MODERNISM: MODERNISM: American Literature American Literature

1914-19451914-1945

Advanced Composition & Advanced Composition & NovelNovel

Causes of the Modernist Causes of the Modernist TemperTemper

►WWIWWI► UrbanizationUrbanization► IndustrializationIndustrialization► ImmigrationImmigration► Technological EvolutionTechnological Evolution►Growth of Modern ScienceGrowth of Modern Science► Influence of Austrian Sigmund Freud (1856-Influence of Austrian Sigmund Freud (1856-

1939)1939)► Influence of German Karl Marx (1818-1883)Influence of German Karl Marx (1818-1883)

WWIWWI

URBANIZATIONURBANIZATION

INDUSTRIALIZATIONINDUSTRIALIZATION

IMMIGRATIONIMMIGRATION

Oscar Handlin states, “Once I thought to write a Oscar Handlin states, “Once I thought to write a history of the immigrants in America. Then I history of the immigrants in America. Then I discovered that the immigrants discovered that the immigrants were were American American history.”history.”

TECHNOLOGICAL EVOLUTIONTECHNOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

GROWTH OF MODERN GROWTH OF MODERN SCIENCESCIENCE

Scientists became aware thatScientists became aware that

► the atom was not the smallest unit of matterthe atom was not the smallest unit of matter► matter was not indestructiblematter was not indestructible► both time and space were relative to an observer’s positionboth time and space were relative to an observer’s position► some phenomena were so small that attempts at some phenomena were so small that attempts at

measurement would alter themmeasurement would alter them► Some outcomes could be predicted only in terms of statistical Some outcomes could be predicted only in terms of statistical

probabilityprobability► the universe might be infinite in size and yet infinitely the universe might be infinite in size and yet infinitely

expandingexpanding

SIGMUND FREUD (1856-SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939)1939)

Invented the use of psychoanalysis Invented the use of psychoanalysis

as a means to study one’s as a means to study one’s

“ “unconscious”unconscious”

KARL MARX (1818-1883)KARL MARX (1818-1883)

““The history of all hitherto existing society is theThe history of all hitherto existing society is the

history of class struggles.”history of class struggles.”

““The development of Modern Industry, therefore, The development of Modern Industry, therefore,

cuts from under its feet the very foundation on cuts from under its feet the very foundation on

which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates

products. What the bourgeoisie therefore produces, products. What the bourgeoisie therefore produces,

above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the

victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.”victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.”

INFLUENCES OF FREUD AND INFLUENCES OF FREUD AND MARXMARX

► Modernist writers concerned themselves with the inner being more than the Modernist writers concerned themselves with the inner being more than the social being and looked for ways to incorporate these new views into their social being and looked for ways to incorporate these new views into their writing.writing.

► Modernist writers looked inside themselves for their answers instead of Modernist writers looked inside themselves for their answers instead of seeking truth, for example, through formal religion or the scientific seeking truth, for example, through formal religion or the scientific presuppositions that realism and naturalism rested upon.presuppositions that realism and naturalism rested upon.

► Marxism instructed even non-Marxist artists that the individual was being lost Marxism instructed even non-Marxist artists that the individual was being lost in a mass society.in a mass society.

► Although Marx provided an analysis of human behavior opposed to Freud’s, Although Marx provided an analysis of human behavior opposed to Freud’s, both seemed to espouse a kind of determinism that, although counter to long-both seemed to espouse a kind of determinism that, although counter to long-standing American beliefs in free will and free choice, also seemed better able standing American beliefs in free will and free choice, also seemed better able to explain the terrible things that were happening in the twentieth century.to explain the terrible things that were happening in the twentieth century.

► Some modern writers believed that art should celebrate the working classes, Some modern writers believed that art should celebrate the working classes, attack capitalism, and forward revolutionary goals, while others believed that attack capitalism, and forward revolutionary goals, while others believed that literature should be independent and non-political.literature should be independent and non-political.

SHIFTS IN THE MODERN NATIONSHIFTS IN THE MODERN NATION

►from country to cityfrom country to city►from farm to factoryfrom farm to factory►from native born to new citizenfrom native born to new citizen► introduction to “mass” culture (pop introduction to “mass” culture (pop

culture)culture)►continual movementcontinual movement►split between science and the literary split between science and the literary

tradition (“science vs. letters”)tradition (“science vs. letters”)

1920’s: THE JAZZ AGE1920’s: THE JAZZ AGETo F. Scott Fitzgerald it was an “age of miracles, an age of art, To F. Scott Fitzgerald it was an “age of miracles, an age of art,

an age of excess, an age of satire.”an age of excess, an age of satire.”

1930’s: THE DEPRESSION1930’s: THE DEPRESSION

““True individual freedom cannot exist without economic security True individual freedom cannot exist without economic security and independence. People who are hungry and out of a job and independence. People who are hungry and out of a job are the stuff of which dictatorships are made.” – Franklin D. are the stuff of which dictatorships are made.” – Franklin D. RooseveltRoosevelt

THE SPIRIT OF MODERNIST THE SPIRIT OF MODERNIST LITERATURELITERATURE

► Conviction that the previously sustaining structures of human life, whether social, Conviction that the previously sustaining structures of human life, whether social, political, religious, or artistic, had been either destroyed or shown up as falsehoods or political, religious, or artistic, had been either destroyed or shown up as falsehoods or fantasies. Therefore, art had to be renovated.fantasies. Therefore, art had to be renovated.

► Modernist writing is marked by a strong and conscious break with tradition. It rejects Modernist writing is marked by a strong and conscious break with tradition. It rejects traditional values and assumptions.traditional values and assumptions.

► ““Modern” implies a historical discontinuity, a sense of alienation, loss, and despair.Modern” implies a historical discontinuity, a sense of alienation, loss, and despair.

► It rejects not only history but also the society of whose fabrication history is a record. It rejects not only history but also the society of whose fabrication history is a record. Poetry tended to provide pessimistic cultural criticism or loftily reject social issues Poetry tended to provide pessimistic cultural criticism or loftily reject social issues altogether.altogether.

► Writers exhibited a skeptical, apprehensive attitude toward pop culture; writers criticized Writers exhibited a skeptical, apprehensive attitude toward pop culture; writers criticized and deplored its manipulative commercialism.and deplored its manipulative commercialism.

► Literature, especially poetry, becomes the place where the one meaningful activity, the Literature, especially poetry, becomes the place where the one meaningful activity, the search for meaning, is carried out; and therefore literature is, or should be, vitally search for meaning, is carried out; and therefore literature is, or should be, vitally important to society. Imaginative vision is thought to give access to an ideal world, important to society. Imaginative vision is thought to give access to an ideal world, apart and above reality, or to contain alternative, higher values than those reigning in apart and above reality, or to contain alternative, higher values than those reigning in the statehouse and the marketplace, which could enrich life. Furthermore, modernists the statehouse and the marketplace, which could enrich life. Furthermore, modernists believed that we create the world in the act of perceiving it.believed that we create the world in the act of perceiving it.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERNIST WRITINGMODERNIST WRITING

► A movement away from realism into abstractionsA movement away from realism into abstractions► A deliberate complexity, even to the point of elitism, forcing A deliberate complexity, even to the point of elitism, forcing

readers to be very well-educated in order to read these worksreaders to be very well-educated in order to read these works► A high degree of aesthetic self-consciousnessA high degree of aesthetic self-consciousness► Questions of what constitutes the nature of beingQuestions of what constitutes the nature of being► A breaking with tradition and conventional modes of form, A breaking with tradition and conventional modes of form,

resulting in fragmentation and bold, highly innovative resulting in fragmentation and bold, highly innovative experimentationexperimentation

► A variety in content because with a stable external world in A variety in content because with a stable external world in question, subjectivity was ever more valued and accepted in question, subjectivity was ever more valued and accepted in literatureliterature

► Along with the social realist and proletarian prose of the 1920s Along with the social realist and proletarian prose of the 1920s and 1930s came a significant outpouring of political and protest and 1930s came a significant outpouring of political and protest poetry.poetry.

TECHNIQUES IN MODERNIST TECHNIQUES IN MODERNIST WORKSWORKS

The modernists were highly conscious that they were being The modernists were highly conscious that they were being modern—that they were “making it new”—and this modern—that they were “making it new”—and this consciousness is manifest in the modernists’ radical use of a consciousness is manifest in the modernists’ radical use of a kind of formlessness.kind of formlessness.

► Collapsed plotsCollapsed plots► Fragmentary techniquesFragmentary techniques► Shifts in perspective, voice, and toneShifts in perspective, voice, and tone► Stream-of-consciousness point of viewStream-of-consciousness point of view► Associative techniquesAssociative techniques

COLLAPSED PLOTSCOLLAPSED PLOTS

► It will seem to begin arbitrarily, to advance without explanation, It will seem to begin arbitrarily, to advance without explanation, and to end without resolution, consisting of vivid segments and to end without resolution, consisting of vivid segments juxtaposed without cushioning or integrating transitions.juxtaposed without cushioning or integrating transitions.

► It will suggest rather than assert, making use of symbols and It will suggest rather than assert, making use of symbols and images instead of statements.images instead of statements.

► The reader must participate in the making of the poem or story The reader must participate in the making of the poem or story by digging the coherent structure out that, on its surface, it by digging the coherent structure out that, on its surface, it seems to lack. Therefore, the search for meaning, even if it seems to lack. Therefore, the search for meaning, even if it does not succeed, becomes meaningful in itself.does not succeed, becomes meaningful in itself.

► Its rhetoric will be understated, ironic.Its rhetoric will be understated, ironic.

FRAGMENTARY TECHNIQUESFRAGMENTARY TECHNIQUES► Compared with earlier writing, modernist literature is notable for what Compared with earlier writing, modernist literature is notable for what

it omits—the explanations, interpretations, connections, summaries, it omits—the explanations, interpretations, connections, summaries, and distancing that provide continuity, perspective, and security in and distancing that provide continuity, perspective, and security in traditional literature.traditional literature.

► The idea of order, sequence, and unity in works of art is sometimes The idea of order, sequence, and unity in works of art is sometimes abandoned because they are now considered by writers as only abandoned because they are now considered by writers as only expressions of a desire for coherence rather than actual reflections of expressions of a desire for coherence rather than actual reflections of reality. The long work will be an assemblage of fragments, the short reality. The long work will be an assemblage of fragments, the short work a carefully realized fragment. Some modernist literature work a carefully realized fragment. Some modernist literature registers more as a collage. This fragmentation in literature was registers more as a collage. This fragmentation in literature was meant to reflect the reality of the flux and fragmentation of one’s life. meant to reflect the reality of the flux and fragmentation of one’s life.

► Fragments will be drawn from diverse areas of experience. Vignettes Fragments will be drawn from diverse areas of experience. Vignettes of contemporary life, chunks of popular culture, dream imagery, and of contemporary life, chunks of popular culture, dream imagery, and symbolism drawn from the author’s private repertory of life symbolism drawn from the author’s private repertory of life experiences are also important. A work built from these various levels experiences are also important. A work built from these various levels and kinds of material may move across time and space, shift from the and kinds of material may move across time and space, shift from the public to the personal, and open literature as a field for every sort of public to the personal, and open literature as a field for every sort of concern.concern.

SHIFTS IN PERSPECTIVE, VOICE, SHIFTS IN PERSPECTIVE, VOICE, AND TONEAND TONE

► The inclusion of all sorts of material previously deemed “unliterary” The inclusion of all sorts of material previously deemed “unliterary” in works of high seriousness involved the use of language that would in works of high seriousness involved the use of language that would also previously have been thought improper, including also previously have been thought improper, including representations of the speech of the uneducated and the inarticulate, representations of the speech of the uneducated and the inarticulate, the colloquial, slangy, and the popular. The traditional educated the colloquial, slangy, and the popular. The traditional educated literary voice, conveying truth and culture, lost its authority.literary voice, conveying truth and culture, lost its authority.

► Prose writers strove for directness, compression, and vividness. Prose writers strove for directness, compression, and vividness. They were sparing of words. The average novel became quite a bit They were sparing of words. The average novel became quite a bit shorter than it had been in the nineteenth century.shorter than it had been in the nineteenth century.

► Modern fiction tends to be written in the first person or to limit the Modern fiction tends to be written in the first person or to limit the reader to one character’s point of view on the action. This limitation reader to one character’s point of view on the action. This limitation accorded with the modernist sense that “truth” does not exist accorded with the modernist sense that “truth” does not exist objectively but is the product of a personal interaction with reality. objectively but is the product of a personal interaction with reality. The selected point of view was often that of a naïve or marginal The selected point of view was often that of a naïve or marginal person—a child or an outsider—to convey better the reality of person—a child or an outsider—to convey better the reality of confusion rather than the myth of certainty.confusion rather than the myth of certainty.

STREAM-OF-CONSCIOUSNESSSTREAM-OF-CONSCIOUSNESS► Stream-of-consciousness is a literary practice that attempts to depict Stream-of-consciousness is a literary practice that attempts to depict

the mental and emotional reactions of characters to external events, the mental and emotional reactions of characters to external events, rather than the events themselves, through the practice of rather than the events themselves, through the practice of reproducing the unedited, continuous sequence of thoughts that run reproducing the unedited, continuous sequence of thoughts that run through a person’s head, most usually without punctuation or literary through a person’s head, most usually without punctuation or literary interference. interference.

► The writers of the stream-of-consciousness novel seem to share The writers of the stream-of-consciousness novel seem to share certain common assumptions: certain common assumptions: that the significant existence of human beings is to be found in their that the significant existence of human beings is to be found in their

mental-emotional processes and not in the outside world,mental-emotional processes and not in the outside world, that this mental-emotional life is disjointed and illogical, andthat this mental-emotional life is disjointed and illogical, and that a pattern of free psychological association rather than of logical that a pattern of free psychological association rather than of logical

relation determines the shifting sequence of thought and feeling relation determines the shifting sequence of thought and feeling

► The present day stream-of-consciousness novel is a product of The present day stream-of-consciousness novel is a product of Freudian psychology with its structure of subliminal levels.Freudian psychology with its structure of subliminal levels.

ASSOCIATIVE TECHNIQUESASSOCIATIVE TECHNIQUES

► Modernists sometimes used a collection of seemingly random Modernists sometimes used a collection of seemingly random impressions and literary, historical, philosophical, or religious impressions and literary, historical, philosophical, or religious allusions with which readers are expected to make the allusions with which readers are expected to make the connections on their own.connections on their own.

► This reference to details of the past was a way of reminding This reference to details of the past was a way of reminding readers of the old, lost coherence.readers of the old, lost coherence.

► T.S. Eliot’s T.S. Eliot’s The Waste LandThe Waste Land is arguably the greatest example is arguably the greatest example of this allusive manner of writing; it includes a variety of of this allusive manner of writing; it includes a variety of Buddhist, Christian, Greek, Judaic, German and occult Buddhist, Christian, Greek, Judaic, German and occult references, among others.references, among others.

IMAGISMIMAGISM► Includes an eclectic group of English and American poets working Includes an eclectic group of English and American poets working

between 1912 and 1917 including Ezra Pound, Amy Lowell, and between 1912 and 1917 including Ezra Pound, Amy Lowell, and William Carlos Williams.William Carlos Williams.

► It was a reaction against a prevailing cultural romanticism which It was a reaction against a prevailing cultural romanticism which encouraged social optimism concerning the ultimate perfectibility of encouraged social optimism concerning the ultimate perfectibility of humankind and which led, in turn, to art that imagists believed was humankind and which led, in turn, to art that imagists believed was soft and weakly expressive.soft and weakly expressive.

► The imagists aimed to strip away poetry’s tendency toward dense The imagists aimed to strip away poetry’s tendency toward dense wordiness and sentimentality and to crystallize poetic meaning in wordiness and sentimentality and to crystallize poetic meaning in clear, neatly juxtaposed images.clear, neatly juxtaposed images.

► Ezra Pound defines the image in almost photographic terms as “that Ezra Pound defines the image in almost photographic terms as “that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time. . . . It is the presentation of such a “complex” instantaneously time. . . . It is the presentation of such a “complex” instantaneously which gives that sense of sudden liberation; that sense of freedom which gives that sense of sudden liberation; that sense of freedom from time limits and space limits; that sense of sudden growth, which from time limits and space limits; that sense of sudden growth, which we experience in the presence of the greatest works of art.”we experience in the presence of the greatest works of art.”

► Early influences on the imagists included the symbolist poets, Early influences on the imagists included the symbolist poets, classical Greek and Roman poetry, and Chinese and Japanese verse classical Greek and Roman poetry, and Chinese and Japanese verse forms, in particular the haiku, or forms, in particular the haiku, or hokkuhokku..

MODERNISM INCLUDES OTHER MODERNISM INCLUDES OTHER “ISMS”“ISMS”

►FauvismFauvism►CubismCubism►DadaismDadaism►ExpressionismExpressionism►SurrealismSurrealism►SymbolismSymbolism

FAUVISMFAUVISM► A number of French artists such as Rouault, A number of French artists such as Rouault, Derain, Dufy, Vlaminck, and Braque who Derain, Dufy, Vlaminck, and Braque who grouped around Matisse and exhibited grouped around Matisse and exhibited together from 1905 to 1907. together from 1905 to 1907. ► The outraged critical reaction to their free use of color The outraged critical reaction to their free use of color

and distortion of form led to their being called Les and distortion of form led to their being called Les Fauves (“the wild beasts”). Although Matisse was the Fauves (“the wild beasts”). Although Matisse was the only member of the group to continue with the fauvist only member of the group to continue with the fauvist style, the movement had a revolutionary impact on the style, the movement had a revolutionary impact on the development of modern art. Many of its adherents development of modern art. Many of its adherents moved on to experiments with cubism.moved on to experiments with cubism.

► According to Tate, the United Kingdom’s national According to Tate, the United Kingdom’s national museum of British and Modern Art, fauvist paintings museum of British and Modern Art, fauvist paintings were characterized by artists’ use of strident color and were characterized by artists’ use of strident color and seemingly wild brushwork. seemingly wild brushwork.

Henri Matisse. Henri Matisse. Woman with a Hat, Woman with a Hat, 1905.1905.

CUBISMCUBISM► A 20A 20thth century art movement that inspired other art forms. century art movement that inspired other art forms.

► In cubist artworks, objects are broken up and reassembledIn cubist artworks, objects are broken up and reassembled

into an abstract form.into an abstract form.

► Analytic cubism used geometric shapes rather than color to Analytic cubism used geometric shapes rather than color to represent the real world.represent the real world.

► Synthetic cubism incorporated the idea of collage: pulling Synthetic cubism incorporated the idea of collage: pulling together a variety of materials to create a new whole.together a variety of materials to create a new whole.

► Cubist poetry attempts to do in verse what cubist painters Cubist poetry attempts to do in verse what cubist painters

do on canvas; that is, take the elements of an experience, do on canvas; that is, take the elements of an experience, fragment them (creating what Picasso calls “destructions”), fragment them (creating what Picasso calls “destructions”), and then rearrange them in a meaningful new synthesis and then rearrange them in a meaningful new synthesis (Picasso’s “sum of destructions”).(Picasso’s “sum of destructions”).

Georges Braque. Georges Braque. Woman with a GuitarWoman with a Guitar, 1913., 1913.

DADAISMDADAISM► A movement in Europe during and just after WWI, A movement in Europe during and just after WWI, which ignored logical relationship between idea and which ignored logical relationship between idea and statement, argued for absolute freedom, and statement, argued for absolute freedom, and delivered itself of numerous provocative manifestoes.delivered itself of numerous provocative manifestoes.

► It was founded in Zurich in 1916 by Tristan Tzara It was founded in Zurich in 1916 by Tristan Tzara with the ostensibly destructive intent of demolishing with the ostensibly destructive intent of demolishing art and philosophy, intending to replace them with art and philosophy, intending to replace them with conscious madness as a protest against the insanity conscious madness as a protest against the insanity of the war.of the war.

Marcel DuchampMarcel Duchamp. Nude Descending a Staircase, No. . Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 2 19121912

EXPRESSIONISMEXPRESSIONISM► A subjective art form in which an artist distorts reality for an A subjective art form in which an artist distorts reality for an emotional effect.emotional effect.► A response to several different forces: the growing mass A response to several different forces: the growing mass and mechanism of society, with its tendency to depress the and mechanism of society, with its tendency to depress the value of the arts, made artists seek new ways of making art value of the arts, made artists seek new ways of making art forms valuable instruments; at the same time, Freud laid forms valuable instruments; at the same time, Freud laid bare the phantasms in the human unconscious and offered bare the phantasms in the human unconscious and offered artists a challenge to record them accurately.artists a challenge to record them accurately.► Expressionistic drama flourished in the 1920s and was marked by Expressionistic drama flourished in the 1920s and was marked by

unreal atmosphere; nightmarish action; distortion and unreal atmosphere; nightmarish action; distortion and oversimplification; the de-emphasis of the individual; antirealistic oversimplification; the de-emphasis of the individual; antirealistic settings; the spiritual awakening and sufferings of their protagonists; settings; the spiritual awakening and sufferings of their protagonists; and staccato, telegraphic dialogue. Its influence can primarily be and staccato, telegraphic dialogue. Its influence can primarily be scene in the plays of Eugene O’Neill.scene in the plays of Eugene O’Neill.

► In the novel the presentation of the objective outer world as it In the novel the presentation of the objective outer world as it expresses itself in the impressions or moods of a character is a expresses itself in the impressions or moods of a character is a widely used device.widely used device.

► The revolt against realism, the distortion of the objects of the outer The revolt against realism, the distortion of the objects of the outer world, and the violent dislocation of time sequence and spatial logic world, and the violent dislocation of time sequence and spatial logic in an effort accurately but not representationally to show the world in an effort accurately but not representationally to show the world as it appears to a troubled mind can be found in modern poetry.as it appears to a troubled mind can be found in modern poetry.

The Scream. The Scream. 1893.1893. Edvard MunchEdvard Munch

SURREALISMSURREALISM

► A movement in art A movement in art

emphasizing the expression of emphasizing the expression of

the imagination as realized in the imagination as realized in

dreams and presented without dreams and presented without

conscious control. conscious control. ► Paintings were not literalPaintings were not literal

depictions of the known worlddepictions of the known world

but disconcerting “realistic”but disconcerting “realistic”

representations of the representations of the

subconscious.subconscious.► Surrealism is often regarded as an outgrowth of Dada.Surrealism is often regarded as an outgrowth of Dada.

The Persistence of MemoryThe Persistence of Memory. 1931. Salvador Dali. 1931. Salvador Dali

SYMBOLISMSYMBOLISM► Symbolists were a group of French poets who were active during the last Symbolists were a group of French poets who were active during the last

thirty years of the 19thirty years of the 19thth century. century. ► Symbolism in France began as a revolt against the cold impersonality of Symbolism in France began as a revolt against the cold impersonality of

the realistic novel and its minute descriptions of an objective, external the realistic novel and its minute descriptions of an objective, external reality. The rebel poets turned inward, in order to explore and express reality. The rebel poets turned inward, in order to explore and express the shifting, subtle states of the human psyche. They believed that the shifting, subtle states of the human psyche. They believed that poetry should evoke and suggest, raising itself above the level of poetry should evoke and suggest, raising itself above the level of objective description only; hence, they sought poetic techniques that objective description only; hence, they sought poetic techniques that would make possible the recreation of human consciousness. The would make possible the recreation of human consciousness. The symbol and the metaphor enabled them to suggest mysterious and symbol and the metaphor enabled them to suggest mysterious and inexpressible subjective emotion. Often the symbols were highly inexpressible subjective emotion. Often the symbols were highly personal, and their use resulted in obscure, esoteric verse. At its finest, personal, and their use resulted in obscure, esoteric verse. At its finest, however, symbolist poetry achieved a richness of meaning and created however, symbolist poetry achieved a richness of meaning and created an awareness of the mystery at the heart of human existence.an awareness of the mystery at the heart of human existence.

► As symbolism sought freedom from rigidity in the selection of subject As symbolism sought freedom from rigidity in the selection of subject matter, so it desired to free poetry from the restrictions of conventional matter, so it desired to free poetry from the restrictions of conventional versification. The art that seemed most to resemble poetry was not that versification. The art that seemed most to resemble poetry was not that of sculptured precision of plastic forms but music; fluid melody and of sculptured precision of plastic forms but music; fluid melody and delicate lyricism characterized symbolist poetry.delicate lyricism characterized symbolist poetry.

► During the 20During the 20thth century the use of symbolism became a major force in century the use of symbolism became a major force in British literature. T. S. Eliot adapted it in the development of his British literature. T. S. Eliot adapted it in the development of his individual style and praised it in his criticism.individual style and praised it in his criticism.

► The most outstanding development of symbolism was in the art of the The most outstanding development of symbolism was in the art of the novel.novel.

Works CitedWorks Cited► Baym, Nina, ed. Baym, Nina, ed. The Norton Anthology of American Literature.The Norton Anthology of American Literature. New New

York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1998. York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1998. ► Harmon, William, and C. Hugh Homan, eds. Harmon, William, and C. Hugh Homan, eds. A Handbook to A Handbook to

Literature. Literature.

New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1996.New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1996.► Kimmelman, Burt, ed. Kimmelman, Burt, ed. The Facts on File Companion to 20The Facts on File Companion to 20thth Century Century

American PoetryAmerican Poetry. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2005.. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2005.► Lathbury, Roger. Lathbury, Roger. American Modernism (1910-1945): American American Modernism (1910-1945): American

Literature in its Historical, Cultural, and Social Contexts. Literature in its Historical, Cultural, and Social Contexts.

Backgrounds to American Literature Series. New York: Facts On Backgrounds to American Literature Series. New York: Facts On

File, Inc., 2006.File, Inc., 2006.► Siepmann, Katherine Baker, ed. Siepmann, Katherine Baker, ed. BenBenét’s Reader’s Encyclopedia. ét’s Reader’s Encyclopedia.

New York: Harper-Collins New York: Harper-Collins PublishersPublishers, Inc., 1948., Inc., 1948.