mandatory Elements


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2.1. Methodology2.1. Methodology2.2. Goal and Scope2.2. Goal and Scope2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.6. Impact Assessment2.6. Impact Assessment2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact Assessment2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact Assessment2.8. Impact Assessment : Example2.8. Impact Assessment : Example



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2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodologyOverview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology2.8. 2.8. Impact Assessment : ExampleImpact Assessment : Example

The next table shows the inventory parameters considered in thisThe next table shows the inventory parameters considered in this study and the impact study and the impact categories selected for analysis.categories selected for analysis.

In the next step of impact assessment (characterization), the toIn the next step of impact assessment (characterization), the total potential contribution tal potential contribution from all inputs and outputs to the different impact categories ifrom all inputs and outputs to the different impact categories is calculated using s calculated using characterization factors.characterization factors.

Impact categories and corresponding parameters.

NonNon--renewable CO2, CH4, N2Orenewable CO2, CH4, N2OSOSO22, NO, NOxx, HCL, NH, HCL, NH33, HF, H, HF, H22SSNONOxx air, NHair, NH33 air, N water, NOair, N water, NO33

-- water, water, NHNH44

++ water, P water, POwater, P water, PO4433-- water COD water COD

waterwaterCrude oil, Natural gas, CoalCrude oil, Natural gas, CoalCHCH44, Halogenated hydrocarbons, Aromatic , Halogenated hydrocarbons, Aromatic hydrocarbons.hydrocarbons.

Global Warming, 100 years (GW)Global Warming, 100 years (GW)Acidification (A)Acidification (A)Eutrophication (E)Eutrophication (E)

NonNon--renewable resource depletion renewable resource depletion (NRRD)(NRRD)Photochemical oxidant formation (POF)Photochemical oxidant formation (POF)

ParametersParametersImpact CategoryImpact Category


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2.1. Methodology2.1. Methodology2.2. Goal and Scope2.2. Goal and Scope2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.6. Impact Assessment2.6. Impact Assessment2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact Assessment2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact Assessment2.8. Impact Assessment : Example2.8. Impact Assessment : Example2.9. Interpretation2.9. Interpretation



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2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodologyOverview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology2.9. 2.9. InterpretationInterpretation

Interpretation (ISO 14043).Interpretation (ISO 14043). Is a systematic procedure to identify, qualify, check Is a systematic procedure to identify, qualify, check and evaluate information from the conclusions of the inventory aand evaluate information from the conclusions of the inventory analysis and/or impact nalysis and/or impact assessment of a system and present them in order to meet the reqassessment of a system and present them in order to meet the requirements of the uirements of the application as described in the goal and scope of the study.application as described in the goal and scope of the study.

Interpretation is performed in interaction with the three other Interpretation is performed in interaction with the three other phases of the life cycle phases of the life cycle assessment. If the results of the inventory analysis or the impaassessment. If the results of the inventory analysis or the impact assessment is found ct assessment is found not to fulfill the requirements defined in the goal and scoping not to fulfill the requirements defined in the goal and scoping phase, the inventory phase, the inventory analysis must be improved by e.g. revising the system boundariesanalysis must be improved by e.g. revising the system boundaries, further data , further data collection etc. followed by an improved impact assessment. collection etc. followed by an improved impact assessment.

This iterative process must be repeated until the requirements iThis iterative process must be repeated until the requirements id the goal and d the goal and scoping phase are fulfilled as can be described by the followingscoping phase are fulfilled as can be described by the following steps steps ((Goedcoop and Goedcoop and OeleOele. 2002). 2002)::

1.1. Identify the significant environmental issues. Evaluate the meIdentify the significant environmental issues. Evaluate the methodology and results for thodology and results for completeness, sensitivity and consistency.completeness, sensitivity and consistency.


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2. 2. Check that conclusions are consistent with the requirements of tCheck that conclusions are consistent with the requirements of the goal and scope he goal and scope of the values and application oriented requirements.of the values and application oriented requirements.

3.3. If so, report as final conclusions. If not, return to step 1 oIf so, report as final conclusions. If not, return to step 1 or 2.r 2.

4.4. This procedure has to be repeated until 3 is fulfilled.This procedure has to be repeated until 3 is fulfilled.

Interpretation is the fourth in life cycle assessment containingInterpretation is the fourth in life cycle assessment containing the following main the following main issues:issues:

Identification of significant environmental issues.Identification of significant environmental issues.Evaluation which considers completeness, sensitivity and consisEvaluation which considers completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks tency checks Conclusions, recommendations and reportingConclusions, recommendations and reporting


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The objective of this step is to structure the information from The objective of this step is to structure the information from the inventory analysis the inventory analysis and and –– if additionally conducted if additionally conducted –– from the life cycle impact assessment phase in order from the life cycle impact assessment phase in order to determine the significant environmental issues in accordance to determine the significant environmental issues in accordance with the goal and with the goal and scope definition.scope definition.

The identification step include structuring and presentation of The identification step include structuring and presentation of relevant information:relevant information:

Results from the different phases i.e. presentation of e.g. datResults from the different phases i.e. presentation of e.g. data from inventory a from inventory analysis in tables, figures or diagrams etc. or presentation of analysis in tables, figures or diagrams etc. or presentation of results of the impact results of the impact assessment .assessment .

Methodological choicesMethodological choicesValuationValuation methods usedmethods usedRole and responsibility if different interested parties.Role and responsibility if different interested parties.

Identification of significant environmental issuesIdentification of significant environmental issues


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The objective of this step is to establish confidence in the resThe objective of this step is to establish confidence in the result of the study, based ult of the study, based on the preceding LCA phases, and on the significant environmentaon the preceding LCA phases, and on the significant environmental issues identified l issues identified in the first step of the interpretation. The results should be pin the first step of the interpretation. The results should be presented in such a form resented in such a form as to give the commissioner or any interested party a clear and as to give the commissioner or any interested party a clear and understandable view understandable view of the outcome of the study.of the outcome of the study.

The interpretation made at this stage shall be reinforced by theThe interpretation made at this stage shall be reinforced by the facts and calculations facts and calculations bought forward in at least the three following elements:bought forward in at least the three following elements:

Uncertainty AnalysisUncertainty AnalysisSensitivity AnalysisSensitivity AnalysisContribution AnalysisContribution AnalysisGravity AnalysisGravity Analysis

EvaluationEvaluation


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The objective of this step is to establish confidence in the resThe objective of this step is to establish confidence in the result of the study, based ult of the study, based on the preceding LCA phases, and on the significant environmentaon the preceding LCA phases, and on the significant environmental issues identified l issues identified in the first step of the interpretation. The results should be pin the first step of the interpretation. The results should be presented in such a form resented in such a form as to give the commissioner or any interested party a clear and as to give the commissioner or any interested party a clear and understandable view understandable view of the outcome of the study.of the outcome of the study.

The interpretation made at this stage shall be reinforced by theThe interpretation made at this stage shall be reinforced by the facts and calculations facts and calculations bought forward in at least the three following elements:bought forward in at least the three following elements:

Uncertainty AnalysisUncertainty AnalysisSensitivity AnalysisSensitivity AnalysisContribution AnalysisContribution AnalysisGravity AnalysisGravity Analysis

Types of Uncertainties in LCA and Existent Frameworks for their Types of Uncertainties in LCA and Existent Frameworks for their Assessment Assessment


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1.1. Parameter UncertaintyParameter Uncertainty

It includes the uncertainty on the inventory data and the data uIt includes the uncertainty on the inventory data and the data used for the sed for the calculation of impact assessment factors (i.e. characterization,calculation of impact assessment factors (i.e. characterization, normalization and normalization and weighting). Sources of parameter uncertainties are (weighting). Sources of parameter uncertainties are (HuijbregtsHuijbregts 1998a): lack of 1998a): lack of data, inaccuracy and data, inaccuracy and unrepresentativityunrepresentativity..LCA practitioners mostly have to deal with parameter uncertaintiLCA practitioners mostly have to deal with parameter uncertainties on inventory es on inventory data that they collect and model in order to study a system. Fodata that they collect and model in order to study a system. For such purposes r such purposes several frameworks have been proposed (several frameworks have been proposed (HuijbregtsHuijbregts 2001b, Maurice 2000, 2001b, Maurice 2000, HuijbregtsHuijbregts 1998b, 1998b, WeidemaWeidema 1996).1996).

To fill data gaps in life cycle inventories, it has been recommeTo fill data gaps in life cycle inventories, it has been recommended the use of nded the use of mass and energy balances or models that calculate direct and indmass and energy balances or models that calculate direct and indirect emissions irect emissions and resources using the estimated price of missing flows as inpuand resources using the estimated price of missing flows as input. Missing data t. Missing data can also be estimated by using information for the most similar can also be estimated by using information for the most similar process or process or product for which data are available or for the main ingredientsproduct for which data are available or for the main ingredients of the product. of the product. This kind of sources may also be used to further specify sum parThis kind of sources may also be used to further specify sum parameters (e.g. ameters (e.g. hydrocarbon emissions) (hydrocarbon emissions) (HuijbregtsHuijbregts et al 2001b).et al 2001b).


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Monte Carlo simulation is usually recommended to assess the inacMonte Carlo simulation is usually recommended to assess the inaccuracy and curacy and representativityrepresentativity of the inventory data (of the inventory data (HuijbregtsHuijbregts et al 2001b, Maurice et al 2000, et al 2001b, Maurice et al 2000, HuijbregtsHuijbregts 1998b). However, in practice it is be very difficult to obtain1998b). However, in practice it is be very difficult to obtain the the uncertainty distributions for the large amount of parameters incuncertainty distributions for the large amount of parameters included in the luded in the inventory analysis. inventory analysis.

Therefore, a prior identification of key parameter is proposed bTherefore, a prior identification of key parameter is proposed by means of a y means of a broad sensitivity analysis using standard uncertainty estimates broad sensitivity analysis using standard uncertainty estimates (Sakai et al 2002, (Sakai et al 2002, HeijungsHeijungs 2001, 2001, HeijungsHeijungs 1996). However, a disadvantage of using a standard 1996). However, a disadvantage of using a standard sensitivity range is that parameters with a minor contribution tsensitivity range is that parameters with a minor contribution to LCA outcomes o LCA outcomes but with a large unknown uncertainty range are eliminated from tbut with a large unknown uncertainty range are eliminated from the analysis he analysis ((HuijbregtsHuijbregts 1998b). An alternative approach is to identify the key input 1998b). An alternative approach is to identify the key input parameters based on the contribution of input data to the resultparameters based on the contribution of input data to the results and a s and a qualitative assessment of the data uncertainty (Maurice et al 20qualitative assessment of the data uncertainty (Maurice et al 2000). 00). Contributions can be calculated from current LCA software and unContributions can be calculated from current LCA software and uncertainty can certainty can qualitatively be assessed using data quality indicators (i.e. orqualitatively be assessed using data quality indicators (i.e. ordinal scale with dinal scale with numbers ranging from 1 to 5) (numbers ranging from 1 to 5) (WeidemaWeidema 1998). 1998).


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After the key input parameters have been identified, a quantitatAfter the key input parameters have been identified, a quantitative uncertainty ive uncertainty analysis can still remain complicated because of lack of knowledanalysis can still remain complicated because of lack of knowledge about actual ge about actual uncertainty of input data. One alternative can be the use of exuncertainty of input data. One alternative can be the use of expert pert judgementjudgement to to estimate uncertainty ranges (estimate uncertainty ranges (HuijbregtsHuijbregts 2001) or different proposed guidelines 2001) or different proposed guidelines for parameters extensively measured and data based on little inffor parameters extensively measured and data based on little information ormation (Maurice 2000, (Maurice 2000, FinnvedenFinnveden 1998, 1998, HanssenHanssen et al 1996).et al 1996).The assessment of the uncertainty of characterization factor on The assessment of the uncertainty of characterization factor on the LCA study the LCA study outcomes has been illustrated for the comparison of insulation toutcomes has been illustrated for the comparison of insulation thickness in hickness in buildings (buildings (HuijbregtsHuijbregts 2001a), but there is no evidence of its inclusion in real 2001a), but there is no evidence of its inclusion in real studies because uncertainty of studies because uncertainty of characterisationcharacterisation factors is generally unknown. factors is generally unknown.

Model developers generally do not provide quantitative informatiModel developers generally do not provide quantitative information about on about parameter uncertainty, except for some references about midpointparameter uncertainty, except for some references about midpoint modeling of modeling of toxicity potentials (toxicity potentials (HertwichHertwich et al 2000, et al 2000, HuijbregtsHuijbregts et al 2000, et al 2000, HertwichHertwich et al et al 1999). 1999). Because normalization and weighting are optional steps and the mBecause normalization and weighting are optional steps and the methodological ethodological choices involved in their application are supposed to have a strchoices involved in their application are supposed to have a stronger effect on onger effect on the study results, parameter uncertainty of the normalization anthe study results, parameter uncertainty of the normalization and weighting d weighting factors are not covered on the literature.factors are not covered on the literature.


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Uncertainty due to ChoicesUncertainty due to Choices

Several choices are made when performing LCA studies (e.g. systeSeveral choices are made when performing LCA studies (e.g. system boundaries, m boundaries, allocation rules, characterization models, weighting factors, etallocation rules, characterization models, weighting factors, etc.). The use of c.). The use of guidelines such as SETAC Best Available Practices (guidelines such as SETAC Best Available Practices (UdoUdo de de HaesHaes et al 2002) and et al 2002) and ISO standards (ISO 1997, ISO 1999, ISO 2001a, ISO 2001b) as wellISO standards (ISO 1997, ISO 1999, ISO 2001a, ISO 2001b) as well as the peeras the peer--review processes are useful practices to reduce uncertainty due review processes are useful practices to reduce uncertainty due to choices to choices ((HuijbregtsHuijbregts 1998a). 1998a). Uncertainties due to choices can be quantitatively assessed as iUncertainties due to choices can be quantitatively assessed as it has been t has been illustrated for the comparison of two types of roof gutter, wherillustrated for the comparison of two types of roof gutter, where the combined e the combined effect of parameter uncertainty and uncertainty due to choices ieffect of parameter uncertainty and uncertainty due to choices in inventory data n inventory data and characterization factors were calculated (and characterization factors were calculated (HuijbregtsHuijbregts 1998b).1998b).

Model UncertaintyModel Uncertainty

There are model uncertainties in LCA studies due to the lack of There are model uncertainties in LCA studies due to the lack of temporal and temporal and spatial variability as well as the linearity in the assessment, spatial variability as well as the linearity in the assessment, model uncertainties model uncertainties on the simplified environmental models used to calculate characton the simplified environmental models used to calculate characterization factors, erization factors, etc. At present, model uncertainty assessment has not been madeetc. At present, model uncertainty assessment has not been made operational in operational in LCA case studies (LCA case studies (HuijbregtsHuijbregts 1998b).1998b).


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All these factors can have very significant impacts on the resulAll these factors can have very significant impacts on the result. The only way to t. The only way to deal with them is in the uncertainty analysis. Uncertainty causedeal with them is in the uncertainty analysis. Uncertainty caused by d by incompleteness refers to the unavoidable data gaps. Important isincompleteness refers to the unavoidable data gaps. Important issues are:sues are:

System Boundaries, as we have discussed above it is not easy toSystem Boundaries, as we have discussed above it is not easy to apply apply consistent boundaries and cut of criteria.consistent boundaries and cut of criteria.

Incomplete data sheets and insufficiently specified data. In maIncomplete data sheets and insufficiently specified data. In many cases, data is ny cases, data is gathered from interviews and through questionnaires, and often dgathered from interviews and through questionnaires, and often data will be ata will be partially available. A particular problem is that often data is partially available. A particular problem is that often data is gathered in sum gathered in sum parameters.parameters.

Mismatch between inventory and impact assessment. In many casesMismatch between inventory and impact assessment. In many cases, inventory , inventory data that is collected does not have a characterization factor, data that is collected does not have a characterization factor, and therefore this and therefore this finding is ignored in the rest of the LCA.finding is ignored in the rest of the LCA.


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2.2. Sensitivity AnalysisSensitivity Analysis

The ISO 14043 prescribes that sensitivity analysis should focus The ISO 14043 prescribes that sensitivity analysis should focus on the on the most significant issues, to determine the influence on variamost significant issues, to determine the influence on variations in techniques, tions in techniques, methods and data.methods and data.

Tornado diagramsTornado diagrams illustrate the changes in output parameter values for illustrate the changes in output parameter values for equal levels of change in input parameters. The model is run witequal levels of change in input parameters. The model is run with low and high h low and high values for each parameter while all other parameters are held covalues for each parameter while all other parameters are held constant. The result nstant. The result are presented in lying bar graphs, the top bar representing the are presented in lying bar graphs, the top bar representing the output range of the output range of the most sensitive parameter, and the bottom bar representing the lemost sensitive parameter, and the bottom bar representing the least sensitive ast sensitive parameter, giving a graph shaped like an upside down triangle, hparameter, giving a graph shaped like an upside down triangle, hence the simile to a ence the simile to a tornado.tornado.

OneOne--way sensitivity analysisway sensitivity analysis determines the amount an individual input determines the amount an individual input parameter value needs to change, all other parameters held constparameter value needs to change, all other parameters held constants, in order for ants, in order for output parameter values to change by a certain percentage.output parameter values to change by a certain percentage.


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Scenario analysis.Scenario analysis. Scenarios in LCA studies are descriptions of possible future Scenarios in LCA studies are descriptions of possible future situations, based on specific assumptions about the future, and situations, based on specific assumptions about the future, and are are characterized by choice of system boundaries, allocation methodscharacterized by choice of system boundaries, allocation methods, technology, , technology, time, space, characterization methods, and weighting methods.time, space, characterization methods, and weighting methods.

In In Ratio sensitivity analysisRatio sensitivity analysis, which is applicable only in comparative studies, a , which is applicable only in comparative studies, a ratio is calculated to determine the percentage an input parametratio is calculated to determine the percentage an input parameter value need to er value need to change in order to reverse rankings between two alternatives. Thchange in order to reverse rankings between two alternatives. The sensitivity is e sensitivity is expressed as the ratio of the difference between alternatives ovexpressed as the ratio of the difference between alternatives over individual er individual process component.process component.

The The Critical error factor (CEF)Critical error factor (CEF) is a measure of the sensitivity of a priority is a measure of the sensitivity of a priority between two alternatives to an input parameter value between two alternatives to an input parameter value xx. It is calculated as the . It is calculated as the ratio of the critical error ratio of the critical error ΔΔxx, i.e. variation in x required to bring about a change , i.e. variation in x required to bring about a change in priority, over the value of x, i.e. CEF=in priority, over the value of x, i.e. CEF=ΔΔxx//xx..


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3.3. Contribution AnalysisContribution Analysis

An important tool in understanding the contribution of your resuAn important tool in understanding the contribution of your results is the lts is the use of the contribution analysis. With such analysis, you determuse of the contribution analysis. With such analysis, you determine which processes ine which processes are playing a significant role in your results. With the informaare playing a significant role in your results. With the information you can focus your tion you can focus your attention on these processes, and analyze if these processes areattention on these processes, and analyze if these processes are sufficiently sufficiently representative, complete and if there are important assumptions representative, complete and if there are important assumptions within these within these processes.processes.

4.4. Gravity AnalysisGravity Analysis

Contribution analysis shows which processes create high environContribution analysis shows which processes create high environmental mental load. However this does not reveal the cause of the load.load. However this does not reveal the cause of the load.

In gravity analysis we can look at the interrelations between thIn gravity analysis we can look at the interrelations between the processes e processes and show which processes are in fact responsible for the load, wand show which processes are in fact responsible for the load, while these processes hile these processes in themselves may have low emissions.in themselves may have low emissions...


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The final step of the interpretation is more or less similar to The final step of the interpretation is more or less similar to the traditional concluding the traditional concluding and recommending part of a scientific and technical assessment, and recommending part of a scientific and technical assessment, investigation or investigation or alike.alike.

The aim of this third step of the interpretation is to reach conThe aim of this third step of the interpretation is to reach conclusions and clusions and recommendations for the report of the LCA study or life cycle inrecommendations for the report of the LCA study or life cycle inventory study.ventory study.

This step is important to improve the reporting and the transparThis step is important to improve the reporting and the transparency of the study. ency of the study. Both are essential for the readers of the LCA report.Both are essential for the readers of the LCA report.

Conclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and Recommendations


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2.1. Methodology2.1. Methodology2.2. Goal and Scope2.2. Goal and Scope2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.6. Impact Assessment2.6. Impact Assessment2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact Assessment2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact Assessment2.8. Impact Assessment : Example2.8. Impact Assessment : Example2.9. Interpretation2.9. Interpretation2.10. ISO guideline; Interpretation2.10. ISO guideline; Interpretation



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2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodologyOverview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology2.10. ISO guideline; 2.10. ISO guideline; InterpretationInterpretation

The objective of this third element of the life cycle interpretation is to draw conclusions and make recommendations for the intended audience of the LCA or LCI study. (International Organization for standardization 2000)

Conclusion and recommendations

Process of verifying that the information obtained from a sensitivity analysis is relevant for reaching the conclusion and giving recommendations. (International Organization for standardization 2000)

Sensitivity analysis

Process of verifying that the assumptions , methods and data are consistently applied throughout the study and in accordance with the goal and scope definition. (International Organization for standardization 2000)

Consistency study

Process of verifying whether information for the preceding phases on an LCA or an LCI study id sufficient for reaching conclusions in accordance with the goal and scope definition. (International Organization for standardization 2000)

Completeness study

To structure the results from the LCI or LCIA phases in order to determine the significant issues, in accordance with the goal and scope definition and interactively with the evaluation element. (International Organization for standardization 2000)

Significant points identification


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2.1. Methodology2.1. Methodology2.2. Goal and Scope2.2. Goal and Scope2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.6. Impact Assessment2.6. Impact Assessment2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact Assessment2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact Assessment2.8. Impact Assessment : Example2.8. Impact Assessment : Example2.9. Interpretation2.9. Interpretation2.10. ISO guideline; Interpretation2.10. ISO guideline; Interpretation2.11. Interpretation: Example2.11. Interpretation: Example



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2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodologyOverview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology2.11. 2.11. Interpretation : ExampleInterpretation : Example

It is possible to make a first interpretation at the inventory aIt is possible to make a first interpretation at the inventory analysis nalysis level based on individual parameters.level based on individual parameters.

The next figures show the energy consumptions, the air emissionsThe next figures show the energy consumptions, the air emissionsand the water emissions at the different stages of the paper lifand the water emissions at the different stages of the paper life e cycle, for the actual scenario and for the natural gas scenario.cycle, for the actual scenario and for the natural gas scenario. It It important to note that only the CO2 originated during the important to note that only the CO2 originated during the combustion of noncombustion of non--renewable fuels (nonrenewable fuels (non--renewable CO2) was renewable CO2) was considered, since one of the assumptions of this study is that tconsidered, since one of the assumptions of this study is that the he CO2 released from renewable sources (renewable CO2) is balanced CO2 released from renewable sources (renewable CO2) is balanced by CO2 absorption in the forest.by CO2 absorption in the forest.


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Based on the inventory analysis and impact assessment results:Based on the inventory analysis and impact assessment results:

The printing and writing paper production is the most important The printing and writing paper production is the most important contributor to contributor to nonnon--renewable CO2 emissions due to onrenewable CO2 emissions due to on--site energy production.site energy production.

Although the eucalyptus pulp production is the largest consumer Although the eucalyptus pulp production is the largest consumer of energy of energy throughout the paper life cycle, its contribution to air emissiothroughout the paper life cycle, its contribution to air emissions is not ns is not predominant. predominant.

The final disposal stage assumes a predominant role in global waThe final disposal stage assumes a predominant role in global warming and rming and photochemical oxidants formation impact categories, as a result photochemical oxidants formation impact categories, as a result of the CH4 of the CH4 emissions in emissions in landfillinglandfilling..

Transport is the main source of Transport is the main source of NOxNOx emissions, resulting in an important emissions, resulting in an important contribution to the contribution to the eutrophicationeutrophication and acidification impact categories. The and acidification impact categories. The contribution of the remaining stages of the paper life cycle to contribution of the remaining stages of the paper life cycle to the impact the impact categories is not relevant.categories is not relevant.


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2.1. Methodology2.1. Methodology2.2. Goal and Scope2.2. Goal and Scope2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.6. Impact Assessment2.6. Impact Assessment2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact Assessment2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact Assessment2.8. Impact Assessment : Example2.8. Impact Assessment : Example2.9. Interpretation2.9. Interpretation2.10. ISO guideline; Interpretation2.10. ISO guideline; Interpretation2.11. Interpretation: Example2.11. Interpretation: Example2.12. Benefits and limits of LCA Methodology2.12. Benefits and limits of LCA Methodology



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2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodologyOverview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology2.12. 2.12. Benefits and limits of LCA MethodologyBenefits and limits of LCA Methodology

LCA is the only tool that can be used for product comparisons ovLCA is the only tool that can be used for product comparisons over the whole life er the whole life cycle (cycle (FinnvedenFinnveden 2000). The main benefits from using this methodology have 2000). The main benefits from using this methodology have been highlighted by ISO and SETAC as (Owens 1999): been highlighted by ISO and SETAC as (Owens 1999):

Quantifying material and energy efficiency for a system.Quantifying material and energy efficiency for a system.Identifying improvement opportunities and tradeIdentifying improvement opportunities and trade--offs.offs.Illuminating hidden or unrecognized issues. Illuminating hidden or unrecognized issues. Promoting a wider communication about how to compare and improvPromoting a wider communication about how to compare and improve highly e highly complex and difficult to analyze industrial systems.complex and difficult to analyze industrial systems.

However, LCIA addresses only the environmental issues that are iHowever, LCIA addresses only the environmental issues that are identified in the dentified in the goal and scope, therefore, is not a complete assessment of all egoal and scope, therefore, is not a complete assessment of all environmental nvironmental issues. Furthermore, LCIA is fundamentally an analysis of inputissues. Furthermore, LCIA is fundamentally an analysis of inputs from and s from and outputs to the environment rather than an analysis of the actualoutputs to the environment rather than an analysis of the actual environmental environmental consequences or effects from a system. Impact Assessment modeliconsequences or effects from a system. Impact Assessment modeling in LCA ng in LCA involve in some cases highly simplified assumptions about compleinvolve in some cases highly simplified assumptions about complex environmental x environmental processes (e.g. ecoprocesses (e.g. eco--toxicity) and there are also difficulties in dealing with spatiatoxicity) and there are also difficulties in dealing with spatial, l, temporal and dosetemporal and dose--response issues (Owens 1999).response issues (Owens 1999).


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Therefore, even for comparisons it has been suggested complementTherefore, even for comparisons it has been suggested complementing LCA ing LCA results with absolute approaches of other techniques, (e.g. results with absolute approaches of other techniques, (e.g. risk risk assessmentassessment). The system). The system--wide, relative LCA approach can be seen to wide, relative LCA approach can be seen to identify and identify and analyseanalyse possible system issues and tradepossible system issues and trade--offs, where absolute offs, where absolute tools would tools would analyseanalyse in detail the issues raised by LCA (Owens 1999).in detail the issues raised by LCA (Owens 1999).

Others limitations of the methodology include the uncertainty ofOthers limitations of the methodology include the uncertainty of the results the results due to data gaps, data uncertainties, methodological choices anddue to data gaps, data uncertainties, methodological choices and values. values. However, these are relevant also for other environmental tools (However, these are relevant also for other environmental tools (FinnvedenFinnveden2000).2000).


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2.1. Methodology2.1. Methodology2.2. Goal and Scope2.2. Goal and Scope2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.3. Goal and Scope : Example2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.4. ISO guidelines; Inventory Analysis2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.5. Inventory Analysis: Example2.6. Impact Assessment2.6. Impact Assessment2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact Assessment2.7. ISO guidelines; Impact Assessment2.8. Impact Assessment : Example2.8. Impact Assessment : Example2.9. Interpretation2.9. Interpretation2.10. ISO guideline; Interpretation2.10. ISO guideline; Interpretation2.11. Interpretation: Example2.11. Interpretation: Example2.12. Benefits and limits of LCA Methodology2.12. Benefits and limits of LCA Methodology2.13. Interaction (Value) of LCA with other PI tools2.13. Interaction (Value) of LCA with other PI tools



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2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodologyOverview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology2.13. Interaction (Value) of LCA with other PI tools2.13. Interaction (Value) of LCA with other PI tools

ProcessProcessSimulationSimulation

ProcessProcessDataData

ProcessProcessModelsModels

ValidationValidation

OnOn--line Dataline DataCollection/AnalysisCollection/Analysis

Data Driven Data Driven Process ModelingProcess Modeling

Capital Capital EffectivenessEffectiveness

AnalysisAnalysis

Heat & Mass Heat & Mass ExchangeExchangeNetworksNetworks

Business ModelingBusiness ModelingSupply ChainSupply Chain

Integrated ProcessIntegrated ProcessDesign & ControlDesign & Control


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AnalysisAnalysis




Process simulation data can be used

into a LCA model in order to assess environmental

impacts.


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AnalysisAnalysis




LCA results can be used as a complement to capital effectiveness

analysis in order to show the impact of a project on the environment.


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AnalysisAnalysis




Heat and mass integration will identify the optimal pollution prevention strategies from a

process perspective. The utilization of LCA will demonstrate if the

improvements are beneficial from a product perspective. It

can also be used to communicate these

improvements to the public.


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AnalysisAnalysis




Business modeling look simultaneously at the process, economic and environmental

dimension. LCA can be used as a framework to modelize the

environmental dimension. Both LCA and Supply Chain Management

are going beyonfd the firm boundaries, so there are a lot of

opportunities to use them together.


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1.1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology.Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology.3.3. Survey of life cycle applications in the pulp and paper industrySurvey of life cycle applications in the pulp and paper industry..

3.1. Pulp & Paper Industry3.1. Pulp & Paper Industry



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3.3. Survey of life cycle applications in the pulp and Survey of life cycle applications in the pulp and paper industry.paper industry.

3.1. Pulp & Paper Industry3.1. Pulp & Paper Industry

LCA is a potentially a powerful tool for evaluating the environmLCA is a potentially a powerful tool for evaluating the environmental ental performance of pulp and paper products. This work show the rangeperformance of pulp and paper products. This work show the rangeapplications of LCA in the pulp and paper industry and the applications of LCA in the pulp and paper industry and the methodologies used by analysis of the literature. The authors himethodologies used by analysis of the literature. The authors highlight ghlight certain of the limitations of LCA, and identify its potential ascertain of the limitations of LCA, and identify its potential as a tool for a tool for demonstrating continuous improvement at mills.demonstrating continuous improvement at mills.


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1.1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology.Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology.3.3. Survey of life cycle applications in the pulp and paper industrySurvey of life cycle applications in the pulp and paper industry..

3.1. Pulp & Paper Industry3.1. Pulp & Paper Industry3.2. Survey of applications3.2. Survey of applications



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3.2. Survey of applications3.2. Survey of applications33 studies have been investigated in order to draw a picture of 33 studies have been investigated in order to draw a picture of LCA applications in the LCA applications in the pulp and paper industries. These applications were divided in thpulp and paper industries. These applications were divided in the followings fields:e followings fields:

Product comparisonsProduct comparisonsProcess analysis and benchmarkingProcess analysis and benchmarkingComparison of improvement options for a given product or procesComparison of improvement options for a given product or processsEvaluation of new products Evaluation of new products Strategic evaluationStrategic evaluation

The next figure shows the repartition of the studies between thoThe next figure shows the repartition of the studies between those fields. The sum is se fields. The sum is higher of 34 because some of the studies cover more than one fiehigher of 34 because some of the studies cover more than one field of application.ld of application.It also shows that, even if product comparisons were the primaryIt also shows that, even if product comparisons were the primary purpose of LCA, this purpose of LCA, this methodology is more and more used for environmental process analmethodology is more and more used for environmental process analysis and ysis and comparison of process options. comparison of process options. Since pulp and paper is an old industry that reaches Since pulp and paper is an old industry that reaches ““steady statesteady state”” regime, it is not a regime, it is not a lot involved with Greenfield design. lot involved with Greenfield design. For this reason, LCA has not been integrated in the design phaseFor this reason, LCA has not been integrated in the design phase of this industry. LCA of this industry. LCA begins to be utilized to performed strategic evaluation like envbegins to be utilized to performed strategic evaluation like environmental assessment ironmental assessment en EMS. All these applications will be discussed later.en EMS. All these applications will be discussed later.


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0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Productcomparison

Processanalysis

Processoptions

comparison

Evaluation ofnew product

Strategicevaluation

Application

Nu

mb

er

of

stu

die

s

Breakdown of Studies by Field of ApplicationBreakdown of Studies by Field of Application


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It also possible to classify these studies by the type of publicIt also possible to classify these studies by the type of publications, such as: case ations, such as: case studies, methodological approaches, methodology illustrated by astudies, methodological approaches, methodology illustrated by a case study, review of case study, review of previous work and industrial experience with LCA. Papers or confprevious work and industrial experience with LCA. Papers or conference proceedings erence proceedings presenting an individual companypresenting an individual company’’s experiences with the utilization of LCA are classified s experiences with the utilization of LCA are classified in this last category. The classifications are show in the next in this last category. The classifications are show in the next figure.figure.

Some countries are more advanced than others concerning the Some countries are more advanced than others concerning the development of LCA development of LCA methodology and its application. In fact, even of some studies wmethodology and its application. In fact, even of some studies were applied to some ere applied to some specific countries, it is the countries from where the study wasspecific countries, it is the countries from where the study was performed that is performed that is considered here.considered here.

Survey 3%

Methodological approach

15%

Case study 58%

Methodologyand

case study15%

Industrial experience

9%

Survey 3%

Methodological approach

15%

Case study 58%

Methodologyand

case study15%

Industrial experience

9%


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Japan studies had not been considered here but they would represJapan studies had not been considered here but they would represent a high ent a high percentage if they were. In fact, Japan is far more advanced in percentage if they were. In fact, Japan is far more advanced in terms of general LCA terms of general LCA development and utilization in comparison to other countries Eurdevelopment and utilization in comparison to other countries European ones. Japanopean ones. Japan’’s s Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) has launched in 1Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) has launched in 1998 a national 998 a national project, project, ““Development of Assessment Technology of Life Cycle Environment IDevelopment of Assessment Technology of Life Cycle Environment Impacts of mpacts of ProductsProducts””. The objective of the LCA Project is to develop a highly reliab. The objective of the LCA Project is to develop a highly reliable LCA could be le LCA could be due to the fact that greater concern has arisen from demographicdue to the fact that greater concern has arisen from demographic and natural and natural resources issues, than say in North America. resources issues, than say in North America.

France 9%

UK 9%

Greece 3%

Portugal 6%

Netherlands 3%

Sweden 12%

Finland 12%

Switzerland 3%

Australia 12%

USA19%

Europe58%

27%

India 3%

Canada 6%

South Africa 3%

Country of Origin of LCA studiesCountry of Origin of LCA studies


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It is also possible to classify LCA studies by the type of organIt is also possible to classify LCA studies by the type of organizations they come from. izations they come from. The classification is show in the next figure. The figure shows The classification is show in the next figure. The figure shows that most of the studies that most of the studies come from the university sector, This could be explained by the come from the university sector, This could be explained by the fact LCA is still a fact LCA is still a methodology under development. methodology under development.

Industrial association

and/or Industry27%

Consulting company

12%

University

43%

Government18%

Industrial association

and/or Industry27%

Consulting company

12%

University

43%

Government18%

Groups performing LCA studiesGroups performing LCA studies


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The next figure illustrates who did what. We can see that consulThe next figure illustrates who did what. We can see that consulting companies have ting companies have mostly implied in product comparison. The interest of industriamostly implied in product comparison. The interest of industrial side is more related to l side is more related to the processes and the strategic evaluation because they have to the processes and the strategic evaluation because they have to meet regulations and meet regulations and want to have a better concurrent position on the market. Governmwant to have a better concurrent position on the market. Government touches to all ent touches to all preceding categories.preceding categories.

Work BreakdownWork Breakdown

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Product comparison

Process analysis

Processimprovement

Newproduct

Strategicevaluation

Consulting Company Industrial association Government University


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The next figure shows that the application of each study, and itThe next figure shows that the application of each study, and its conclusions, are s conclusions, are generally well defined.generally well defined.

LegendLegend

Yes:Yes: Activity is defined in Activity is defined in

the publicationthe publication

Not done:Not done: It is clear that the It is clear that the

activity has not been doneactivity has not been done

No info:No info: There is no info about There is no info about

the activity in the publication the activity in the publication

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

App

licat

ion

Publ

icFu

nctio

nal u

nit

Bou

ndar

ies

Dat

a so

urce

Peer

revi

ewIn

vent

ory

Impa

ct c

at.

Cla

ssifi

catio

nC

hara

cter

izat

ion

Nor

mal

izat

ion

Gro

upin

gW

eigh

ting

Dat

a qu

ality

Si

gn. P

oint

sC

ompl

eten

ess

Sens

itivi

tyC

onsi

sten

cyC

oncl

usio

ns

Goal and scope LCI LCIA Interpretation

Yes Not done No info

Required elements

Suggested elements


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3.3. Survey of life cycle applications in the pulp and Survey of life cycle applications in the pulp and paper industry. paper industry.

LCA General application in the Pulp and Paper IndustryLCA General application in the Pulp and Paper Industry

LCALCA

Products ComparisonProducts Comparison

Analysis of the origins of environmental impacts related to a pAnalysis of the origins of environmental impacts related to a particular articular

productproduct

Comparison of improvement variants of a given product or procesComparison of improvement variants of a given product or process, or s, or

alternative process technologiesalternative process technologies

Evaluation of new products and product management (Product Evaluation of new products and product management (Product

Stewardship) Stewardship)

Strategic policy developmentStrategic policy development


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Comparison of Products with the Same FunctionComparison of Products with the Same Function

LCA is used for the comparison of paper products with alternativLCA is used for the comparison of paper products with alternatives. This section es. This section intended to highlight problems encountered when using LCA to comintended to highlight problems encountered when using LCA to compare different pare different products with the same function. Examples of product comparison products with the same function. Examples of product comparison are presented in the are presented in the next tables.next tables.

Product Comparison : Paper vs. Polyethylene (PE) Bags

Paper is worse concerning:Paper is worse concerning: Climate change: ozone depletion; Climate change: ozone depletion; ecotoxicity: land use; mineral depletion.ecotoxicity: land use; mineral depletion.Plastic is worse concerning:Plastic is worse concerning: Fossil fuel depletion at high use Fossil fuel depletion at high use ratios.ratios.

Comparison of industrial paper Comparison of industrial paper and PE sacks.and PE sacks.

Eurosac Eurosac (1993) (1993)

FranceFrance

PE is worse concerning:PE is worse concerning: NonNon--renewable energy; abiotic resource renewable energy; abiotic resource depletion; GW; photoquemical oxidant; acidification; air and watdepletion; GW; photoquemical oxidant; acidification; air and water er emissions; pollution of aquatic system.emissions; pollution of aquatic system.Paper is worse concerning:Paper is worse concerning: Eutrophication.Eutrophication.

Comparison of paper and PE Comparison of paper and PE check out bags in United States check out bags in United States using a resource and profile using a resource and profile analysis (REPA) or LCI.analysis (REPA) or LCI.

Franklin Franklin Associates Associates (1990) (1990) USAUSA

Main ConclusionsMain ConclusionsObjectivesObjectivesReferencesReferences

Three companies were respectively responsible for the inventory, the impact

assessment and the critical analysis.

At the time this study were performed, there was no well-accepted

methodology.


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Product Comparison : Towels vs. Air Driers

Environmental footprint for air driers is smaller than the paperEnvironmental footprint for air driers is smaller than the papertowels. Use of dries results in lower GW, acidification ecotoxictowels. Use of dries results in lower GW, acidification ecotoxicity, ity, human toxicity, nutrification, ozone depletion and photoquemicalhuman toxicity, nutrification, ozone depletion and photoquemicalsmog burdens.smog burdens.

Comparison of paper Comparison of paper towel and air dryers in towel and air dryers in United Kingdom (UK)United Kingdom (UK)

Environment al Environment al resources resources Management (2001) Management (2001) UKUK


Product Comparison : Disposable vs. Cloth DiaperProduct Comparison : Disposable vs. Cloth Diaper

With good laundry practices, cloth diapers contribute With good laundry practices, cloth diapers contribute less to GW and acid rain and use less energy. less to GW and acid rain and use less energy. Phosphorus and other discharges are higher for cloth Phosphorus and other discharges are higher for cloth diapers, and cotton cultivation may no be sustainable. diapers, and cotton cultivation may no be sustainable. Disposable diaper consumes a lot of fossil fuel.Disposable diaper consumes a lot of fossil fuel.

Comparison of disposable and cloth diapers.Comparison of disposable and cloth diapers.MiljMiljöökonsult and konsult and Svensson (1993) Svensson (1993) SwedenSweden

Cloth diapers use more energy and water than Cloth diapers use more energy and water than disposable. Disposable diapers generated more solid disposable. Disposable diapers generated more solid wastes. Air and water emissions are considered wastes. Air and water emissions are considered equivalent for both product.equivalent for both product.

Assessment of the energy usage, water Assessment of the energy usage, water requirement, solid waste, atmospheric requirement, solid waste, atmospheric emission and water emissions generated by emission and water emissions generated by disposable and cloth diapers.disposable and cloth diapers.

Sauer et al. Sauer et al. (1994) (1994)

USAUSA


The authors emphasise that the results from this

study were applicable only for the case defined by

assumptions.

The authors stresses that REPA (LCI) should not be used to find a winner or a

looser but to identify possible improvements.

Cloth and disposable diapers are difficult to compare due to

the incompleteness of the information and the inability to weight environmental effects

against each other.


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Product Comparison : Paper vs. Polystyrene Egg Packaging

The application of the LCA procedure to polystyrene and recycledThe application of the LCA procedure to polystyrene and recycled paper paper egg packaging does not provide a clearegg packaging does not provide a clear--cut answer for defining the cut answer for defining the friendlier product, but it seems that the polystyrene carton hasfriendlier product, but it seems that the polystyrene carton has a higher a higher environmental impact.environmental impact.

Comparison of Comparison of paper and paper and polystyrene for polystyrene for egg packaging.egg packaging.

Zabanioyou Zabanioyou and Kassisi and Kassisi (2003) Greece(2003) Greece


The authors recognize the importance of the accuracy

of the input data.

Product comparison is undoubtedly the application that is the moProduct comparison is undoubtedly the application that is the most sensitive to st sensitive to LCALCA’’sslimitations. The results to two different studies on the same prlimitations. The results to two different studies on the same products could seem to oducts could seem to have contradictory results. The result from an LCA cannot be genhave contradictory results. The result from an LCA cannot be generalized, and are eralized, and are very specific to the defined goal and scope. For this reason, sovery specific to the defined goal and scope. For this reason, some authors me authors recommend that LCA should not been used perform product comparisrecommend that LCA should not been used perform product comparison but only to on but only to improve the processes.improve the processes.


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Process Analysis and BenchmarkingProcess Analysis and Benchmarking

Process analysis and benchmarking consist in the determination oProcess analysis and benchmarking consist in the determination of the contribution of each f the contribution of each

stage to different impact categories, to the utilization of LCA stage to different impact categories, to the utilization of LCA as an environmental as an environmental

benchmark method, and to the optimization of resources and energbenchmark method, and to the optimization of resources and energy. Examples of these y. Examples of these

are presented in the next tables. are presented in the next tables.

Process Analysis and Benchmarking : Overall Process Evaluation

Performing LCA on the virgin and recycled paper Performing LCA on the virgin and recycled paper gave the Visy company a true picture of its mills gave the Visy company a true picture of its mills in terms of GHG emissions.in terms of GHG emissions.

Illustration of how LCA could be used to find Illustration of how LCA could be used to find opportunities for environmental improvement, opportunities for environmental improvement, more specifically for reducing GHG emissions.more specifically for reducing GHG emissions.

Wiegard Wiegard (2001) (2001) AustraliaAustralia


As a result of this study, LCA became part of their environmental program.


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Process Analysis and Benchmarking : Resources and Energy OptimizProcess Analysis and Benchmarking : Resources and Energy Optimizationation

Environmental benefits of reducing Environmental benefits of reducing consumption of paper and improving consumption of paper and improving technology is greater than increasing technology is greater than increasing recycling.recycling.

LifeLife--Cycle material and energy analysis for the pulp and Cycle material and energy analysis for the pulp and paper cycle in the United Kingdom for the period paper cycle in the United Kingdom for the period between 1987 and 1996, and modelisation of future between 1987 and 1996, and modelisation of future trends in material and energy flows until 2010.trends in material and energy flows until 2010.

Sundin et al. Sundin et al. (2002) (2002)

UKUK


Process Analysis and Benchmarking : Evaluation of Emissions alonProcess Analysis and Benchmarking : Evaluation of Emissions along the Paper Cycleg the Paper Cycle

Fossil COFossil CO22, SO, SO22 and NOx are the emissions that are the most and NOx are the emissions that are the most influenced by transport. The vehicle used has more impact influenced by transport. The vehicle used has more impact than the distance (except for longthan the distance (except for long--sea trip). Paper production sea trip). Paper production is the major contributor to COis the major contributor to CO22 and SOx.and SOx.

Evaluation of the contribution of Evaluation of the contribution of transportation to the overall transportation to the overall environmental impact of the environmental impact of the paper chain.paper chain.

Pajula, Pajula, Kutinlahti, and Kutinlahti, and Wessman Wessman (2001)(2001)


Modeling techniques and scenario-type sensitivity analysis are helpful to

answer questions with a high level of complexity

and uncertainty.

The result can change if clean energy is used in the

process.


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Many examples show that LCA is a useful tool for investigating eMany examples show that LCA is a useful tool for investigating environmental strengths nvironmental strengths

and weaknesses along the life cycle of a process or product and and weaknesses along the life cycle of a process or product and identifying stages of identifying stages of

production which cause the most impacts. LCA is useful for identproduction which cause the most impacts. LCA is useful for identifying and assessing the ifying and assessing the

environmental impacts of a product and to improve the managementenvironmental impacts of a product and to improve the management control of the plant.control of the plant.

Process Analysis and Benchmarking : Asset Evaluation

Life cycle of equipment must be considered over its Life cycle of equipment must be considered over its entire lifetime and that its environmental impacts entire lifetime and that its environmental impacts could change in time.could change in time.

Evaluation of different scenarios over Evaluation of different scenarios over time concerning the life cycle of a time concerning the life cycle of a paper machine.paper machine.

Vasara and Vasara and Jallinoja (1997) Jallinoja (1997) FinlandFinland


Incorporation of time dimension in LCA increases

its utility as decision-making tool.


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Comparison of Improvement Options for Given Product or ProcessComparison of Improvement Options for Given Product or Process

Once processes are benchmarked, LCA can be use for the evaluatioOnce processes are benchmarked, LCA can be use for the evaluation of improvement n of improvement

variants. The comparison of these with the benchmark and with eavariants. The comparison of these with the benchmark and with each other shows the best ch other shows the best

opportunities for improvement. The example below shows that LCA opportunities for improvement. The example below shows that LCA can give a clear can give a clear

answer to a defined problem, but under certain conditions. answer to a defined problem, but under certain conditions.

Comparison of Waste Management Scenarios

Options other than landfill reduce GHG Options other than landfill reduce GHG emissions. Wasteemissions. Waste--toto--energy recovery is the energy recovery is the most effective.most effective.

Investigation of various waste Investigation of various waste management options in order to reduce management options in order to reduce GHG emissions from paper.GHG emissions from paper.

Pickin, Yuen and Pickin, Yuen and Hennings (2002) Hennings (2002) AustraliaAustralia


Because of the uncertainty in the data, results were

only indicative.


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Comparison of Waste Management ScenariosComparison of Waste Management Scenarios

Recycling avoid virgin material use and impacts Recycling avoid virgin material use and impacts related to landfills.related to landfills.

Determination or the Determination or the Environmental benefits of Environmental benefits of recycling.recycling.

Grant et al. Grant et al. (2001) Australia(2001) Australia


Comparison of Improvement options for a given product or processComparison of Improvement options for a given product or process : Bleaching Processes: Bleaching Processes

FWA production uses less energy and causes FWA production uses less energy and causes lower air and COD emissions but higher AOX lower air and COD emissions but higher AOX emissions.emissions.

Comparison of environmental Comparison of environmental performance of fluorescent performance of fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs) with whitening agents (FWAs) with peroxide bleaching of mechanical peroxide bleaching of mechanical pulp using LCApulp using LCA

Sheringer, Halder Sheringer, Halder and Hungerband Hungerbüüler ler (2000) Switzerland (2000) Switzerland


Results from LCA should not be used alone for

decision-making. Technical, operational and economic reliability should be taken

into consideration.

LCA methodology alone is not enough to compare

these two process alternatives. The outcomes

of combined LCA, risk assessment and exposure-based assessment provide

a better picture.


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Recycling problems are quite complex to analyze using LCA. For tRecycling problems are quite complex to analyze using LCA. For this reason, several his reason, several

authors tried to develop LCA methodologies that are specific to authors tried to develop LCA methodologies that are specific to recycling characteristics.recycling characteristics.

LCA is not sufficient to answer complex question related to procLCA is not sufficient to answer complex question related to process alternatives, because ess alternatives, because

some impacts are not well addressed. The author recommends to cosome impacts are not well addressed. The author recommends to combine LCA with risk mbine LCA with risk

assessment and exposureassessment and exposure--based assessment. based assessment.

Comparison of Improvement options for a given product or process : Energy Alternatives

Substituting HFO by natural gas in the pulp Substituting HFO by natural gas in the pulp and paper production process is a good and paper production process is a good environmental solution when combined environmental solution when combined with cogeneration.with cogeneration.

Assessment of the replacement of heavy fuel Assessment of the replacement of heavy fuel oil (HFO) by natural gas and cogeneration in oil (HFO) by natural gas and cogeneration in the manufacturing process of paper made the manufacturing process of paper made from from Eucalyptus globulusEucalyptus globulus pulp.pulp.

Lopes et al. Lopes et al. (2003) (2003)

PortugalPortugal


LCA is the most appropriate tool to

evaluate the global impact of process modifications.


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LCA only guides decisionLCA only guides decision--makers in the assessment and selection of technologies based on makers in the assessment and selection of technologies based on

environmental performance. The methodologies used and their advaenvironmental performance. The methodologies used and their advantages are presented ntages are presented

in the next table.in the next table.

Ensures the consistency with defined boundary conditions throughout the study.

Consistency analysis.

Enables the identification and management of data gaps, inconsistencies and errors.

Data quality analysis.

Enables to test the impact of assumptions, condition and data that have the ability to affect the results and conclusions of the study.

Sensitivity analysis.

Integrates economic considerations in the decision.Environmental-economic valuation model.

Gives the relative significance of this system to the overall loads.Normalization to national or global impact categories totals.

Enables the decision-maker too chose the best option based on this environmental priorities.

Ranking of scenarios in term of environmental impact categories.

AdvantageMethodology


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Evaluation of New ProductsEvaluation of New Products

The environmental aspect should be considered in each stage of tThe environmental aspect should be considered in each stage of the life cycle of a product he life cycle of a product

beginning with its design. This practice allows a better selectibeginning with its design. This practice allows a better selection of materials and on of materials and

processes. Pulp and Paper industry is not using LCA a lot of theprocesses. Pulp and Paper industry is not using LCA a lot of the assessment of new assessment of new

products. Nevertheless, it could be predicted that it will be moproducts. Nevertheless, it could be predicted that it will be more used for this purpose in re used for this purpose in

the future due to the notion of product stewardship. The notion the future due to the notion of product stewardship. The notion means that the means that the

manufacturer is liable for its product during the course of its manufacturer is liable for its product during the course of its entire life cycle, from the entire life cycle, from the

design stage through raw material extraction and on the final didesign stage through raw material extraction and on the final disposition of the product. sposition of the product.


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Strategic EvaluationStrategic Evaluation

LCA applications can go farther than the comparison of products,LCA applications can go farther than the comparison of products, process benchmarking, process benchmarking,

choice of improvement alternatives, or green design. It can provchoice of improvement alternatives, or green design. It can provide an organization with ide an organization with

helpful information for strategic choices and marketing. A few ehelpful information for strategic choices and marketing. A few examples of how LCA has xamples of how LCA has

been used to accomplish this objective are presented in the nextbeen used to accomplish this objective are presented in the next table.table.

Like mentioned before, LCA has only just begun to be used for stLike mentioned before, LCA has only just begun to be used for strategic evaluations other rategic evaluations other

than process analysis and comparison of improvement variants. Upthan process analysis and comparison of improvement variants. Up today, the main today, the main

applications in this field were the structuring of supply chainsapplications in this field were the structuring of supply chains and marketing. and marketing.


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Canfor sees benefits of using LCA within the supply chain. ThereCanfor sees benefits of using LCA within the supply chain. There is an enhancement of the partner's is an enhancement of the partner's knowledge about the potential environmental impact of the paper knowledge about the potential environmental impact of the paper chain. This experience makes chain. This experience makes opportunities for improvement more obvious. Because both economiopportunities for improvement more obvious. Because both economic and environmental c and environmental performance can be optimized, there are clear benefits from haviperformance can be optimized, there are clear benefits from having suppliers and customers ng suppliers and customers working closely and studying the process chain.working closely and studying the process chain.

Bradley Bradley (1999) (1999) CanadaCanada

ApplicationApplicationReferenceReference

International paper uses LCA in order to satisfy their customersInternational paper uses LCA in order to satisfy their customers’’ concerns about the environment.concerns about the environment.CôtCôtéé (1996)(1996)USAUSA


Proposition of a transparent and stringent methodology to identiProposition of a transparent and stringent methodology to identify and assess environmental fy and assess environmental aspect in EMS based on LCAaspect in EMS based on LCA

Zobel at al. Zobel at al. (2002) Sweden(2002) Sweden


Strategic Evaluation : Structuring of Supply ChainsStrategic Evaluation : Structuring of Supply Chains

Strategic Evaluation : Strategic Policy Development and MarketinStrategic Evaluation : Strategic Policy Development and Marketingg

Strategic Evaluation : LCA and EMSStrategic Evaluation : LCA and EMS


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The LCA methodologies presented in the publications were almost The LCA methodologies presented in the publications were almost always incomplete. The always incomplete. The

major criticisms concern adherence to life cycle assessment stagmajor criticisms concern adherence to life cycle assessment stages related to the quality of es related to the quality of

the studies i.e. data quality sensitivity, completeness and cohethe studies i.e. data quality sensitivity, completeness and coherence studies. Product rence studies. Product

comparison is the most sensitive application to LCA limitations comparison is the most sensitive application to LCA limitations because dealing with two because dealing with two

products with the difference in system of product compared has aproducts with the difference in system of product compared has a consequence that there consequence that there

is more subjective choice to do this application compared to theis more subjective choice to do this application compared to the others. The most obvious others. The most obvious

application of LCA is process analysis, as it was created for thapplication of LCA is process analysis, as it was created for this. However, the comparison is. However, the comparison

of process alternatives will have more value if supported by tecof process alternatives will have more value if supported by technohno--economic analysis.economic analysis.


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1.1. Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).Introduction and definition of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).2.2. Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology.Overview of 4 stages of life cycle methodology.3.3. Survey of life cycle applications in the pulp and paper industrySurvey of life cycle applications in the pulp and paper industry..4.4. Proposal of Proposal of ““life cycle thinkinglife cycle thinking”” concept: using LCA as a tool for concept: using LCA as a tool for

practical applications in the operation of a facility.practical applications in the operation of a facility.



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4.4. Life Cycle ThinkingLife Cycle Thinking

Life Cycle thinking implies that everyone in the whole chain of Life Cycle thinking implies that everyone in the whole chain of a producta product’’s s life cyclelife cycle, ,

from cradle to grave, has a responsibility and a role to play, tfrom cradle to grave, has a responsibility and a role to play, taking aking

into account all the relevant external into account all the relevant external

effects. The impacts of all life cycle effects. The impacts of all life cycle

stages need to be considered stages need to be considered

comprehensively when taking comprehensively when taking

informed decisions on production informed decisions on production

and consumption patterns, policies and consumption patterns, policies

and managements strategies.and managements strategies.


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In the UK, Professor Roland In the UK, Professor Roland CliftClift argued that argued that ““it is key that lifeit is key that life--cycle thinking be cycle thinking be fostered throughout organizations, and be adopted as part and pafostered throughout organizations, and be adopted as part and parcel of the rcel of the organizationorganization’’s philosophy, mission and days philosophy, mission and day--toto--day operations. This makes it essential day operations. This makes it essential that lifethat life--cycle thinking also be applied corporate educational processescycle thinking also be applied corporate educational processes””..Life cycle thinking is a mostly quantitative discussion to identLife cycle thinking is a mostly quantitative discussion to identify stages of the life cycle ify stages of the life cycle and/or the potential environmental impacts of greatest significaand/or the potential environmental impacts of greatest significance e.g. for use and nce e.g. for use and design brief or in an introductory discussion of policy measuresdesign brief or in an introductory discussion of policy measures. The greatest benefit . The greatest benefit is that it helps focus consideration of the full life cycle of tis that it helps focus consideration of the full life cycle of the product or system.he product or system.

Applied to product design, manufacturing processes and as a deciApplied to product design, manufacturing processes and as a decisionsion--making tool for making tool for environmental policies, life cycle thinking is an essential elemenvironmental policies, life cycle thinking is an essential element for the ent for the implementation of sustainable development.implementation of sustainable development.

Sco

pe o

f En

vir

on

men

tal C

on

cern

S cope o f Tem poral Concern

Society

M u ltip leM anufacturers

S ingleProductL ife tim e

Product

ion

Use

Dis

posa

l

P roduct L ife tim eProduction Use D isposal

Hum anLife tim e

C iv ilizationspan

Sustainab le D evelopm ent

Industria l Eco logy

Life Cycle Th ink ing

D fE

Environm ental ConsciousD esign & M anufacturing

PP CP

Moving toward Moving toward sustainabilitysustainability


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practical applications in the operation of a facility.practical applications in the operation of a facility.4.1. Sustainable Development (SD)4.1. Sustainable Development (SD)



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4.1. Sustainable Development (SD)4.1. Sustainable Development (SD)

It is defined as a development that meets the needs of the preseIt is defined as a development that meets the needs of the present without nt without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their owncompromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. needs.

Schematic representation of the Schematic representation of the notion of sustainable notion of sustainable development.development.


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practical applications in the operation of a facility.practical applications in the operation of a facility.4.1. Sustainable Development (SD)4.1. Sustainable Development (SD)4.2. Industrial Ecology (IE)4.2. Industrial Ecology (IE)



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4.2. Industrial Ecology (IE)4.2. Industrial Ecology (IE)

The journal of Industrial Ecology, defines IE as: a rapidly growThe journal of Industrial Ecology, defines IE as: a rapidly growing field ing field that systematically examines local, regional, and global uses anthat systematically examines local, regional, and global uses and flows d flows of materials and energy in products, processes, industrial sectoof materials and energy in products, processes, industrial sectors, and rs, and economies. It focuses on the potential role of industry in reduceconomies. It focuses on the potential role of industry in reducing ing environmental burdens throughout the product life cycle from theenvironmental burdens throughout the product life cycle from theextraction of raw materials to the production of goods, to the uextraction of raw materials to the production of goods, to the use of se of those goods and to the management of the resulting wastes.those goods and to the management of the resulting wastes.


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practical applications in the operation of a facility.practical applications in the operation of a facility.4.1. Sustainable Development (SD)4.1. Sustainable Development (SD)4.2. Industrial Ecology (IE)4.2. Industrial Ecology (IE)4.3. Design for the Environment (4.3. Design for the Environment (DfEDfE))



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4.3. Design for the Environment (4.3. Design for the Environment (DfEDfE))

Design for the environment approach is grounded in comparing Design for the environment approach is grounded in comparing performance, costs, and the risks associated with alternatives. performance, costs, and the risks associated with alternatives. It uses It uses cleaner technologies, substitute assessments (cleaner technologies, substitute assessments (CTSAsCTSAs) and life cycle ) and life cycle tools to evaluate the performance, cost, and environmental and htools to evaluate the performance, cost, and environmental and human uman health impacts of competing technologies. A goal of health impacts of competing technologies. A goal of DfEDfE is to encourage is to encourage pollution prevention, frontpollution prevention, front--end, innovations through redesign rather end, innovations through redesign rather than relying in endthan relying in end--ofof--pipe controls to reducing potential risks to human pipe controls to reducing potential risks to human health and the environment.health and the environment.


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practical applications in the operation of a facility.practical applications in the operation of a facility.4.1. Sustainable Development (SD)4.1. Sustainable Development (SD)4.2. Industrial Ecology (IE)4.2. Industrial Ecology (IE)4.3. Design for Environment (4.3. Design for Environment (DfEDfE))4.4. Pollution Prevention (PP)4.4. Pollution Prevention (PP)



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4.4. Pollution Prevention (PP)4.4. Pollution Prevention (PP)

Design for the environment approach is grounded in comparing perDesign for the environment approach is grounded in comparing performance, costs, formance, costs, and the risks associated with alternatives. It uses cleaner techand the risks associated with alternatives. It uses cleaner technologies, substitute nologies, substitute assessments (assessments (CTSAsCTSAs) and life cycle tools to evaluate the performance, cost, and ) and life cycle tools to evaluate the performance, cost, and environmental and human health impacts of competing technologiesenvironmental and human health impacts of competing technologies. A goal of . A goal of DfEDfE is is to encourage pollution prevention, frontto encourage pollution prevention, front--end, innovations through redesign rather end, innovations through redesign rather than relying in endthan relying in end--ofof--pipe controls to reducing potential risks to human health and pipe controls to reducing potential risks to human health and the environment.the environment.


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practical applications in the operation of a facility.practical applications in the operation of a facility.4.1. Sustainable Development (SD)4.1. Sustainable Development (SD)4.2. Industrial Ecology (IE)4.2. Industrial Ecology (IE)4.3. Design for Environment (4.3. Design for Environment (DfEDfE))4.4. Pollution Prevention (PP)4.4. Pollution Prevention (PP)4.5. Cleaner Production (CP)4.5. Cleaner Production (CP)



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4.5. Cleaner Production (CP)4.5. Cleaner Production (CP)

The continuous application of an integrated preventive environmeThe continuous application of an integrated preventive environmental ntal strategy applied to processes, products, and services to increasstrategy applied to processes, products, and services to increase overall e overall efficiency and reduce risks to humans and the environment. For efficiency and reduce risks to humans and the environment. For production processes, cleaner production includes conserving rawproduction processes, cleaner production includes conserving rawmaterials and energy, eliminating toxic raw materials, and reducmaterials and energy, eliminating toxic raw materials, and reducing the ing the quantity and toxicity of all emissions and quantity and toxicity of all emissions and wasteswastes. For products is . For products is involves reducing the negative impacts along the life cycle of ainvolves reducing the negative impacts along the life cycle of a product, product, from raw materials extraction to its ultimate disposal. For servfrom raw materials extraction to its ultimate disposal. For services the ices the strategy focuses on incorporating environmental concerns into strategy focuses on incorporating environmental concerns into designing and delivering services. designing and delivering services.


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practical applications in the operation of a facility.practical applications in the operation of a facility.4.1. Sustainable Development (SD)4.1. Sustainable Development (SD)4.2. Industrial Ecology (IE)4.2. Industrial Ecology (IE)4.3. Design for Environment (4.3. Design for Environment (DfEDfE))4.4. Pollution Prevention (PP)4.4. Pollution Prevention (PP)4.5. Cleaner Production (CP)4.5. Cleaner Production (CP)4.6. Life Cycle Management4.6. Life Cycle Management



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4.6. Life Cycle Management4.6. Life Cycle Management

The basic idea in life cycle management is to establish a thorouThe basic idea in life cycle management is to establish a thorough gh knowledge of the environmental burdens of the products manufactuknowledge of the environmental burdens of the products manufactured red by the company and use this for improvement actions. The processby the company and use this for improvement actions. The processincludes employees at most levels of the company and starts withincludes employees at most levels of the company and starts with an an identification of all processes at the production site and an anidentification of all processes at the production site and an analysis of alysis of the related inthe related in--and outputs. The result from the process can be used to and outputs. The result from the process can be used to establish an LCA, but it is more important that the results are establish an LCA, but it is more important that the results are used to used to minimize the environmental burdens. This one by using a set of tminimize the environmental burdens. This one by using a set of tools ools tailored to meet the needs of a given company, e.g. design for ttailored to meet the needs of a given company, e.g. design for the he environment, pollution prevention strategies, waste audits, greeenvironment, pollution prevention strategies, waste audits, green n procurement etc.procurement etc.


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practical applications in the operation of a facility.practical applications in the operation of a facility.5.5. Multiple choice questions.Multiple choice questions.



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5.5. Multiple choice questionsMultiple choice questions

Question 1:Question 1:

What parts imply the cradleWhat parts imply the cradle--toto--grave concept?grave concept?

a)a) Extraction and transport of raw materialsExtraction and transport of raw materials

b)b) ProductionProduction

c)c) ConsumptionConsumption

d)d) ReRe--use or disposaluse or disposal

e)e) All of the above.All of the above.


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Which parts according SETAC conform an LCA study ?Which parts according SETAC conform an LCA study ?

a)a) Life Cycle Inventory (LCI), Life Cycle Impact Assessment Life Cycle Inventory (LCI), Life Cycle Impact Assessment

(LCIA), the Interpretation of the study.(LCIA), the Interpretation of the study.

b)b) Defining the goal and scope of the study, Life Cycle Defining the goal and scope of the study, Life Cycle

Inventory (LCI), Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA), the Inventory (LCI), Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA), the

Interpretation of the study.Interpretation of the study.

c)c) Defining the goal and scope of the study, Life Cycle Defining the goal and scope of the study, Life Cycle

Inventory (LCI), Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA).Inventory (LCI), Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA).


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Principal factors that should be considered and stated clearly iPrincipal factors that should be considered and stated clearly in the Scope n the Scope

of Study include:of Study include:

a)a) The The function(sfunction(s) of the system to be analyzed) of the system to be analyzed

b)b) The system boundariesThe system boundaries

c)c) Data requirementsData requirements

d)d) Any assumptions madeAny assumptions made

e)e) Study limitationsStudy limitations

f)f) All of the aboveAll of the above


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What is the most sensitive to What is the most sensitive to LCALCA’’ss limitations ?limitations ?

a)a) MoneyMoney

b)b) InformationInformation

c)c) SocietySociety

d)d) Product ComparisonProduct Comparison

e)e) Goal and ScopeGoal and Scope


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It consist in the determination of the contribution of each stagIt consist in the determination of the contribution of each stage to different e to different

impact categories?impact categories?

a)a) Process analysis and benchmarking Process analysis and benchmarking

b)b) Life Cycle AssessmentLife Cycle Assessment

c)c) Inventory AnalysisInventory Analysis

d)d) SustainabilitySustainability


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What implies Life Cycle thinking ?What implies Life Cycle thinking ?

a)a) Consecutive and interlinked stages of a product or service Consecutive and interlinked stages of a product or service

system, from the extraction of natural resources to the system, from the extraction of natural resources to the

final disposalfinal disposal

b)b) That everyone in the whole chain of a productThat everyone in the whole chain of a product’’s life cycle, s life cycle,

from cradle to grave, has a responsibility and a role to from cradle to grave, has a responsibility and a role to

play, taking into account all the relevant external effectsplay, taking into account all the relevant external effects

c)c) Defining a functional unit can be quite difficult, as the Defining a functional unit can be quite difficult, as the

performance of products is not always easy to describeperformance of products is not always easy to describe


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It is defined as a development that meets the needs of the preseIt is defined as a development that meets the needs of the present without nt without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their owncompromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs:needs:

a)a) Cleaner ProductionCleaner Production

b)b) Sustainable DevelopmentSustainable Development

c)c) Industrial EcologyIndustrial Ecology

d)d) Inventory AnalysisInventory Analysis


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The goal and scope definition is a guide that helps you to ensurThe goal and scope definition is a guide that helps you to ensure the consistency e the consistency

of the LCA you perform.of the LCA you perform.

a)a) TrueTrue

b)b) FalseFalse


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Most of the study about LCA studies come from the university secMost of the study about LCA studies come from the university sector because :tor because :

a)a) They like itThey like it

b)b) It is easyIt is easy

c)c) LCA methodology is still under developmentLCA methodology is still under development

d)d) It is difficult It is difficult


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End of Tier IEnd of Tier I

Assuming that you have done all the reading, this is the end of Assuming that you have done all the reading, this is the end of Tier 1Tier 1. . No doubt much of this information seems confusing, but things wiNo doubt much of this information seems confusing, but things will ll

become more clear when webecome more clear when we’’ll look at examples in Tier 2.ll look at examples in Tier 2.

CongratulationsCongratulations

EndOf

Tier 1CongratulationsCongratulations

EndOf

Tier 1


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Tier IDefinitions


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Allocation.Allocation. Material input that is used by the unit process producing the pMaterial input that is used by the unit process producing the product, but does roduct, but does not constitute a part of the product not constitute a part of the product –– e.g. a catalyst.e.g. a catalyst.

Category endpoint.Category endpoint. Attribute or aspect of natural environment, human health or resAttribute or aspect of natural environment, human health or resources ources identifying an environmental issue of concern.identifying an environmental issue of concern.

Characterization.Characterization. Second element within impact assessment succeeding the classifiSecond element within impact assessment succeeding the classification cation element and preceding valuation, in which analysis/quantificatioelement and preceding valuation, in which analysis/quantification, and aggregation of the n, and aggregation of the impacts within the chosen impact categories takes place.impacts within the chosen impact categories takes place.

Classification.Classification. First element within impact assessment, which attributes the enFirst element within impact assessment, which attributes the environmental vironmental inventions listed in the inventory table to a number of selectedinventions listed in the inventory table to a number of selected impact categories.impact categories.

Completeness.Completeness. Percentage of locations reporting primary data from the potentiPercentage of locations reporting primary data from the potential number al number in existence for each data category in a input process.in existence for each data category in a input process.

Consistency.Consistency. Qualitative assessment of how uniformly the study methodology Qualitative assessment of how uniformly the study methodology is applied is applied to the various components of the analysis.to the various components of the analysis.

TerminologyTerminology


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Data quality.Data quality. Characteristics of data that bears on their ability to satisfy Characteristics of data that bears on their ability to satisfy stated stated requirements.requirements.

Functional Unit.Functional Unit. Quantified performance of a product system for use as a referenQuantified performance of a product system for use as a reference unit in ce unit in a life cycle assessment study. a life cycle assessment study.

Geographical coverage.Geographical coverage. Geographic area from which data for unit processes should be Geographic area from which data for unit processes should be collected to satisfy the goal of the study (e.g. local, regionalcollected to satisfy the goal of the study (e.g. local, regional, national, continental, , national, continental, global).global).

Impact.Impact. The consequences for health, for the wellThe consequences for health, for the well--being of flora and fauna or for the being of flora and fauna or for the future availability of natural resources, attributable to the infuture availability of natural resources, attributable to the input and output streams of a put and output streams of a system.system.

Impact Category.Impact Category. Class representing environmental issue of concern into which LCClass representing environmental issue of concern into which LCI I results may be assigned.results may be assigned.



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Marketing.Marketing. Traditional way to communicating product properties and capabilTraditional way to communicating product properties and capabilities which ities which are consistent with the consumerare consistent with the consumer’’s expectations and demands. As the level of s expectations and demands. As the level of environmental consciousness is increasing, more attention is beienvironmental consciousness is increasing, more attention is being paid by the consumer ng paid by the consumer to the environmental properties of goods and services. This is bto the environmental properties of goods and services. This is being used (and misused) eing used (and misused) by many companies to attempt to increase their market share, andby many companies to attempt to increase their market share, and development of development of criteria and guidelines for environmental marketing has a high criteria and guidelines for environmental marketing has a high priority.priority.

Normalization.Normalization. An optional element within impact assessment which involves relAn optional element within impact assessment which involves relating all ating all impact scores of a functional unit in the impact score profile timpact scores of a functional unit in the impact score profile to a reference situation. o a reference situation. Normalization results in a normalized impact score profile whichNormalization results in a normalized impact score profile which consist of normalized consist of normalized impact scores.impact scores.

Precision.Precision. Measure of the variability of the data values for each data catMeasure of the variability of the data values for each data category expressed egory expressed (e.g. variance).(e.g. variance).



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Process Flow Diagram.Process Flow Diagram. Chart containing Chart containing labelledlabelled boxes connected by lines with directional boxes connected by lines with directional arrows to illustrate the unit processes or subarrows to illustrate the unit processes or sub--systems included in the product system and systems included in the product system and the interrelationships between those unit processes.the interrelationships between those unit processes.

Product System.Product System. Collection of materially and energetically connected unit proceCollection of materially and energetically connected unit processes which sses which perform one or more defined functions perform one or more defined functions –– in the international ISO Standard, the term in the international ISO Standard, the term ““productproduct”” used alone includes not only product systems but also can incluused alone includes not only product systems but also can include service de service systems.systems.

Recycling.Recycling. Recycling of products implies that the environmental inputs andRecycling of products implies that the environmental inputs and outputs outputs associated with the manufacturing of a product and its recyclingassociated with the manufacturing of a product and its recycling are to be shared by are to be shared by more than one product system.more than one product system.

Recycling, closedRecycling, closed--loop.loop. Recovery of material on the same factory that produced the Recovery of material on the same factory that produced the material. This kind of recovery requires a material. This kind of recovery requires a ““take backtake back”” arrangement.arrangement.

Recycling, openRecycling, open--loop.loop. Recovery of material Recovery of material –– but not on the same factory that produced but not on the same factory that produced the material. This kind of recovery requires a central collectiothe material. This kind of recovery requires a central collection of used material.n of used material.



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Reference Flow.Reference Flow. Measure of the needed outputs from processing a given product sMeasure of the needed outputs from processing a given product system ystem required to fulfill the function expressed by the functional unirequired to fulfill the function expressed by the functional unit.t.

RepresentativenessRepresentativeness.. Qualitative assessment of the degree to which the data set reflQualitative assessment of the degree to which the data set reflects ects the true population of interest (i.e. geographic and time periodthe true population of interest (i.e. geographic and time period and technology coverage).and technology coverage).

Reproducibility.Reproducibility. Qualitative assessment of the extent to which information aboutQualitative assessment of the extent to which information about the the methodology and data values allows an independent practitioner tmethodology and data values allows an independent practitioner to reproduce the results o reproduce the results reported in the study.reported in the study.

Risk Assessment.Risk Assessment. A tool developed to investigate the potential risk to human heaA tool developed to investigate the potential risk to human health or the lth or the environment from specific situations like transport of dangerousenvironment from specific situations like transport of dangerous goods or the use of goods or the use of specific substances.specific substances.

System Boundary.System Boundary. Interface between a product system and the environmental or othInterface between a product system and the environmental or other er product system.product system.

Technology coverage.Technology coverage. Nature of the technology mix (e.g. weighted average of the actuNature of the technology mix (e.g. weighted average of the actual al process mix, best available technology or worst operating unit).process mix, best available technology or worst operating unit).



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TimeTime--related coverage.related coverage. The desired age (e.g. within last 5 years) and the minimum The desired age (e.g. within last 5 years) and the minimum length of time (e.g. annual). length of time (e.g. annual).

Unit Unit –– process.process. Smallest portion of a product system for which data are collectSmallest portion of a product system for which data are collected when ed when performing a life cycle assessment.performing a life cycle assessment.

Valuation/weighting.Valuation/weighting. Last element within impact assessment following the Last element within impact assessment following the characterization/normalization element, in which results of the characterization/normalization element, in which results of the characterization/normalization, in particular the (normalized) icharacterization/normalization, in particular the (normalized) impact scores, are weighted mpact scores, are weighted against each other an a quantitative and/or qualitative way ordeagainst each other an a quantitative and/or qualitative way order to be able to make the r to be able to make the impact information more decisionimpact information more decision--friendly. This is an element which necessarily involves friendly. This is an element which necessarily involves qualitative or quantitative valuations which are not only based qualitative or quantitative valuations which are not only based on natural sciences. For on natural sciences. For instance, political and/or ethical values can be used in this elinstance, political and/or ethical values can be used in this element. The valuation can ement. The valuation can result in an environmental index.result in an environmental index.

Waste.Waste. Any output from the product system which is disposed of.Any output from the product system which is disposed of.

Weighting.Weighting. Conversion of category indicator results by using numerical facConversion of category indicator results by using numerical factors based on tors based on value choices value choices –– weighting may include aggregation of the weighted category indiweighting may include aggregation of the weighted category indicator cator results.results.


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