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WORKING AND

THINKINGSCIENTIFICALLYSCE 3106

Compiled by Azman Bin Omar

IPG Kampus Sultan Mizan

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SCE 3106 WORKING AND THINKING SCIENTIFICALLY

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TOPIC 1 Primary Science Teaching

SYNOPSIS

This topic discusses about the teaching of science inprimary schools. It explains the aims of science teaching andemphasizes the components in primary science curriculum.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic teachers will able to :

1. Explain the aims of teaching science in primary schools.

2. List down the components that are emphasized in theteaching of science curriculum in primary schools.

TOPICS FRAMEWORK

PRIMARYSCIENCE

TEACHING

AIMS OFSCIENCE

TEACHING

EMPHASISIN

PRIMARYSCIENCE

SCIENTIFICLITERACY

PROFESIONALS

INSCIENCE

SCIENCECONCEPTS

SCIENTIFICAND

THINKINGSKILLS

SCIENTIFICATTITUDES

ANDNOBLESVALUES

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noble values. The Primary Science curriculum is designed to

stimulate pupils curiosity and develop their interest as well as

enable pupils to learn more about themselves and the world

around them through pupil-centered activities. This will provide

the pupils with experiences to build their interest in science and

opportunities to acquire scientific and thinking skills.

The emphasis of the Malaysian primary science

curriculum are learning through experience relevant to pupils

daily lives, developing scientific and thinking skills, applying

scientific principles and inculating scientific attitudes and noble

values. (Yeoh P.C. & Gan C.M. 2003 p22)

Science exploration for children is science inquiry exploring

materials/events, asking questions, investigating,

recording/representing their work, reflecting on what they have

done and what it means allowing them to create new theories

or ideas about how the world works. These skills, attitudes, and

ways of thinking are important to many areas of learning

throughout life. In primary schools, pupils are learning scientific

skills because:

o They are the methods used by scientists in investigating

and constructing answers to questions about the natural

world. Through using the process skills pupils learn

science in a manner similar to the way scientists conduct

their investigations.

o Meaningful learning takes place when pupils are using

process skills to explore the environment and to acquire

and interpret information, leading to the construction of

their own knowledge.

o They are not only useful in science learning but are also

applicable across disciplines and experiences and thus,

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Skamp, K. (Ed.), (2004) Teaching primary science

constructively(2nd ed.).Melbourne, Australia: ThomsonLearning.

Find the 5-E instructional Model andprepare a ppt. presentation.

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Tutorial 1

Higher order thinking

Russell Tytler, March 28, 2004

There is a lot of focus currently on the notion of higher order thinking,particularly in relation to the Middle Years concerns, focusing onengaging students in meaningful learning. Terms such as the ThinkingCurriculum are used to describe a school focus on deeper level ideas.Higher order thinking is used as a term to describe a number of relatedideas, all essentially held to be in contrast to rote learning, learning offacts, superficial thinking etc. Schemes such Blooms taxonomy havebeen used to order knowledge forms in a hierarchy, with information at

the bottom (Bloom called it knowledge but the term tends to have awider meaning these days), then comprehension, then higher levelssuch as application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The threetiered intellect uses similar terms, with higher order thinking beingassociated with words such as interprets, analyses, reflects,evaluates.

Also associated with higher level thinking are dimensions of creativity,or divergent thinking. Emphasising, in science tasks, such things ascreativity, imagination, flexibility all aim at developing in students acapacity to think through ideas and apply them to a range of contexts,to think outside the square and to think critically.

Higher level thinking is also associated with investigative practices inscience, and with problem solving. Such behaviours and knowledge asasking investigable questions, designing investigations ormeasurement procedures, critically evaluating evidence, thinking ofways to test ideas etc. are all part of what we would hope an engagedand resourceful student to be doing.

The first two SIS Components of effective teaching and learning are

closely related to higher level thinking. These are given below, withlinks to the science education literature.

1. Encouraging students to actively engage with ideas andevidenceComponent 1 is a key characteristic of effective teaching and learning.It is linked with a number of important ideas that appear in the scienceeducation research literature, and in curriculum and innovation changeprojects.

The key idea embodied in this Component is that real learning is anactive process that involves students being challenged, and

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challenging each other, rather than accepting received wisdom andpracticing its application. A predominant image projected by thisComponent is thus one of the active, searching mind. The underlyinglogic of this Component is consistent with constructivist insights intolearning.

This does not in any way diminish, however, the role of the teacher. Ifanything it makes teachers roles more complex and difficult, in askingthem to encourage students to express their ideas, but to maintain ahigh standard of challenge and attention to evidence based onscientific traditions. The Component combines two ideas thatlearning involves activity and engagement, and that scientificprocesses fundamentally involve argument from evidence. It is hard, ina practising science classroom situation, to separate these notions.

Related ideas in the science education literature:

Sharing intellectual control, or student centredness The idea thatstudents ideas be treated with respect is well established in researchon students conceptions and research on learning in science. TheMonash University Extended PD materials, now embedded within theSISPD program, emphasised this control aspect. One cannot expectstudents to be engaged with a pre-packaged program entirely dictatedby teachers understandings, and this Component asks that teacherstake some risks in acknowledging that students, if they are to learn,must be given a measure of control over the ideas that are discussed.

Inquiry based learning This is a term much in vogue in the U.S.,implying that science teaching and learning must be based on studentsactively exploring and investigating and questioning. This is different todiscovery learning which, in its pure form, implied somehow thatstudents could learn science simply by undertaking appropriatepractical investigations, and under-represented the critical role of theteacher in structuring and responding to student experiences. A relatedphrase often used in primary science education is hands-on, minds-onscience. It is the minds-on part that is referred to by this Component.

Student autonomy, and responsibility for learning These ideasemphasise both the active and intentional nature of learning and thepurpose of schooling in promoting autonomous adults. Engagement isa prior condition for both. The Middle Years concern with studentengagement with ideas and with schooling is also linked to thisComponent. The Component should not be thought about, however,simply in terms of motivation or a willingness to join in. It focusesclearly on ideas.

Maximising student-student interaction A video study ofmathematics and science teachers (Clark, 2001) found that the key

determinant of a rich learning environment was the amount of high

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quality student student dialogue. This could be taken as one of thecritical features of engagement with ideas.

Community of learners This idea of a class or group as a communitydedicated to particular forms of learning sits comfortably with

Component 1, since engagement with ideas and evidence can beinterpreted as a communal enterprise. Social constructivism, or sociocultural theory, is also linked with this idea.

Argumentation there is growing interest in idea that the ability toframe and respond to argument is an important focus for scienceeducation. Science as it is practised in the community is characterizedby argument based on evidence.

Science processes and concepts of evidence The teaching ofscience processes has a long history in science education. These are

sometimes called skills, but in fact there is a good deal of knowledgeassociated with things like experimental design, measurementprinciples, or analysis. Evidence is handled in science in particularways (eg. principles of sampling, or variable control, or measurementprocedures) and learning how this occurs in a more formal way is apart of this first Component. The teaching and learning focusassociated with this would include being taught how to do things likesample biological data, control variables, set up tables, deal withmeasurement error etc. These may be taught explicitly, but teachingfor an understanding of the way evidence is used would imply thatstudents need to learn to make decisions about design, measurementand analysis. Open ended investigations form an important end of thepractical work spectrum.

2. Challenging students to develop meaningful understandings

Component 2 raises the questions what does it mean to understandsomething in science, and what is meaningful? Neither arestraightforward questions. The teachers who were originallyinterviewed to develop the Components talked of deeper levelunderstandings, or understandings that would be revisited in different

situations to enrich and challenge.

Related ideas in the science education literature:

Student conceptions The research into student conceptions showsclearly that students come to any science topic with prior ideas that willoften contradict the science version of understanding, that can interferewith learning. Learning, and gaining understanding should be viewedoften as a shift in perspective rather than something implanted overnothing. The conceptual change literature, whichemphasises probes of understanding, and challenge activities, is thus

relevant to this Component. Lesson and topic structure becomesimportant for the development of understanding.

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Metacognition The work of the PEEL project has important links tothis Component, focusing on student learning strategies, and controlover learning. If students are to establish deeper level understandingsthey need to be helped to develop good learning habits, and to monitor

the adequacy of their own understandings. These ideas underlie thethinking curriculum focus of some of the Middle Years projects.Higher order thinking Many writers have made the distinctionbetween shallow and deep, or low and higher order thinking. Bloomstaxonomy identified higher order thinking as associated with theapplication and evaluation of ideas. Ideas such as the three storyintellect attempt a similar hierarchy.

Deeper or wider? A commitment to looking below the surface is oneway of describing this Component. Another aspect of meaningfulunderstandings is the insight that ideas are tools to be applied rather

than concepts to be arrived at. The ability to use an idea in interpretingthe world is a critical part of understanding.

Divergent thinking Part of what a meaningful understanding shouldbe involves the ability to use it to solve unexpected problems, or togenerate a variety of related ideas. The ability to think divergently orlaterally is part of what a meaningful understanding is.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) In order to support studentsin developing understandings, it is essential for teachers to beknowledgeable themselves (content knowledge), not so they can tell,but so they can listen and challenge. The other form of knowledgeneeded is that of how studentslearn particular concepts the difficulties they experience and thedifferent ways they may interpretthe science idea. We call this PCK.

Improving Middle Years Mathematics and Science: Componentsrelevant toHigher Order thinking

Recently (in early 2004) we have been engaged in developing a set ofComponents of effective teaching and learning in mathematics andscience, and examples to support two components dealing with higherorder thinking are given below.

3. Students are challenged to extend their understandings

Students engage with conceptually challenging content such that theydevelop higher order understandings of key ideas and processes.

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3.1 Subject matter is conceptually complex and intriguing, butaccessible

3.2 Tasks challenge students to explore, question and reflect onkey ideas

3.3 The teacher clearly signals high expectations for eachstudent

This Component is demonstrated when: Students are challenged to reflect on their response to tasks

Open questions are asked that call for interpretive responses

The teacher poses questions and hypothetical situations tomove students beyond superficial approaches

Students are asked to represent their understandings in avariety of ways

Including frequent open ended problems and explorations

The teacher provides experiences and poses questions thatchallenge students understandings, and encourages them toapply ideas to unfamiliar situations

Stimulus materials are provided that challenge students ideasand encourage discussion and ongoing exploration

Historical case studies are used to explore how major scienceideas developed

Higher order tasks involving the generation, application,analysis and synthesis of ideas, are well represented, forexample, by the teacher using Blooms taxonomy in planning.

Students are provided with questions or challenges as the

impetus for learning and encouraging and supporting studentsto construct their own responses to such questions

Open-ended problems or tasks are set that require divergentresponses and provide the opportunity for solutions of differingkinds to be developed.

Students are encouraged to examine critically and evenchallenge information provided by the teacher, a textbook, anewspaper, etc.

The teacher sets learning challenges that require students toanalyse, evaluate and create

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The teacher uses higher order thinking tools when planningactivities to allow for multiple entry points and to develop higherorder thinking skills such as synthesis, evaluation etc.

The Component is NOT demonstrated when:

Investigations or projects run without significant classdiscussion of the underlying science.

Class activities which are fun, with surprising outcomes, butwithout follow up of ideas in subsequent lessons, or framing ofthe ideas behind the activities.

Science concepts are treated as things to be learnt,emphasising formal definitions.

There is a presumption that it is the teachers role to controlwhat is to be learnt, and how it is to be learnt.

Classroom work is constrained or recipe like, without room fordiscussion or debate of purpose or methods

Lesson plans contain too much material to allow sustaineddiscussions in response to student questions

Activities focus on having fun without a real focus onconceptual understandings

5. Students are encouraged to see themselves asmathematical and scientific thinkers

5.1 Students are explicitly supported to engage with theprocesses of open-ended investigation and problem solving

This Component is demonstrated when:

The teacher plans to strategically build opportunities forstudents to develop hypotheses in practical work, and to extendand question interpretations

The teacher encourages students to raise questions in class,arising out of observations, or experience.

Students are encouraged to make decisions in practicalinvestigations concerning hypotheses to be explored,experimental design, measurement and recording techniques,analysis and interpretation.

This component is NOT demonstrated when:

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Students are given a choice of investigations to carry out, butwithout training in appropriate experimental techniques and withno group commitment to the ideas being tested.

A class experiment focuses on control of variables (fair testing)without a clear conceptual proposition. For instance, thepermeability of sand, loam and clay soil is tested, with attentionpaid to controlling for water, amount of soil, technique, butwithout discussing the purpose or the reasons why they mightdiffer.

Practical work is recipe-like, without room for discussion anddebate of purpose, methods, analysis.

5.2 Students engage in mathematical/scientific reasoning and

argumentation

This sub-component is demonstrated when:

Stimulus materials are provided that challenge students ideasand encouraging discussion, speculation, and ongoingexploration

Time is allowed for discussions to arise naturally and befollowed in class, and encouraging investigations to resolvequestions

The teacher shares intellectual control with students

The learning program includes frequent open endedinvestigations or short-term open explorations

The teacher encourages discussion of evidence, includingdisconfirming evidence such as anomalies in experimental work,in text book explanations, in observations, or in public reports ofscience

The teacher provides students with questions or challenges asthe impetus for learning and encourages and supports studentsto construct their own responses to such questions

Students are encouraged to challenge or support or amplifyothers contributions.

The sub-component is NOT demonstrated when:

There is a strong focus on ensuring content coverage, as

distinct from understanding

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Lesson plans are strictly followed, with too much material tobe covered to allow divergent discussions in response tostudent questions or comments.

Students work mainly individually, with not much whole-class

or small- group discussion.

Class discussion is dominated by the teachers voice.

Teacher questions are mainly closed, with a particularresponse in mind.

There is a strong focus on ensuring content coverage, asdistinct from understanding.

Intellectual control is firmly maintained by the teacher.

Examples to illustrate the Component:

The history of science ideas is strongly represented.Eg. A science topic on disease focuses on the history of ourunderstanding of the bacterial nature of infection, to emphasisethe power of science insights, and the way evidence is used totest and verify theories in science.

Attention is paid to the processes of hypothesis generationand experimental design Eg. Yvonne ran an animal behaviourunit for her Year 1 class. They discussed, using observations ofa classroom pet rat, the difference between observation andinference. They learnt the technique of time sampling of animalposition and behaviour using birds in a cage, and one, then tworats in an enclosure. Following discussions about the survivalimplications of behaviour, they then examined crickets andcame up with a class list of questions about cricket behaviour, orstructure and function. Pairs of students designed, carried outand reported on a chosenquestion, using a template that required presentation of data in

two formats, and an evaluation of the generality of the findings.The focus in the discussion continually referred back to theadaptive purpose of particular behaviours. Eg. Year 10 studentsstudying genetics investigate recent claims there has beencross-breeding of genetically modified soy into local crops. Theylook at the suggested mechanism for cross-pollination, andstudy genetic techniques, to come up with suggestions aboutwhat controls should be in place.

Planning is flexible enough so that student ideas andquestions can be genuinely followed up, perhaps by further

investigation. Eg. Julies Year 4 class raised the question abouthow long a ballpoint pen would last. They discussed how you

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would find out, then arranged a comparative investigation withdifferent brands, measuring the length of line with appropriatecontrols. Eg. During a genetics unit, the question of geneticallymodified food captures student interest and leads to a debateinformed by independent research using the web.

Anomalous results from experiments are discussed openly inthe class. Eg. Craigs Year 8 class found an experimentculturing bacteria gave anomalous results. Before handing thecultures back to groups he displayed them, then led adiscussion in which they discussed the surprise results to comeup with some possible reasons and an evaluation of theadequacy of the controls they had put in place. Eg. A class usesde Bonos thinking hats technique to fully explore thegreenhouse effect. Eg. A unit is planned using the interactiveapproach, whereby students questions are discussed and

refined to form the basis of investigations forming the core of theunit.

Current issues are discussed in class, which encouragestudents to raise questions about evidence, or the ideasunderlying such issues. Eg. Methods of responding to acontemporary outbreak of foot and mouth are discussed anddebated, using newspaper analyses. Eg. The nutritional value ofchildrens lunches is discussed, using evidence from a resourcebook on dietary principles. Eg. In a unit on road safety, evidencerelated to the wearing of seat belts, or of bicycle helmets, isdebated in the contextof public policy.

Open-ended tasks are set that encourage divergent, creativethinking Eg. Students are asked to use their scienceunderstandings to design a system, or technological device,such as an automated plant nursery, or method of analysing themovement of a netball player. Eg. Students are challengedusing what would happen if.. questions (If gravity on earth wasstronger, if we could clone dinosaurs), or take place in

hypotheticals.

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Tutorial 2

TEN MYTHS OF SCIENCE: REEXAMINING WHAT WE THINK WE

KNOW...W. McComas 1996

This article addresses and attempts to refute several of the mostwidespread and enduring misconceptions held by students regardingthe enterprise of science. The ten myths discussed include thecommon notions that theories become laws, that hypotheses are bestcharacterized as educated guesses, and that there is a commonly-applied scientific method. In addition, the article includes discussion ofother incorrect ideas such as the view that evidence leads to sureknowledge, that science and its methods provide absolute proof, and

that science is not a creative endeavor. Finally, the myths thatscientists are objective, that experiments are the sole route to scientificknowledge and that scientific conclusions are continually reviewedconclude this presentation. The paper ends with a plea that instructionin and opportunities to experience the nature of science are vital inpreservice and inservice teacher education programs to help unseatthe myths of science. Myths are typically defined as traditional views,fables, legends or stories. As such, myths can be entertaining andeven educational since they help people make sense of the world. Infact, the explanatory role of myths most likely accounts for theirdevelopment, spread and persistence. However, when fact and fictionblur, myths lose their entertainment value and serve only to block fullunderstanding. Such is the case with the myths of science. ScholarJoseph Campbell (1968) has proposed that the similarity among manyfolk myths worldwide is due to a subconscious link between all peoples,but no such link can explain the myths of science. Misconceptionsabout science are most likely due to the lack of philosophy of sciencecontent in teacher education programs, the failure of such programs toprovide and require authentic science experiences for preserviceteachers and the generally shallow treatment of the nature of sciencein the precollege textbooks to which teachers might turn for guidance.

As Steven Jay Gould points out in The Case of the Creeping FoxTerrier Clone (1988), science textbook writers are among the mostegregious purveyors of myth and inaccuracy. The fox terrier mentionedin the title refers to the classic comparison used to express the size ofthe dawn horse, the tiny precursor to the modem horse. Thiscomparison is unfortunate for two reasons. Not only was this horseancestor much bigger than a fox terrier, but the fox terrier breed of dogis virtually unknown to American students. The major criticism leveledby Gould is that once this comparison took hold, no one bothered tocheck its validity or utility. Through time, one author after anothersimply repeated the inept comparison and continued a tradition that

has made many science texts virtual clones of each other on this andcountless other points.

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In an attempt to provide a more realistic view of science and point outissues on which science teachers should focus, this article presentsand discusses 10 widely-held, yet incorrect ideas about the nature ofscience. There is no implication that all students, or most teachers forthat matter, hold all of these views to be true, nor is the list meant to be

the definitive catolog. Cole (1986)and Rothman (1992) have suggested additional misconceptions worthyof consideration. However, years of science teaching and the reviewof countless texts has substantiated the validity of the inventorypresented here.

Myth 1: Hypotheses become theories which become lawsThis myth deals with the general belief that with increased evidencethere is a developmental sequence through which scientific ideas passon their way to final acceptance. Many believe that scientific ideaspass through the hypothesis and theory stages and finally mature as

laws. A former U.S. president showed his misunderstanding of scienceby saying that he was not troubled by the idea of evolution because itwas "just a theory." The president's misstatement is theessence of this myth; that an idea is not worthy of consideration until"lawness" has been bestowed upon it. The problem created by thefalse hierarchical nature inherent in this myth is that theories and lawsare very different kinds of knowledge. Of course there is a relationshipbetween laws and theories, but one simply does not become the other--no matter how much empirical evidence isamassed. Laws are generalizations, principles or patterns in natureand theories are the explanations of those generalizations (Rhodes &Schaible, 1989; Homer & Rubba, 1979; Campbell, 1953). For instance,Newton described the relationship of mass and distance togravitational attraction between objects with such precision that we canuse the law of gravity to plan spaceflights. During the Apollo 8 mission,astronaut Bill Anders responded to the question of who was flying thespacecraft by saying, "I think that Issac Newton is doing most of thedriving fight now." (Chaikin, 1994, p. 127). His response wasunderstood by all to mean that the capsule was simply following thebasic laws of physics described by Isaac Newton years centuriesearlier. The more thorny, and many would say more interesting, issue

with respect to gravity is the explanation for why the law operates as itdoes. At this point, there is no well. accepted theory of gravity. Somephysicists suggest that gravity waves are the correct explanation forthe law of gravity, but with clear confirmation and consensus lacking,most feel that the theory of gravity still eludes science. Interestingly,Newton addressed the distinction between law and theory with respectto gravity. Although he had discovered the law of gravity, he refrainedfrom speculating publically about its cause. In Principial, Newtonstates" . . . I have not been able to discover thecause of those properties of gravity from phenomena, and I frame nohypothesis . . ." " . . . it is enough that gravity does really exist, and act

according to the laws which we have explained . . ." (Newton,1720/1946, p. 547).

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Myth 2: A hypothesis is an educated guessThe definition of the term hypothesis has taken on an almost mantra-like life of its own in science classes. If a hypothesis is always aneducated guess as students typically assert, the question remains, "an

educated guess about what?" The best answer for this question mustbe, that without a clear view of the context in which the term is used, itis impossible to tell. The term hypothesis has at least three definitions,and for that reason, should be abandoned, or atleast used with caution. For instance, when Newton said that heframed no hypothesis as to the cause of gravity he was saying that hehad no speculation about an explanation of why the law of gravityoperates as it does. In this case, Newton used the term hypothesis torepresent an immature theory. As a solution to the hypothesis problem,Sonleitner (1989) suggested that tentative or trial laws be calledgeneralizing hypotheses with provisional theories referred to as

explanatory hypotheses. Another approach would be to abandon theword hypothesis altogether in favor of terms such as speculative law orspeculative theory. With evidence, generalizing hypotheses maybecome laws and speculative theories become theories, but under nocircumstances do theories become laws. Finally, when students areasked to propose a hypothesis during a laboratory experience, theterm now means a prediction. As for those hypotheses that are reallyforecasts, perhaps they should simply be called what they are,predictions.

Myth 3: A general and universal scientific method existsThe notion that a common series of steps is followed by all researchscientists must be among the most pervasive myths of science giventhe appearance of such a list in the introductory chapters of manyprecollege science texts. This myth has been part of the folklore ofschool science ever since its proposal by statistician Karl Pearson(1937). The steps listed for the scientific method vary from text to textbut usually include, a) define the problem, b) gather backgroundinformation, c) form a hypothesis, d) make observations, e) test thehypothesis, and f) draw conclusions. Some texts conclude their list ofthe steps of the scientific method by listing communication of results as

the final ingredient.One of the reasons for the widespread belief in a general scientificmethod may be the way in which results are presented for publicationin research journals. The standardized style makes it appear thatscientists follow a standard research plan. Medawar (1990) reacted tothe common style exhibited by research papers by calling the scientificpaper a fraud since the final journal report rarely outlines the actualway in which the problem was investigated. Philosophers of sciencewho have studied scientists at work have shown that no researchmethod is applied universally (Carey, 1994; Gibbs & Lawson, 1992;Chalmers, 1990; Gjertsen, 1989). The notion of a single scientific

method is so pervasive it seems certain that many students must bedisappointed when they discover that scientists do not have a framed

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copy of the steps of the scientific method posted high above eachlaboratory workbench. Close inspection will reveal that scientistsapproach and solve problems with imagination, creativity, priorknowledge and perseverance. These, of course, are the samemethods used by all problem-solvers. The lesson to be learned is that

science is no different from other human endeavors when puzzles areinvestigated. Fortunately, this is one myth that may eventually bedisplaced since many newer texts are abandoning or augmenting thelist in favor of discussions of methods of science.

Myth 4: Evidence accumulated carefully will result in sureknowledgeAll investigators, including scientists, collect and interpret empiricalevidence through the process called induction. This is a technique by

which individual pieces of evidence are collected and examined until alaw is discovered or a theory is invented. Useful as this technique is,even a preponderance of evidence does not guarantee the productionof valid knowledge because of what is called the problem of induction.Induction was first formalized by Frances Bacon in the 17th century. Inhis book, Novum Organum (1620/ 1952), Bacon advised that facts beassimilated without bias to reach a conclusion. The method ofinduction he suggested is the principal way in which humanstraditionally have produced generalizations that permit predictions.What then is the problem with induction?It is both impossible to make all observations pertaining to a givensituation and illogical to secure all relevant facts for all time, past,present and future. However, only by making all relevant observationsthroughout all time, could one say that a final valid conclusion hadbeen made. This is the problem of induction. On a personal level, thisproblem is of little consequence, but in science the problem issignificant. Scientists formulate laws and theories that are supposed tohold true in all places and for all time but the problem of inductionmakes such a guaranteeimpossible. The proposal of a new law begins through induction asfacts are heaped upon other relevant facts. Deduction is useful in

checking the validity of a law. For example, if we postulate that allswans are white, we can evaluate the law by predicting that the nextswan found will also be white. If it is, the law is supported, but notproved as will be seen in the discussion of another science myth.Locating even a single black swan will cause the law to be called intoquestion. The nature of induction itself is another interesting aspectassociated with this myth. If we set aside the problem of inductionmomentarily, there is still the issue of how scientists make the finalleap from the mass of evidence to the conclusion. In an idealized viewof induction, the accumulated evidence will simply result in theproduction of a new law or theory in a procedural or mechanical

fashion. In reality, there is no such method. The issue is far morecomplex and interesting --than that. The final creative leap from

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evidence to scientific knowledge is the focus of another myth ofscience.

Myth 5: Science and its methods provide absolute proofThe general success of the scientific endeavor suggests that its

products must be valid. However, a hallmark of scientific knowledge isthat it is subject to revision when new information is presented.Tentativeness is one of the points that differentiates science from otherforms of knowledge. Accumulated evidence can provide support,validation and substantiation for a law or theory, but will never provethose laws and theories to be true. This idea has been addressed byHomer and Rubba (1978) and Lopnshinsky (1993). The problem ofinduction argues against proof in science, but there is another elementof this myth worth exploring. In actuality, the only truly conclusiveknowledge produced by science results when a notion is falsified. Whatthis means is that no matter what scientific idea is considered, once

evidence begins to accumulate, at least we know that the notion isuntrue. Consider the example of the white swans discussed earlier.One could search the world and see only white swans, and arrive atthe generalization that "all swans are white. " However, the discoveryof one black swan has the potential to overturn, or at least result inmodifications of,this proposed law of nature. However, whether scientists routinely tryto falsify their notions and how much contrary evidence it takes for ascientist's mind to change are issues worth exploring.

Myth 6: Science is procedural more than creativeWe accept that no single guaranteed method of science can accountfor the success of science, but realize that induction, the collection andinterpretation of individual facts providing the raw materials for lawsand theories, is at the foundation of most scientific endeavors. Thisawareness brings with it a paradox. If induction itself is not aguaranteed method for arriving at conclusions, how do scientistsdevelop useful laws and theories? Induction makes use of individualfacts that are collected, analyzed and examined. Some observers mayperceive a pattern in these data and propose a law in response, butthere is no logical or procedural method by which the pattern is

suggested. With a theory, the issue is much the same. Only thecreativity of the individual scientist permits the discovery of laws andthe invention of theories. If there truly was a single scientific method,two individuals with the same expertise could review the same factsand reach identical conclusions. There is no guarantee of this becausethe range and nature of creativity is a personal attribute. Unfortunately,many common science teaching orientations and methods serve towork against the creative element in science. The majority of laboratoryexercises, for instance, are verification activities. The teacherdiscusses what will happen in the laboratory, the manual providesstep-bystep directions, and the student is expected to arrive at a

particular answer. Not only is this approach the antithesis of the way inwhich science actually operates, but such a portrayal must seem dry,

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clinical and uninteresting to many students. In her book, They're NotDumb, They're Different (1990) Shiela Tobias argues that manycapable and clever students reject science as a career because theyare not given an opportunity to see it as an exciting and creativepursuit. The moral in Tobias' thesis is that science itself may be

impoverished when students who feel a need for a creative outleteliminate it as a potential career because of the way it is taught.

Myth 7: Science and its methods can answer all questions.Philosophers of science have found it useful to refer to the work of KarlPopper (1968) and his principle of falsifiability to provide an operationaldefinition of science. Popper believed that only those ideas that arepotentially falsifiable are scientific ideas. For instance, the law ofgravity states that more massive objects exert a stronger gravitationalattraction than do objects with less mass when distance is heldconstant. This is a scientific law because it could be falsified if newly-

discovered objects operate differently with respect to gravitationalattraction. In contrast, the core idea among creationists is that specieswere place on earth fully-formed by some supernatural entity.Obviously, there is no scientific method by which such a belief could beshown to be false. Since this special creation view is impossible tofalsify, it is not science at all and the term creation science is anoxymoron. Creation science is a religious belief and as such, does notrequire that it be falsifiable. Hundreds of years ago thoughtfultheologians and scientists carved out their spheres of influence andhave since coexisted with little acrimony. Today, only those who fail tounderstand the distinction between science and religion confuse therules, roles, and limitations of these two important world views. Itshould now be clear that some questions simply must not be asked ofscientists. During a recent creation science trial for instance, Nobellaureates were asked to sign a statement about the nature of scienceto provide some guidance to the court. These famous scientistsresponded resoundingly to support such a statement; after all theywere experts in the realm of science (Klayman, Slocombe, Lehman, &Kaufman, 1986). Later, those interested in citing expert opinion in theabortion debate asked scientists to issue a statement regarding theirfeelings on this issue. Wisely, few participated. Science cannot answer

the moral and ethical questions engendered by the matter of abortion.Of course, scientists as individuals have personal opinions about manyissues, but as a group, they must remain silent if those issues areoutside the realm of scientific inquiry. Science simply cannot addressmoral, ethical, aesthetic, social and metaphysical questions.

Myth 8. Scientists are particularly objectiveScientists are no different in their level of objectivity than are otherprofessionals. They are careful in the analysis of evidence and in the

procedures applied to arrive at conclusions. With this admission, it mayseem that this myth is valid, but contributions from both the philosophy

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of science and psychology reveal that there are at least three majorreasons that make complete objectivity impossible.Many philosophers of science support Popper's (1963) view thatscience can advance only through a string of what he calledconjectures and refutations. In other words, scientists should propose

laws and theories as conjectures and then actively work to disprove orrefute those ideas. Popper suggests that the absence of contraryevidence, demonstrated through an active program of refutation, willprovide the best support available. It may seem like a strange way ofthinking about verification, but the absence of disproof is consideredsupport. There is one major problem with the idea of conjecture andrefutation. Popper seems to have proposed it as a recommendation forscientists, not as a description of what scientists do. From aphilosophical perspective the idea is sound, but there are noindications that scientists actively practice programs to search fordisconfirming evidence. Another aspect of the inability of scientists to

be objective is found in theory-laden observation, a psychologicalnotion (Hodson, 1986). Scientists, like all observers, hold a myriad ofpreconceptions and biases about the way the world operates. Thesenotions, held in the subconscious, affect everyone's ability to makeobservations. It is impossible to collect and interpret facts without anybias. There have been countless cases in the history of science inwhich scientists have failed to include particular observations in theirfinal analyses of phenomena. This occurs, not because of fraud ordeceit, but because of the prior knowledge possessed by the individual.Certain facts either were not seen at all or were deemed unimportantbased on the scientists's prior knowledge. In earlier discussions ofinduction, we postulated that two individuals reviewing the same datawould not be expected to reach the same conclusions. Not only doesindividual creativity play a role, but the issue of personal theory-ladenobservation further complicates the situation. This lesson has clearimplications for science teaching. Teachers typically provide learningexperiences for students without considering their prior knowledge. Inthe laboratory, for instance, students are asked to perform activities,make observations and then form conclusions. There is anexpectation that the conclusions formed will be both self-evident anduniform. In other words, teachers anticipate that the data will lead all

pupils to the same conclusion. Thiscould only happen if each student had the same exact priorconceptions and made and evaluate observations using identicalschemes. This does not happen in science nor does it occur in thescience classroom. Related to the issue of theory-based observationsis the allegiance to the paradigm. Thomas Kuhn (1970), in his ground-breaking analysis of the history of science, shows that scientists workwithin a research tradition called a paradigm. This research tradition,shared by those working in a given discipline, provides clues to thequestions worth investigating, dictates what evidence is admissible andprescribes the tests and techniques that are reasonable. Although the

paradigm

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provides direction to the research it may also stifle or limit investigation.Anything that confines the research endeavor necessarily limitsobjectivity. While there is no conscious desire on the part of scientiststo limit discussion, it is likely that some new ideas in science arerejected because of the paradigm issue. When research reports are

submitted for publication they are reviewed by other members of thediscipline. Ideas from outside the paradigm are liable to be eliminatedfrom consideration as crackpot or poor science and thus do not appearin print. Examples of scientific ideas that were originally rejectedbecause they fell outside the accepted paradigm include the sun-centered solar system, warm-bloodedness in dinosaurs, the germ-theory of disease, and continental drift. When first proposed early inthis century by Alfred Wegener, theidea of moving continents, for example, was vigorously rejected.Scientists were not ready to embrace a notion so contrary to thetraditional teachings of their discipline. Continental drift was finally

accepted in the 1960s with the proposal of a mechanism or theory toexplain how continental plates move (Hallam, 1975 and Menard, 1986).This fundamental change in the earth sciences, called a revolution byKuhn, might have occurred decades earlier had it not been for thestrength of the paradigm. It would be unwise to conclude a discussionof scientific paradigms on a negative note. Although the examplesprovided do show the contrary aspects associated with paradigm-fixity,Kuhn would argue that the blinders created by allegiance to theparadigm help keep scientists on track. His review of the history ofscience demonstrates that paradigms are responsible for far moresuccesses in science than delays.

Myth 9: Experiments are the principle route to scientificknowledgeThroughout their school science careers, students are encouraged toassociate science with experimentation. Virtually all hands-onexperiences that students have in science class is called experimentseven if it would be more accurate to refer to these exercises astechnical procedures, explorations or activities. True experimentsinvolve carefully orchestrated procedures along with control and test

groups usually with the goal of establishing a cause and effectrelationship. Of course, true experimentation is a useful tool in science,but is not the sole route to knowledge. Many note-worthy scientistshave used non-experimental techniques to advance knowledge. In fact,in a number of science disciplines, true experimentation is not possiblebecause of the inability to control variables. Many fundamentaldiscoveries in astronomy are based on extensive observations ratherthan experiments. Copernicus and Kepler changed our view of thesolar system using observational evidence derived from lengthy anddetailed observations frequently contributed by other scientists, butneither performed experiments. Charles Darwin punctuated his career

with an investigatory regime more similar to qualitative techniquesused in the social sciences than the experimental techniques

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commonly associated with the natural sciences. For his mostrevolutionary discoveries, Darwin recorded his extensiveobservations in notebooks annotated by speculations and thoughtsabout those observations. Although Darwin supported the inductivemethod proposed by Bacon, he was aware that observation without

speculation or prior understanding was both ineffective and impossible.The techniques advanced by Darwin have been widely used byscientists Goodall and Nossey in their primate studies. Scientificknowledge is gained in a variety of ways including observation,analysis, speculation, library investigation and experimentation.

Myth 10: All work in science is reviewed to keep the processhonest.Frequently, the final step in the traditional scientific method is thatresearchers communicate their results so that others may learn fromand evaluate their research. When completing laboratory reports,

students are frequently told to present their methods section so clearlythat others could repeat the activity. The conclusion that students willlikely draw from this request is that professional scientists are alsoconstantly reviewing each other's experiments to check up on eachother. Unfortunately, while such a check and balance system would beuseful, the number of findings from one scientist checked by others isvanishingly small. In reality, most scientists are simply too busy andresearch funds too limited for this type of review. The result of the lackof oversight has recently put science itself under suspicion. With thepressures of academic tenure, personal competition and funding, it isnot surprising that instances of outright scientific fraud do occur.However, even without fraud, the enormous amount of originalscientific research published, and the pressure to produce newinformation rather than reproduce others' work dramatically increasesthe chance that errors will go unnoticed. An interesting corollary to thismyth is that scientists rarely report valid, but negative results. Whilethis is understandable given the space limitations in scientific journals,the failure to report what did not work is a problem. Only when thoseworking in a particular scientific discipline have access to all of theinformation regarding a phenomenon -- both positive and negative can the discipline progress.

ConclusionsIf, in fact, students and many of their teachers hold these myths to betrue, we have strong support for a renewed focus on science itselfrather than just its facts and principles in science teaching and scienceteacher education. This is one of the central messages in both of thenew science education projects. Benchmarks for Science Literacy(AAAS, 1993) and the National Science Education Standards (NationalResearch Council, 1994) project both strongly suggest that schoolscience must give students an opportunity to experience scienceauthentically, free of the legends, misconceptions and idealizations

inherent in the myths about the nature of the scientific enterprise.There must be increased opportunity for both preservice and inservice

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teachers to learn about and apply the real rules of the game of scienceaccompanied by careful review of textbooksto remove the "creeping fox terriers" that have helped provide aninaccurate view of the nature of science. Only by clearing away themist of half-truths and revealing science in its full light, with knowledge

of both its strengths and limitations, will learners become enamored ofthe true pageant of science and be able fairly to judge its processesand products. Note: William McComas' address is School of Education-WPH 1001E, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA90089-0031.

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TOPIC 2 ACQUIRING MANIPULATIVE SKILLS

SYNOPSIS

This topic enables teachers to acquire manipulative skills in

scientific investigations. There are psychomotor skills that

enable students to master :

i. Types and units of measurements

ii. Use and handle science apparatus

iii. Draw diagrams and apparatus accuratelyiv. Handling specimens correctly and carefully

v. Clean science apparatus correctly

vi. Store science apparatus and laboratory substances

correctly and safely.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic teachers will able to :

1. Explain manipulative skills as psychomotor processes which

are developed through scientific investigation

2. Explain manipulative skills in scientific investigations that

include:

a. Types and units of measurements

b. Using and handling science apparatus

c. Drawing diagrams and apparatus accurately

d. Handling specimens correctly and carefully

e. Cleaning science apparatus correctly

f. Storing science apparatus and laboratory substances


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What are Manipulative skills? Manipulate means to control or use

something in a skilful way. So manipulative skills are psychomotor

skills that enable us to carry out the practical works. They involve the

development of hand-eye coordination and an ability to handle objects

with skill and dexterity. Example: A student uses a pair of tweezers and

a hand magnifier to examine the inside of a flowering plant.

Manipulative skills in scientific investigation are psychomotor skills that

enable students to:

a. Types and units of measurements

b. Using and handling science apparatus

c. Drawing diagrams and apparatus accurately

d. Handling specimens correctly and carefully

e. Cleaning science apparatus correctly

f. Storing science apparatus and laboratory substances


By mastering the manipulative skills, scientist can get reliable result.

Its also can avoid accidents and wastages.

1. Draw and name the apparatus that are usually used for primaryscience teaching

2. Find out how to use the apparatus above correctly

When using manipulative skills, pupils need to take care of their safety

as well as that of their friends. Steps that need to be taken include care

when using breakable apparatus, not pointing hot and boiling

substances towards others, avoid by specimens which are sharp, not

be bitten by small animals, and accidentally eat substances which are

poisonous. Practicing responsibility towards the safety of self and

others as a good and noble attitude.

Using a suitable graphic organizer, make a concept map of the

importance of mastering the manipulative skills for our pupils.

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2.1 TYPE AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

2.1.1 MEASURING LENGTH

To measure lengths, we can use ruler or measuring tapes. The

smallest division on a meter rule is 0.1 cm. A meter rule can therefore

measure length accurately up to 0.1 cm only.

1. Describe the correct way how to read the scale on a ruler toavoid parallax error.

2. Describe how the diameter of a ping-pong ball can be measuredusing the meter rule and a pair set squires.

A vernier caliper micrometer screw gauge and are common tools used

in laboratories and industries to accurately determine the fraction part

of the least count division. The vernier is convenient when measuring

the length of an object, the outer diameter (OD) of a round or

cylindrical object, the inner diameter (ID) of a pipe, and the depth of a

hole.

Collect information from several sources about Vernier Caliper andMicrometer Screw Gauge.

2.1.2 MEASURING TIME

Time can be measure using apparatus like watch, hourglass, or any

device which exhibits periodic motion.

Analogue stopwatch Digital stopwatch

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STOPWATCH

Stopwatches are used to measure short intervals of time. There are

two types of stopwatches; The digital stopwatch and analogue

stopwatch. The digital stopwatch is more accurate than the analogue

as it can measure time in intervals of 0.01 seconds while the latter can

only measure time in intervals of 0.1 seconds.

As the stopwatch is a sensitive instrument, two or three reading may

need to be taken and the average time computed. This is due to the

fact that the reaction time in starting and stopping the stopwatch varies

from person to person.

The typical reaction time of an individual is around 0.2 to 0.3 second.Think of an experiment to estimate the reaction time of an individual.

2.1.3 MEASURING VOLUME

Volume, the amount of space occupied, is usually measured with

beaker, conical flask, volumetric flask, graduated cylinder, syringe,

burette and pipette. Chemist use the units litres and millilitres,

abbreviated l and ml. The graduations on a beaker and a conical flask

are only approximate, and are not used for accurate measurement.

Pipette, burette and volumetric flask are used for accurate

measurement.

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2.1.4 MEASURING TEMPERATURE

THERMOMETER

The mercury thermometer is a thermometer commonly used in the

science laboratory. The mercury in the bulb is expands when heated.

The expansion of the mercury pushes the thread of mercury up the

capillary tube. The bulb is made of thin glass so that heat can be

conducted quickly to the mercury. The round glass stem acts as a

magnifying glass enabling the temperature to be read easily.

Describe how to use pipette in an acid-base titration correctly.Is it acid or base we put in the pipette in this titration? Why?

1. Discuss the correct way how to use a mercury thermometer.2. What are the similarities and differences between a mercury

thermometer and a clinical thermometer?

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2.1.5 MEASURING MASS

Mass is the amount of matter an object has. We often use a triple-

balance beam to measure mass. A triple-beam balance gets its name

because it has three beams that allow you to move known masses

along the beam.

Here is a picture of a triplebeam balance. You probablyhave used one in school.There are also many othertypes of balances. Scientists

need balances that canmeasure very small amountsof mass.

A triple beam balance compares a known mass to an unknown mass it

is unaffected by gravity. Unlike a spring scale which really measures

weight, the The first beam reads the mass from zero to 10 grams. The

middle beam reads in 100 gram increments and the far beam reads in

10 gram increments. By using all three of the beams, you can find the

mass of your object.

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2.1.6 MEASURING ELECTRIC CURRENT/VOLTAGE

AMMETER

To measure the size of an electric current, an ammeter can be used.

The ammeter must be connected in series to the circuit. The maximum

reading of a scale is called full-scale deflection.

Most of ammeters are twin-scale ammeter. Ammeters are sensitive

instruments. To avoid damaging the ammeter, the following

precautions need to be observed;

1. Ammeters must have a range that is suitable for the current to

be measured.

2. If the current to be measured is larger than the full-scale

deflection of the meter selected, excessive current will flow

through the meter and damage it

3. It is therefore important to always start with the highest range

when you use an ammeter. If the meter has several ranges,

use the range that will show reading around the middle of the

scale.

4. It is important to connect meters the correct way round to

prevent them from being damaged when the pointer tries to

move in the wrong direction. The positive ammeters terminal

should be connected to the nearest positive terminal on the

battery or power supply. The negative ammeters terminal

should be connected to the nearest negative terminal on the

battery or power supply.

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5. Before using an ammeter, ensure that the pointer is at zero

position. The pointer can be easily moved to zero position by

adjusting the zero adjustment screw below the pointer.

VOLTMETER

The potential difference across two point in a circuit can be measured

by a voltmeter. The volt meter must be connected in parallel to the

component across which the potential difference is being measured.

The current must flow into the positive terminal and flow out of the

negative terminal. Same precautions for ammeter apply to voltmeter.

A multimeter is a multi-functional

electrical meter.

Discuss what it can measure and how

to use it.

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2.2 USE AND HANDLE SCIENCE APPARATUS

2.2.1 Microscopes

Light Microscope - the models found in most schools, use compound

lenses and light to magnify objects. The lenses bend or refract the

light, which makes the object beneath them appear closer.

Stereoscope - this microscope allows for binocular (two eyes) viewing

of larger specimens.

2.2.2 USING AND HANDLING CHEMICALS

Never heat flammable solvents with open flame.

Unwanted solvents must be returned to solvent store or properly

disposed-of without delay.

Avoid spillages and wash hands immediately with soap and

water if contact occurs.

Add chemicals to water, neverthe reverse.

Use different spatulas for different chemicals

Limit the amount of each chemical used in the laboratory.

2.2.3 USING AND HANDLING OF ELECTRICAL

APPATARUS/EQUIPMENT

Make sure that all electrical cords are in good condition.

Make sure the circuits are not overloaded.

Connections should be made correctly.

Electrical apparatus connected to the mains should not be

touched by wet hands.

Do not use metal articles or wear metal jewellery when working

with electrical equipment.

Discuss general procedures how to use and handle microscope.

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Take precautions to prevent spills on electrical equipment or

electrical outlets.

2.3 DRAW DIAGRAMS AND APPARATUS ACCURATELY

Here are some tips how to draw a specimen.

1. Use unlined paper and plenty of space

2. Use a sharp pencil.

3. Draw only what you see

4. Sketch a large & simple diagram

5. Draw using correct scales

6. Do not shade or colour the drawing. Use stippling to indicate a

darker area

7. Use ruler to draw lines. Do not cross label lines

8. Labels to identify parts of object

9. Give your drawing a title

Access the internet to gather information on the Virtual lab.

How is it different from the normal science room?

Draw and name the apparatus that are usually used for primaryscience teaching.

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2.4 HANDLING SPECIMENS CORRECTLY AND CAREFULLY

Living thing brought to the classroom must be kept for short period or

permenant lodging. So they need specialised housing and regular care.

If possible build up an outdoor study area. You need to take safety

precaution while handling the specimen.

Hygiene and safety when handling living specimens must be given

extra attention. Make sure students wash their hand thoroughly with

soap and water after handling living specimens. Extra care must be

given when living specimens come with characteristics that may be

harmful to children (e.g. cactus with sharp thorns, insects that may bite

or sting, plant parts that may cause irritation). Remind students never

to taste or put anything in their mouth.

Activity 1: Green Bean Seeds

1. Prepare three spreads of cotton wool layer on separate tiles.

2. Place five green bean seeds on each cotton wool spread.

3. Leave the first cotton wool spread dry. Wet the second cotton

wool spread with five spoonful of water and the third with 20

spoonful or water

4. Water the second and third cotton wool spread with the same

amount of water for five days.

5. Observe the seedlings plant growing and record the height and

number of leaves everyday.

Activity 2: Fish and Lizard

1. Prepare an aquarium with fish and a lizard in a tank.

2. Observe these animals.

3. Identify and compare the features of these two animals.

a) What are the common features of these animals?

b) What characteristics are different?

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HANDLING OF BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS

All hand to mouth operations should be avoided.

Insects and small animals should be placed in a safe cage or

aquarium.

Injury by studied animals should be treated with antiseptic and

further treatment should be taken.

Wounds must be completely covered before work.

Consider using films, video, and computer simulations in place

of dissection activities.

Glassware and microscope slides can be sterilized and reused.

Any spillage or accidents must be recorded although there is no

injury.

Plant

Do the observation in the field

Return the specimens to the field

Dont throw the specimens into the dustbin

Do not handle poisonous plants

Animal

Observe life insect in closed petri dishes

Release the insect in nature after the activity

To ensure safety

Before starting work, cover all wounds

Hands must be thoroughly washed with soap at least

If bitten treat the wound with antiseptic

2.5 CLEAN SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS CORRECTLY

Clean glassware using cleansing detergent, rinse with water and

then dry them up.

For drying, let the glassware stand or hang on drying boards or

racks.

After using any instruments make sure clean them before

storing.

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2.6 STORE SCIENCE APPARATUS AND LABORATORY

SUBSTANCES CORRECTLY AND SAFELY

Large equipment and larger chemical containers should be

stored on lower shelves only,

Substances should be stored at the correct temperature,

Do not place hazardous materials in unstable containers or in an

apparatus that is not properly secured,

Poisons should be kept locked in cabinet,

Store all active chemicals in dark container,

Acids and corrosives should be stored in a non-metal and

vented cabinet

Write short notes on the handling, cleaning and storing of scienceapparatus.

www.biologycorner.com

www.ehow.com

www.wikihow.com

www.sciencekit.com

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TOPICS FRAMEWORK

Figure 3 : Content Overview

CONTENTS

3.1 OBSERVING

What is observing?

Do you really know what observing is? Most of us understand that

observing involves our eyes to see and understand things around us.

But actually it is more than that. Observing is the fundamental science

process skill that need all our five senses to characterize the object,

identify changes, similarities and differences in order to understand

world around us. On the other hand we can say that observing involves

collecting information about objects or phenomenon by using the five

Basic Process Skills

Observing

Classifying

Communicating

Predicting

Measuring and Using Numbers

Inferring

Using space-time relationships

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senses, sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. Observation in science,

expects the students to pay attention to details. The distinction

between seeing, looking and observation should be made very clear.

At one end of the spectrum, seeing is presented as a passive approach

whereas at the other end of the spectrum, observing is an active

approach.

When we want to know about a fruit, you will use your eyes to see the

shape and the colour of the fruit. You also will touch and smell the

fruits to determine whether the fruit ripe or not. Then you will test

whether the fruit sweet or not by tasting it using your tongue. Some

time we also shake and listen the sound produced to test how good is

the texture. Here we use all our senses to learn about the fruit. This

type of observation is called qualitative observation. If we go more

detail by telling the mass and the length of the fruit for example 200 g

and 30 cm, the observation is called quantitative observation

because it involves a number or the quantity.

Quantitative observations give more precise information than our

senses alone. Not surprisingly, students, especially younger children,

need help in order to make good observations. If a student is

describing what he or she can see, they might describe the color of an

object but not its size or shape. Good productive observations are

detailed and accurate written or drawn descriptions, and students need

to be prompted to produce these elaborate descriptions. The reason

that observations must be so full of detail is that only then students can

increase their understanding of the concepts being studied.

How can we guide our students to make a better more detailed

description?

Ask the students to focus on the objects or phenomena to be

studied and identify the characteristics.

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Let them give initial qualitative observation. Then prompting

them to elaborate by questioning them or giving them the tools

that can be used to aid them making some more qualitative

and quantitative observation.

If something is changing, students should include, before, during,

and after appearances in their observations. If possible,

students should be encouraged to name what is being

observed.

Try to use so-called referents, references to items that all

persons are already familiar with to describe the observation

clearer. For example, we often describe colors using referents.

We might say blue as sky, green as grass, or yellow as lemon

to describe particular shades of blue, green, or yellow.

When we measure some property, we compare the property to

a defined referent called a unit. A measurement statement

contains two parts, a number to tell us how much or how many,

and a name for the unit to tell us how much of what. The use of

the number makes a measurement a quantitative observation.

For example, the leaves are clustered in groups of five or mass

of one leaf is five grams.

As a conclusion we can say that observation is made when;

Using all the senses to get the information

Using tools or instruments to make precise observation

Identify the similarities and differences to make comparison

Identify the special attributes of the objects and its environment

Realizing changes in environment

Identify the arrangement about object or phenomena

The ability to make good observations is also essential to the

development of the other science process skills: communicating,

classifying, measuring, inferring, and predicting

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Try these activities to develop your observing skills

Activity 1

Material:

1. Peanut

Procedures:

1. Make the observation on a peanut.

2. Write your observation in the table below.

Result

Observations

Using

sight

senses

Using

taste

senses

Using

smell

senses

Using touch

senses

Using

hearing

senses

Which of your observations are quantitative observation? If none,

rethink and try to make some.

________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Activity 2:

Materials

1. Cream crackers biscuit

2. Distll water

Procedures:

1. Observe a piece of cream crackers biscuit.

2. Immerse the biscuit into distill water.

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3. Write your observation in the table below.

Result

Observations

Using

sight

senses

Using

taste

senses

Using

smell

senses

Using

touch

senses

Using

hearing

senses

Before

immerse

in water

During

immerse

in water

After

immerse

in water

Which of your observations are quantitative observation? If none,

rethink and try to make some.

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

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1. Why do we need to observe?

2. What is the importance of observation?

3. Plan three activies of Science Process Skill, observing based on

Primary Science Specification.

Tutorial 1

1. In groups, carry out the Candle Activity. Discuss and present

your answers

Tutorial 2

2. Read the article Elephant Observations and answer the

questions.

Read the article on Working Scientifically and prepare a concept map.

Congratulation!

You have done your work diligently. Have a short rest and then continue to theanother basic science process skil.

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Tutorial 1

CANDLE ACTIVITY

Materials:

Candle

Lighter

Make qualitative and quantitative measurements of a small candle bothbefore and after it has burned for two minutes. Anchor the candle in a

ball of modeling clay.

Qualitative Observations

Before burning____________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

During burning____________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

After burning_____________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Quantitative Observations

Observations Before Burning After Burning

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How does the two types of observations differ from one another?

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Which one is more appropriate for use with scientific observations?Why?

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Tutorial 2

ELEPHANT OBSERVATIONS

Long time ago in a distant land, six blind men lived together. All ofthem had heard of elephants, but they had never seen one. Whenthey heard that an elephant and his trainer would be visiting theirvillage, they all wanted an encounter with this beast. They made theirway to the site where the elephant was being kept. Each blind mantouched the elephant and made his observations. The observationsare listed below.

One man touched the elephants side and said.

An elephant is like a wall.

Another man touched the trunk and said,

An elephant is like a snake.

Another man touched a tusk and said,

An elephant is like a spear.

Another man touched a leg and said,

An elephant is like a fan.

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The last man touched the tail and said,

An elephant is like a rope.

Did the blind men make appropriate inferences? Explain._______________________________________________________

How might the blind men improve their inferences?________________________________________________________

One of the characteristics of science is that scientistscommunicate their ideas, observation, results, and inferences witheach other. Why is this a good idea?

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

In the space below, write a sentence or two explaining what you havelearned.

Qualitative Observations

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Quantitative Observations

________________________________________________________

Did the activities above help you to make better observations? Explain.

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

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How does telling stories can make teaching more fun to primarystudents?

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________________________________________________________

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effect of the length of a pendulum

on its period of swing, keeping the weight

and swing size the same but

varying the length and timing of the swing.

However, for many branches of

science, this type of control is not possible.For instance, in studying

ecological systems, in many cases theories

must be established by looking

at existing ecosystems with many variables.

In geology and astronomy the

idea of controlling and repeating observations

is very different. What is

common to all these areas, however, is the

collection of evidence to support

or argue against claims, and reasoning with

evidence that attempts to isolate

clear causes for phenomena.

Working scientifically involves a

number of concepts of evidence,

including the purpose and techniques of

focused observation, the

recognition of a scientific question that can

be investigated, the need for

repeat measurements and skills in devising

measurement processes, ways of

recording data (these can vary considerably)

and representing data for

analysis, different experimental designs and

associated principles

(e.g. understanding sample size in making

observations in the field), and

reporting.

Students alternative conceptions ofworking scientifically

Research into students ideas about this topic has

identified the following

non-scientific conceptions:

Students will not immediately see the task of

an investigation as exploring

ideas or looking for patterns, but will treat an

investigation simply as

establishing what is without thought for

considering alternative

interpretations.

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Students have problems recognising what is

an investigable question and

will propose questions such as What is

electricity? as the basis for

investigation. Their questions need to be

worked with and clarified to

become amenable to scientific investigation.

Students will not understand many of the

concepts relating to

measurementfor instance, the reading of a

scale, the recording of

comparison measurements using consistent

processes, the calibration of

instruments, the need for repeat measurements

and the concept of

uncertainty in measurement. They need to besupported in making

defensible measurements.

Students can understand the need to control

variables in simple situations

(to make the test fair), such as the need to

use the same amount of each

type of sugar when comparing the solubility

of sugars. However, they have

difficulty in cases of interacting variables (e.g.

finding out the separateeffects of weight and length on a pendulum

swing, or the separate effect of

light and moisture in determining where

slaters prefer to live).

Students will not understand the power of

laying out data in tables and

graphs, and the use of a table as a design

organiser to help plan a series of

measurements.

Depending on their knowledge and experience,

students may have trouble

arguing clearly from evidence.

It has been amply demonstrated that, with

appropriate support, even very young

children are capable of distinguishing between

observations and inferences, of

asking investigable questions, planning

experiments and arguing from evidence.

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Consumer science

Consumer science refers to activities in the

classroom whereby students use

scientific processes to make judgments about

consumer products. Although

consumer science does not fall easily into any

major curriculum topic

categories, it is an important and fun vehicle for

teaching students about some

of the science processes such as fair testing,

measuring and recording. It

provides a vehicle for learning about the nature of

scientific investigation.

It should be noted, however, that these

investigations, because they mostlyinvolve comparisons on the basis of criteria, do

not illustrate the more difficult

nature of working scientifically that deals with the

exploration of conceptual

ideas.

Skills and understandings of consumer

science

The activities in this topic are designed to develop

the following skills and

understandings of this topic:

how to formulate useful, investigable

questions

the importance of measuring accurately

why it is necessary to ensure that all tests are

fair and repeatable

the purpose of planning and designing

investigations

how to design valid experiments with

appropriate variable control

how to design measurement procedures

how to represent data for analysis and

reporting.

Things to consider when completing

activitiesThe activities in this topic give examples of some

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types of products suitable for

early and middle years consumer science testing.

In judging different products,

the things that need to be considered

(summarising the discussion above) are:

what criteria are relevant for the evaluation

what weighting should be given to the various

criteria

whether the test is fair

whether the results are reproducible

whether the method of comparison (scale,

addition of scores, etc.) is

appropriate.

Development of students testing

capabilities

The following descriptions of students

capabilities at different year levels, and

the type of activity appropriate for each, are based

on reports of Deakin

University students teaching consumer science

activities to groups of studentsin schools.

Prep/Year 1

It is most appropriate to structure tests and

scaffold childrens experimenting.

Criteria and procedures need to be decided by the

teacher, using simple tests

and comparisons, rather than measurements.

Ensure there is a low demand for

manipulation skills.Examples of appropriate tests include comparing

the sweetness of cereals, the

amount of salt or oil in chips or the amount of

bubble in detergents.

Year 2

Students can define criteria, but have littleunderstanding of a fair test, e.g. so

they may cheat to make sure their chosen sample

wins.

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a) Test for salt content

Taste directlyhave ONE student taste each brand of chip to determine and give

their opinion of which is the saltiest. It might be a good idea to blindfold the

student so they do not see the brand they are tasting and select their favourite (or

least favourite, accordingly)

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Dissolve in water and taste (what will you control?)crush a chip of

each brand

(making sure you keep the samples the same size) and put the crumbs of

each chip

into separate containers with about 40 mL of water. Add a pinch of

modul sce 3106

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