miller/spoolman living in the environment...science focus: easter island: revisions to a popular...
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LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT 17TH MILLER/SPOOLMAN
CHAPTER 2
Science, Matter, Energy, and Systems
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Core Case Study: A Story About a Forest
• Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire
• Compared the loss of water and nutrients from an uncut forest (control site) with one that had been stripped (experimental site)
• Stripped site:
• 30-40% more runoff
• More dissolved nutrients
• More soil erosion
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The Effects of Deforestation on the Loss of Water and Soil Nutrients
Fig. 2-1, p. 31
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2-1 What Do Scientists Do?
• Concept 2-1 Scientists collect data and develop theories, models, and laws about how nature works.
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Science Is a Search for Order in Nature (1)
• Identify a problem
• Find out what is known about the problem
• Ask a question to be investigated
• Gather data through experiments
• Propose a scientific hypothesis
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Science Is a Search for Order in Nature (2)
• Make testable predictions
• Keep testing and making observations
• Accept or reject the hypothesis
• Scientific theory: well-tested and widely accepted
hypothesis
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The Scientific Process
Fig. 2-2, p. 33
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Fig. 2-2, p. 33
Identify a problem
Find out what is known about the
problem (literature search)
Ask a question to be investigated
Perform an experiment to
answer the question
and collect data
Analyze data (check for patterns)
Scientific law Well-accepted pattern in data
Propose a hypothesis to explain data
Use hypothesis to make testable
projections
Perform an experiment to
test projections
Accept hypothesis
Revise hypothesis
Make testable
projections
Test projections
Scientific theory Well-tested and widely accepted
hypothesis
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Testing a Hypothesis
Fig. 2-3, p. 33
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Fig. 2-3, p. 33
Nothing happens when I try
to turn on my flashlight.
Question: Why didn’t the light come on?
Hypothesis: Maybe the batteries are dead.
Test hypothesis with an experiment: Put in
new batteries and try to turn on the flashlight.
Result: Flashlight still does not work.
New hypothesis: Maybe the bulb is burned out.
Experiment: Put in a new bulb.
Result: Flashlight works.
Conclusion: New hypothesis is verified.
Observation:
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Characteristics of Science…and Scientists
• Curiosity
• Skepticism
• Reproducibility
• Peer review
• Openness to new ideas
• Critical thinking
• Creativity
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Science Focus: Easter Island: Revisions to a Popular Environmental Story
• Some revisions to a popular environmental story
• Polynesians arrived about 800 years ago
• Population may have reached 3000
• Used trees in an unsustainable manner, but rats may have multiplied and eaten the seeds of the trees
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Stone Statues on Easter Island
Fig. 2-A, p. 35
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Scientific Theories and Laws Are the Most Important Results of Science
• Scientific theory
• Widely tested
• Supported by extensive evidence
• Accepted by most scientists in a particular area
• Scientific law, law of nature
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The Results of Science Can Be Tentative, Reliable, or Unreliable
• Tentative science, frontier science
• Reliable science
• Unreliable science
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Science Has Some Limitations
1. Particular hypotheses, theories, or laws have a high
probability of being true while not being absolute
2. Bias can be minimized by scientists
3. Environmental phenomena involve interacting variables and
complex interactions
4. Statistical methods may be used to estimate very large or
very small numbers
5. Scientific process is limited to the natural world
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Science Focus: Statistics and Probability
• Statistics
• Collect, organize, and interpret numerical data
• Probability
• The chance that something will happen or be valid
• Need large enough sample size
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2-2 What Is Matter?
• Concept 2-2 Matter consists of elements and compounds, which are in turn made up of atoms, ions, or molecules.
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Matter Consists of Elements and Compounds
• Matter
• Has mass and takes up space
• Elements
• Unique properties
• Cannot be broken down chemically into other substances
• Compounds
• Two or more different elements bonded together in fixed proportions
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Gold and Mercury Are Chemical Elements
Fig. 2-4a, p. 38
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Chemical Elements Used in The Book
Table 2-1, p. 38
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Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Are the Building Blocks of Matter (1)
• Atomic theory • All elements are made of atoms
• Subatomic particles • Protons with positive charge and neutrons with no charge in
nucleus
• Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus
• Atomic number • Number of protons in nucleus
• Mass number • Number of protons plus neutrons in nucleus
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Model of a Carbon-12 Atom
Fig. 2-5, p. 39
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Fig. 2-5, p. 39
6 protons
6 neutrons
6 electrons
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Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Are the Building Blocks of Matter (2)
• Isotopes
• Same element, different number of protons
• Ions
• Gain or lose electrons
• Form ionic compounds
• pH
• Measure of acidity
• H+ and OH-
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Chemical Ions Used in This Book
Table 2-2, p. 40
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pH Scale
Supplement 5, Figure 4
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Loss of NO3− from a Deforested Watershed
Fig. 2-6, p. 40
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Fig. 2-6, p. 40
Undisturbed
(control)
watershed
Disturbed
(experimental)
watershed Nit
rate
(N
O3
–)
co
ncen
trati
on
(milli
gra
ms p
er
lite
r)
Year
1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972
40
60
20
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Atoms, Ions, and Molecules Are the Building Blocks of Matter (3)
• Molecule
• Two or more atoms of the same or different elements held together by chemical bonds
• Compounds
• Chemical formula
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Compounds Used in This Book
Table 2-3, p. 40
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Organic Compounds Are the Chemicals of Life
• Organic compounds • Hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons
• Simple carbohydrates
• Macromolecules: complex organic molecules • Complex carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
• Lipids
• Inorganic compounds
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Glucose Structure
Supplement 4, Fig. 4
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Amino Acids and Proteins
Supplement 4, Fig. 8
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Nucleotide Structure in DNA and RNA
Supplement 4, Fig. 9
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DNA Double Helix Structure and Bonding
Supplement 4, Fig. 10
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Fatty Acid Structure and Trigyceride
Supplement 4, Fig. 11
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Matter Comes to Life through Genes, Chromosomes, and Cells
• Cells: fundamental units of life; all organisms are composed of one or more cells
• Genes
• Sequences of nucleotides within DNA
• Instructions for proteins
• Create inheritable traits
• Chromosomes: composed of many genes
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Cells, Nuclei, Chromosomes, DNA, and Genes
Fig. 2-7, p. 42
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Fig. 2-7, p. 42
A human body contains trillions
of cells, each with an identical
set of genes.
Each human cell (except for red
blood cells) contains a nucleus.
Each cell nucleus has an
identical set of chromosomes,
which are found in pairs.
A specific pair of chromosomes
contains one chromosome from
each parent.
Each chromosome contains a
long DNA molecule in the form
of a coiled double helix.
Genes are segments of
DNA on chromosomes that
contain instructions to make
proteins—the building blocks of life.
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Some Forms of Matter Are More Useful than Others
• High-quality matter
• Highly concentrated
• Near earth’s surface
• High potential as a resource
• Low-quality matter
• Not highly concentrated
• Deep underground or widely dispersed
• Low potential as a resource
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Examples of Differences in Matter Quality
Fig. 2-8, p. 42
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Fig. 2-8, p. 42
High Quality Low Quality
Solid Gas
Salt Solution of salt in water
Coal Coal-fired power plant emissions
Gasoline Automobile
emissions
Aluminum can Aluminum ore
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2-3 What Happens When Matter Undergoes Change?
• Concept 2-3 Whenever matter undergoes a physical or chemical change, no atoms are created or destroyed (the law of conservation of matter).
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Matter Undergoes Physical, Chemical, and Nuclear Changes
• Physical change
• No change in chemical composition
• Chemical change, chemical reaction
• Change in chemical composition
• Reactants and products
• Nuclear change
• Natural radioactive decay
• Radioisotopes: unstable
• Nuclear fission
• Nuclear fusion
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Types of Nuclear Changes
Fig. 2-9, p. 43
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Fig. 2-9a, p. 43
Radioactive decay occurs when nuclei of unstable isotopes spontaneously
emit fast-moving chunks of matter (alpha particles or beta particles), high-
energy radiation (gamma rays), or both at a fixed rate. A particular radioactive
isotope may emit any one or a combination of the three items shown in the
diagram.
Radioactive isotope
Radioactive decay
Gamma rays
Alpha particle
(helium-4 nucleus)
Beta particle (electron)
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Fig. 2-9b, p. 43
Nuclear fission
Uranium-235
Uranium-235
Neutron Energy
Fission
fragment
n
n
n
n
n n
Energy
Energy
Energy
Fission
fragment
Radioactive isotope Radioactive decay occurs when nuclei of unstable isotopes
spontaneously emit fast-moving chunks of matter (alpha particles or beta particles), high-
energy radiation (gamma rays), or both at a fixed rate. A particular radioactive isotope
may emit any one or a combination of the three items shown in the diagram.
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Fig. 2-9c, p. 43
Nuclear fusion occurs when two isotopes of light elements, such
as hydrogen, are forced together at extremely high temperatures
until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus and release a tremendous
amount of energy.
Hydrogen-3
(tritium nucleus)
100
million °C
Reaction
conditions
Neutron
Energy
Products
Neutron
Nuclear fusion
Fuel
Hydrogen-2
(deuterium nucleus)
Helium-4 nucleus Proton
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We Cannot Create or Destroy Matter
• Law of conservation of matter
• Whenever matter undergoes a physical or chemical change, no atoms are created or destroyed
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2-4 What is Energy and What Happens When It Undergoes Change?
• Concept 2-4A When energy is converted from one form to another in a physical or chemical change, no energy is created or destroyed (first law of thermodynamics).
• Concept 2-4B Whenever energy is changed from one form to another in a physical or chemical change, we end up with lower-quality or less usable energy than we started with (second law of thermodynamics).
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Energy Comes in Many Forms (1)
• Kinetic energy • Flowing water
• Wind
• Heat • Transferred by radiation, conduction, or convection
• Electromagnetic radiation
• Potential energy • Stored energy
• Can be changed into kinetic energy
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Wind’s Kinetic Energy Moves This Turbine
Fig. 2-10, p. 44
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Fig. 2-11, p. 45
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Fig. 2-11, p. 45
Visible light
Gamma
rays X rays
Shorter
wavelengths
and higher
energy
Longer
wavelengths
and lower
energy
UV
radiation
Infrared
radiation Microwaves TV, Radio waves
Wavelengths
(not to scale)
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 0.1 10 100 0.1 1 10 1 10 100
Nanometers Micrometers Centimeters Meters
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Potential Energy
Fig. 2-12, p. 45
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Energy Comes in Many Forms (2)
• Sun provides 99% of earth’s energy
• Warms earth to comfortable temperature
• Plant photosynthesis
• Winds
• Hydropower
• Biomass
• Fossil fuels: oil, coal, natural gas
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Nuclear Energy to Electromagnetic Radiation
Fig. 2-13, p. 46
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Fossil fuels
Fig. 2-14a, p. 46
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Some Types of Energy Are More Useful Than Others
• High-quality energy
• High capacity to do work
• Concentrated
• High-temperature heat
• Strong winds
• Fossil fuels
• Low-quality energy
• Low capacity to do work
• Dispersed
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Ocean Heat Is Low-Quality Energy
Fig. 2-15, p. 47
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Energy Changes Are Governed by Two Scientific Laws
• First Law of Thermodynamics
• Law of conservation of energy
• Energy is neither created nor destroyed in physical and chemical changes
• Second Law of Thermodynamics
• Energy always goes from a more useful to a less useful form when it changes from one form to another
• Light bulbs and combustion engines are very inefficient: produce wasted heat
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Energy-Wasting Technologies
Fig. 2-16a, p. 48
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2-5 What Are Systems and How Do They Respond to Change?
• Concept 2-5 Systems have inputs, flows, and outputs of matter and energy, and feedback can affect their behavior.
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Systems Have Inputs, Flows, and Outputs
• System • Set of components that interact in a regular way
• Human body, earth, the economy
• Inputs from the environment
• Flows, throughputs of matter and energy
• Outputs to the environment
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Inputs, Throughput, and Outputs of an Economic System
Fig. 2-17, p. 48
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Fig. 2-17, p. 48
Inputs
(from environment) Throughputs
Outputs
(to environment)
Energy
resources
Work or
products
Matter
resources System
processes
Waste and
pollution
Information Heat
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Systems Respond to Change through Feedback Loops
• Positive feedback loop
• Causes system to change further in the same direction
• Can cause major environmental problems
• Negative, or corrective, feedback loop
• Causes system to change in opposite direction
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Positive Feedback Loop
Fig. 2-18, p. 49
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Fig. 2-18, p. 49
Decreasing
vegetation...
... which causes more
vegetation to die.
... leads to erosion
and nutrient loss...
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Negative Feedback Loop
Fig. 2-19, p. 50
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Fig. 2-19, p. 50
House warms
Temperature reaches
desired setting and
furnace goes off
Furnace on Furnace off
House cools
Temperature drops
below desired setting
and furnace goes on
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Time Delays Can Allow a System to Reach a Tipping Point
• Time delays vary
• Between the input of a feedback stimulus and the response to it
• Tipping point, threshold level
• Causes a shift in the behavior of a system
• Melting of polar ice
• Population growth
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System Effects Can Be Amplified through Synergy
• Synergistic interaction, synergy
• Two or more processes combine in such a way that combined effect is greater than the two separate effects
• Helpful
• Studying with a partner
• Harmful
• E.g., Smoking and inhaling asbestos particles
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The Usefulness of Models for Studying Systems
1. Identify major components of systems and interactions within system, and then write equations
2. Use computer to describe behavior, based on the equations
3. Compare projected behavior with known behavior
• Can use a good model to answer “if-then“ questions
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Three Big Ideas
1. There is no away.
2. You cannot get something for nothing.
3. You cannot break even.