Models of Epistemological Development in Adults

by Amanda WalzerCalifornia State University, Fullerton 2013

Introduction• While we’ve been studying child development since Piaget in the 1920s, adults’ stages

of development hadn’t been considered until more recently (the 1970s).– Jean Piaget | Cognitive Theory - Simply Psychology

• Gail Sheey’s Passages (and later New Passages and Understanding Men’s Passages) began interest in the concept of “adult development.”– http://www.gailsheehy.com/passages.php

• Like Piaget transformed child development theory, William Perry’s work at Harvard in the 1970s transformed adult development theory.

• Perry noticed that ways of thinking mature through predictable stages as an individual moves from late adolescence into adulthood.

• Perry offered a constructive-developmental analysis of “adult” thinking, identifying four stages of development in adolescent-adult thinking…

Dualism• This stage is characterized by the belief that

Truth is Absolute and knowable.

• An authority figure (parent, church, military commander, teacher) is the source of Truth and cannot be questioned.

• Later, other perspectives may be acknowledged, but they are “wrong.”

• Characterized by black-and-white, us-and-them, good guys vs. bad guys thinking.

• Hence the term “Dualism”—there are two ways of looking at things

• The thinker might say things like:– I’m right. You’re wrong.– What’s to discuss? The answer’s obvious.

Multiplicity• Reflects emerging understanding that the

world is uncertain.

• Things are now “right,” “wrong” and “not yet known.”

• Learning means trying to understand the “not yet known” to determine rightness or wrongness.

• Some learners get to the realization that they “may never know every thing for sure”

• The thinker might say things like– If I knew the correct way, I could…– No one has ever taught me the right way to…

Relativism

• Things are not “right” or “wrong” with a growing number of exceptions; instead everything is relative with a few right/wrong exceptions.

• Everyone has an opinion & is entitled to that opinion; moreover, all opinions are equally valid

• There’s no way to know the truth for sure because we all have different vantage points

• The learner might say things like:– It all depends.– Everyone is entitled to his/her opinion– In my opinion…– That’s his opinion.

Commitment Within Relativism• All opinions are not equally valid; some opinions are more

valid than others (because they are more current, more relevant, come from a source with more expertise on the issue, aren’t biased by an agenda, are well-supported by evidence, etc.).

• Involves making a commitment to a position, only after being informed; “Takes in” all the available information, then “weighs in” on the situation.

• Reflects maturity of thinking, representative of those who are graduating from college or are in graduate school

• Understanding and knowing require interpretation.

• An authority can be a valuable resource to help one shape a valid interpretation

• A learner might say things like– After reviewing the research, it seems clear that…– The science to-date is inconclusive about the effect of…– Though Tyler May argues…her opinion is not as valid as it

once was because…

An Alternative to Perry’s Model:Belenky et al. and Women’s Ways of Knowing

• In Women’s Ways of Knowing, Belenky at al. (1986) pointed out that Perry’s studies were all done on privileged, white males at Harvard—hardly a representative sampling of people in general

• They pointed out that diverse learners (including women, LGBT people, people of non-white ethnic groups, people of different socioeconomic classes, etc.) have ways of knowing that are not well-described by Perry’s stages

• Further, we do a disservice to diverse learners if we view their modes of learning as a deficit that must be overcome (rather than a legitimate difference)

• Researchers studying women, Clinchy and Zimmerman (1982) and Benack (1982), found that “women’s thoughts appeared to be more tolerant and flexible” than Perry’s model would seem to indicate. (Baxter Magolda, 1992, p. 7)

• Belenky et al. studied women’s ways of knowing and observed that the maturation of their thinking was better described by a progressive movement between different epistemological perspectives:

Women’s Ways of KnowingAccording to Belenky et al.(1986)

Silence, Received knowledge

• Silent women• Don’t view

words as tools for understanding

Subjective knowledge

• Listeners, who listen to their own internal voices

• Listeners, who focus on receiving knowledge form others

Procedural Knowledge

• Connected knowing; women gain access to others’ experiences in a connected fashion

• Separate knowing; women are objective an separate from others

Constructed knowledge

• Women construct knowledge by judging evidence within a context

• Represents an integration of separate and connected approaches

Another Alternative to Perry:Baxter Magolda’s Epistemological Reflection

• Baxter Magolda relied on student narratives on student narratives as a basis for understanding how ways of knowing (and the patterns within those ways of knowing) develop.

• She finds much in common between Perry’s model and Belenky et al.’s models, but

notices some other patterns as well (Baxter-Magolda, 1992, 30, 75, 101, 135, 165).

• Baxter Magolda noticed “an equality and fluidity in ways of knowing” that had not been described before (Baxter-Magolda, 1992, 13).

• The patterns Baxter-Magolda noticed (ie. receiving vs. mastery, interpersonal vs. impersonal, etc.) are gendered ways of thinking but not “dictated by gender” (13). The focus is on the student and on identifying his/her thinking pattern—not on the student’s gender.

• Baxter Magolda identified four developmental stages of knowing…

Epistemological ReflectionAccording to Baxter Magolda

•Corresponds to Perry’s “Dualism” and Belenky et al.’s “Silence, Received knowledge.” Learner obtains knowledge from instructor; peers share materials and explain what they have learned to each other; instructor communicates knowledge and ensures students understand knowledge; evaluation shows instructor what students have learned; knowledge is certain or absolute

Absolute knowing

•Corresponds to Perry’s “Multiplicity” and Belenky et al.’s “”Subjective knowledge.” Learner understands knowledge; peers provide active exchanges; instructor uses methods aimed at understanding, employs methods to help apply knowledge; evaluation measures students’ understanding of the material; knowledge is partially certain and partially uncertain

Transitional knowing

•Corresponds to Perry’s “Relativism” and Belenky et al.’s “Procedural knowledge.” Learner thinks for self, shares views with others and creates own perspective; peers share views and serve as a source of knowledge; instructor promotes independent thinking and exchange of opinions; evaluation rewards independent thinking; knowledge is uncertain—everyone has own beliefs

Independent knowing

•Corresponds to Perry’s Commitment within relativism” and Belenky et al.’s “Constructed knowledge.” Learner exchanges and compares perspectives, thinks through problems, integrates and applies knowledge; peers enhance learning via quality contributions; instructor promotes application of knowledge in context and evaluative discussion; students and teacher work toward goal and measure progress; knowledge is contextual, judge on the basis of evidence

Contextual knowing

Models of Epistemological Development

Intellectual and Ethical

Development(PERRY)

Women’s Ways of Knowing

(BELENKY ET AL.)

Epistemological Reflection(BAXTER

MAGOLDA)

Reflective Judgement(KING and

KITCHENER)

Argumentative Reasoning

(KUHN)

In addition to Perry, Belenky et al., and Baxter Magolda, there are two other models for adult development theory:

King and Kitchener describe “reflective judgement stages” (pre-reflective, quasi-reflective and reflective-thinking);

Kuhn identifies three “epistemological views” (absolutists, multiplists and evaluativists).

Flippo & Caverly (2009, p. 28)

Implications of Adult Development Theory forTeaching College

Our goal should be moving students

toward “contextual knowing”

We ought to identify and incorporate

activities and learning strategies that move

students toward mature, contextual

thinking.

We should respect that individuals will get there to different

degrees, in different ways, and in their own

time

We ought to support learners at different

developmental stages by differentiating our

classroom instructional strategies.

References

Baxter Magolda, M.B. (1992). Knowing and Reasoning in College: Gender-Related Patterns in Students’

Intellectual Development. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Carter-Wells, J. Adult Development Theory, Fall 101 [DOCX document]. Retrieved from

https://moodle-2013-2014.fullerton.edu/mod/folder/view.php?id=255158

McLeod, S. (2009, updated 2012). “Jean Piaget.” Retrieved from

http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

Pawan, F. and Honeyford, M.A. (2009) Academic Literacy. In Flippo, R.F. and Caverly, D.C. (Eds.)

Handbook of College Reading and Study Strategy Research (396-401). New York: Routledge.

Sheey, G. Passages. In Gail Sheehy. Retrieved from http://www.gailsheehy.com/passages.php