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Milagros Kant Vinda

Professor N. Thomas Stephens

Physiology

29 June 2010

Human Factors of Automation

Improving or Not, Our Life as Pilots

This research will inform briefly about the advantages and disadvantages that the human

factor automation provides and how it’s involving to human being. The human factors of

automation at this point of technological growth, is one of the most important factors in aviation,

as it influences the safety of the aircraft and the pilot, the two are combined to result in a good

flight, so it is important to know its pros and cons. This paper will cover the beginnings of the

automation, how it grows up so fast in aviation industry, which are today’s most using

automation instruments and the mechanism of use. Of course all can’t be perfect, some persons

think that automation is the exception, but it’s just if human & machine make the perfect match,

so we know that human have difficulty to adapt to the machine, so why not adapt machines to

humans?. Over the past 50 years, automation has challenged the human factors community with

both pragmatic and philosophical issues (Asher & Post, 1964; Edwards & Lees, 1974; Parsons,

1985). Pragmatic issues concern the frequent failure of automation to achieve the promised

benefits. Philosophical issues concern how automation redefines the role of humans in complex

systems and even the nature of human cognition (Hancock, 1996; Sheridan, 2002). Automation,

defined as technology that performs “a function that was previously carried out by a human”

(Parasuraman & Riley, 1997).

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In others words, automation is the use of control systems and information

technologies reducing the need for human intervention. Automation extends the physical and

cognitive capacity of people to achieve what might otherwise be impossible, but only if its

design considers the characteristics of the joint cognitive system that emerges from the

combination of humans and automation (Roth, Bennett, & Woods, 1987.) No all things have just

two faces and this type of technology is the exception, we’re going to briefly talk about the most

important faces of the automation in aviation and how it have change radically, the term “flight”

for pilots.

Flight, what came to our mind when you imagine to flight? , well many persons imagine

a great adventure between clouds and sky, “The air up there in the clouds is very pure and fine,

bracing and delicious. And why shouldn't it be? —it is the same the angels breathe.” (Mark

Twain 1886). , children’s dream with touches the stars and the ones who really love aviation

thinks in freedom, to control all movements, to feel the wind beneath hers wings as be one with

the airplane because “No one can realize how substantial the air is, until he feels its supporting

power beneath him. It inspires confidence at once.” (Otto Lilienthal). But over the years, many

things have changed and gradually technology appropriated the term "fly” and for those like

Michael Parfit from Smithsonian' magazine, who think that the magic of flight ever be carried by

words, I have one word for describe that magic, “Automation”. Ironic or not, is the truth and

automation is the new “fly”.

"To err is human and to blame it on a computer is even more so" (Stokes 2007:197). And

all begin with Jacquard in the 1800s when he introduces the automated weaving loom. In

aviation the oil price crisis of the 1970s provided the initial impetus for aircraft manufacturers to

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rethink aircraft cockpit design. In attempting to find a competitor for the then very popular

Boeing 727, Airbus Industries designed a successor to its A300 aircraft. The A320 family of

aircraft from Airbus Industries incorporated more advanced computer technology and

automation (Kingsley, 2006). This was by far the most advanced aircraft of its time,

incorporating a modern avionics and computer suite. The engineers of the time determined that

only a computer had the capability to control a commercial jet to the precise requirements of

efficiency that was required by the phenomenal oil price (Kingsley, 2006).

Airbus Industries introduced advanced features such as a fly-by-wire flight control

system, composite primary structures and centre-of-gravity control, using fuel located in the tail

plane of the aircraft. A two-person flight deck working in an electronic flight instrument system

(EFIS) environment (glass cockpit) was the radical and most visible change to the commercial

jet. The net result was that the A320 consumed 50% less fuel than the Boeing 727. Thus, we can

say that was a financial imperative induce the needed for aircraft automation. (Beauden 1989)

further suggested that the reason for the changes and advances in flight deck design was a desire

to achieve the following advantages: lowering of pilots’ mental and physical workload;

Economy in personnel (by relieving the flight engineer of duties, the designers were able to build

an aircraft that requires only two pilots); Precision in automation to create accuracy in the flight

path; and a reduced need for maintenance because of the reliability of the system. All these

things according humans will improve the aviation of our days. But who much it improves it?

What parts of aviation they’re affecting? , well in the next paragraphs I will show you some of

the modern’s automation programs.

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In aviation, automation generally began with systems that stabilize an aircraft's attitude

through mechanical manipulation of the flight control surfaces--what we now call autopilots. It

has now progressed through an incalculable number of steps to the automated cockpit in which

the pilot is primarily an operator and monitor of automated systems. (Jose Ortega y Gasset). If

we analyze this from two points of view you can see what I’m talking about, let‘s think that

we’re flying a normal C-172, at the moment of do any maneuver what we expect as pilots is that

the airplane have a feedback through his five senses of what we are doing. So this implies 3

basics things: Pilot, the controls and aircraft feedback, keep it on mine, remember this is an

aircraft and isn’t have any automation. Now imagine we are flying a 747 or an Airbus, and you

decide make a maneuver, wait! This kind of aircraft have an Automation Cockpit was mean have

an “Autopilot” ( the first level of automation in our moderns Airplanes), this system is based in a

“assign and do” method when the pilot assigns specific tasks to the autopilot, such as heading

and altitude, and the autopilot performs those tasks. What happens?, Remember Pilots are first

human and is a human needed to feel that they have the control over what they are directing and

these also create strong feeling of responsibility, because “PIC” (Pilot in Command), so with

automation we are separating the pilot from the controls and his(er) authority over the airplane

and it masks the most basic feedback cues, such as control feel and airplane response time. So

right now we have 4 implies: Pilot, autopilot, controls and Airplane feedback.

The controller is our second level of automation; these controllers may use navigation

information or altitude information or rate-of-descent commands, which transmit instructions to

the autopilot such as ``turn to and maintain this heading'' or ``fly along this course'', If you have

pay attention in this configuration, the pilot now has two layers of automation separating him

from direct control of the aircraft, at this time he is just monitoring, so right know we add

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another element to our list : pilot, controllers, autopilot, controls and aircraft feedback. But wait

we have two more levels the famous FMC flight management computer). Now, the pilot must

program the computer that instructs the controllers to transmit instructions to the autopilot, who

finally fly the airplane.

But isn’t all, we have a fourth level of automation integrates the FMC with airplane

systems such as fuel and environmental control. In one representative airplane, the cockpit

humidifier is turned on by a signal from the FMC when the airplane reaches cruising altitude,

and is turned off by the FMC two hours prior to the descent point. So just imagine the capacity

of the FMC to consider all speeds, courses, temperatures, etc. Finally if you add all the levels we

have: Pilot, FMC, controllers, autopilot/aircraft systems, controls and aircraft feedback. So at

this level the pilot just enters some information and monitors what is happen. (Figure 1)

Figure1.

Airplane automation. (ISAP ‘07, Graz 2007-07-06 )

Some scholars, such as Skitka, Mosier, Burdick and Rosenblatt (2000), have argued that

the elimination of the human element in aviation will reduce errors and prevent accidents, whilst

enhancing overall efficiency. We all know that autopilots are beneficial, that various types of

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controllers can greatly reduce the workload in certain maneuvers and can provide an accuracy

that is difficult for humans to duplicate and that the FMCs provides a reservoir of information

and assistance that is unprecedented.

History, however, has demonstrated that this ideal is still far from possible in the complex

modern environment; Computers (conceived, designed and built by human beings) still have a

latent flaw – the human hand involved in any computer’s basic design. (Prevender Naidoo,

2008). Why if they create computers, they can control it, according to Fredricks and Dossett

(1983:12), ‘attitude is the key to understanding human behavior’. People’s perceptions have a

similar impact on attitude and are considered the root of behavioral issues. Studies conducted by

Vermeulen, Wilson and Mitchell (2004) on perceptions in respect of gender bias in the aviation

industry demonstrate the importance of perception, attitude and behavior in the airline industry.

According to Rigner and Dekker (2000), positive perceptions of automation enhance a pilot’s

commitment to a safe operation. On the other hand, a negative perception will lead to disrupted

thought, irrational decision-making, a bad attitude and unsafe acts or negligence.

So let’s look briefly the human face of automation, According to Gollwitzer (1999), five

lines of theory were developed in human perception principles:

Psychophysical aspects of vision: Binocular fusion and color perception is studied in this

area of research. Modern automation design uses more color and variations in font style

to enhance safety and reduce misinterpretation. These colors and displays influence

automation perception positively (and for some users negatively).

Visual grouping by proximity: This is also called the Gestalt law of perception. The

principle of organization by grouping is the fundamental focus of this line of research.

The psychological influence of grouping has an impact on a pilot’s perception of

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automation, either negative or positive, when more information is available via larger

liquid crystal display (LCD) screens. Surveys reveal that some information on the

aircraft status is lost due to an overload of incoming data presented on these screens

(Billings, 1997).

Structural description of visual form: This line of research focuses on constructs used to

formally describe visual structures, for example, pattern interpretation, pattern

classification and symmetry perception. Patterns on board the newest generation of

automated flight decks now employ square ‘dials’, as opposed to the traditional round

‘dials’. Basic flight information data such as airspeed, vertical speed and altitude are now

displayed digitally. These displays appear to influence a pilot’s perception positively, as

the computer can now offer information regarding trends in airspeed, altitude, vertical

speed, and so on, providing the pilot with an advanced warning of change.

Perception and production of sound: Auditory perception, mainly in the field of music,

such as key-finding, melody, harmony, and so on, is the basis of this line of research in

perception theory. Using this information, design of the automation system makes very

good use of sound in providing information to the pilot. Variances in tones and pitch

indicate to the operator what the extent of the non normal or emergency situation is.

Research conducted by Little (1999) in the field of human perception built on the five

earlier perceptual paths and condensed it for simpler understanding. Two primary phenomena,

immediate perception and normal perception, were found to dominate the thinking process

within the human mind:

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Immediate perception: This is a total physical awareness of one’s environment,

via neural pathways in the brain. Information is gained physiologically from a human

being’s various senses (smell, taste, touch, sight, and hearing). On board the flight deck

of a highly advanced aircraft, the human operator is immediately aware of the functioning

of the automated system through the use of colored lights (sight), audio cautions and

warnings (sound).

Normal perception: According to Little (1999), normal perception by a human being is

the psychological interpretation of the environment by that person. However, it should

be noted that psychological interpretation may not always correlate with physical and

physiological reality. In the context of highly automated aircraft systems, research

conducted by Mosier et al. (1998) discovered an alarming increase in the use of

cognitive heuristics in the ‘glass’ flight deck. Automation bias is the use of automated

cues as a replacement for vigilant seeking and processing of incoming perceptive

information.

Researchers have suggested that past behavior and habits may play a significant role in

present actions or behavior (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2001). This can explain why it seem that there

may be difficulties in the transition training of pilots shifting from analogue to digital flight

decks, according to the theory of planned behavior, human actions may be considered to be

guided by three kinds of action (Gollwitzer, 1999):

Behavioral beliefs (understanding the likely consequences of certain behavior):

Incomplete training or a lack of adequate information will hamper a pilot’s ability to

operate an automated aircraft confidently. It was found that this lack of confidence

created a negative perception in the mind of the operator.

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Normative beliefs (what you believe others expect from you): The normative belief,

based on an orthodox school of flying aircraft, states that a pilot should be able to fly

without the use of the auto pilot system. This was always the expectation of the flying

instructors during all pilots’ initial flying training experience.

Control beliefs (belief about the presence of factors that may further or hinder your

progress, which are considered out of your control): Complacency is still regarded as one

of the major threats to the operation of automated aircraft (Parasuraman & Riley, 1997).

Pilots may indicate a very positive perception of automation systems; however, this may

be a false impression and must be looked at more objectively. Lack of understanding and

incomplete knowledge loops may give rise to the fallacy that advanced flight deck

automation is infallible. See (Figure 2)

Figure 2: The link between belief and behavior on an automated flight deck .The fundamental objective of the current study is to measure airline pilots’ perception (Point 2 in Figure 2) of automation by analyzing their belief system (assessing various biographical variables, Point 1 in Figure 2). The impact of these variables affects the final outcome, as behavior on the flight deck (Point 4 in Figure 2). The model portrays how a pilot may be considered the last line of defense

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in a flawed system. Measuring perception in order to understand behavioral issues in advanced aircraft is a primary area of concern in mitigating accidents. (Prevender Naidoo, 2008)

Obviously if you make a flash back and compare the old flight deck cockpit with the

newest (see, Figure 3.), you can saw a big different, it have change a lot and also it looks more

sophisticated but all good news, bring some bad news hide, waiting for the perfect moment to get

out, and bring an error.

Figure3:

Flight deck comparisons (Flight Deck pictures, http://www.airliners.net/, 2007)

Extensive research contributions by aviation scholars in the field of automation issues

have been documented in the public domain and can be accessed via the website, notably at

http//www.flighdeckautomation.com. Funk, Lyall and Riley (1995) have ranked the top ten

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automation issues in terms of the strength of the evidence on these issues. The top ten issues

affecting pilots operating an advanced aircraft as determined by Funk et al. (1995) by means of

meta-ranking and confirmed by Funk and Lyall (2000:5) are:

Understanding: ‘Pilots may not understand the structure and function of automation or

the interaction of automation devices well enough to perform their duties’, safely.

Situational awareness: ‘The behavior of automation devices, what they are doing now

and what they will do in the future, based upon pilot input or other factors, may not be

apparent to pilots. This may result in reduced pilot awareness of automation behavior

and goals’.

Complacency: ‘Pilots may become complacent because they are overly confident in the

flight management system and uncritical of automation. Such complacency leads to a

failure to exercise appropriate vigilance, sometimes to the extent of abdicating

responsibility to it’. This can lead to unsafe conditions.

Design: ‘Displays (including aural warnings), display formats and display elements may

not be designed for detectability, discriminability or interpretability. This may cause

important information to be missed or misinterpreted’.

Training: ‘The training philosophy, objectives, methods, materials or equipment may be

inadequate to train pilots properly for safe and effective automated aircraft operation’.

Inappropriate usage: ‘Pilots may use automation in situations where it should not be

used’.

Complexity: ‘Automation may be too complex, in that it may consist of many

interrelated components and may operate under many different modes. This makes

automation difficult for pilots to understand and use safely’.

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Surprise events: ‘Automation may perform in ways that are unintended by, unexpected

to, and perhaps inexplicable to pilots, possibly creating confusion, increasing pilot

workload to compensate, and sometimes leading to unsafe conditions’.

Dissemination of information: ‘Important information that could be displayed by

automation is not displayed, thereby limiting the ability of pilots to make safe decisions

and actions’.

Reduced skill: ‘Pilots may lose the psychomotor and cognitive skills required for flying

manually, or for flying non-automated aircraft, due to extensive use of automation’.

After us ventured into the world of automation, we know that automation rather than a

luxury, but a necessity that provide us greater navigational accuracy, better efficiency, vastly

expanded information, workload, precision, reliability, economy, safety, also many

disadvantages for human like don’t have a correct understanding of information, reduced skill of

the pilot, bad dissemination of information, to be not prepare for surprise events, complexity in

learning process, to be complacency with what happen and one of the most important

disadvantages is the pilot loss of situational awareness, but the more than that, bring us a lot of

irony, don’t think so?. Easy parts of work is taken away while difficult parts become more

difficult, workload increased where it already was high and decreased where it already was low,

leaves the unreliable pilot to watch out for the things that could not be automated, people are not

good at watching out for the rare failures of systems, which becomes the pilots role (Bainbridge,

1987).

The irony of automation has captured the cockpit. Along with the irony come hazards,

challenges, anxieties and opportunities. To cross an ocean as the FMC tracks the route and

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calculates optimum speeds and altitudes, to communicate with distant air traffic controllers using

digital FANS procedures, to watch a descent fully programmed for crossing restrictions, to

follow a Category IIIB approach from initial setup to the end of the landing roll-without ever

having to see the runway itself as a criteria for landing--is to look at the future of aviation, and

the challenges to aviation safety. Welcome to the irony. (Jose Ortega y Gasset).

If automation improve or not the aviation, really, I don’t know, why? Because the pros

and cons of automation cannot be stated as final truths. But it’s my think, what think you?

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Works Cited

Asher, J. J., & Post, R. I. (1964). The new field-theory: An application to postal

automation. Human Factors, 6, 517–522.

Beauden, E. 1989. Modern Flight Deck. Canadian Aviation, November: 45-46.

Belson, W.A. 1986. Validity in Survey Research. Aldershot: Gower.

Billings, C.E. 1997. Aviation Automation. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence

Erlbaum.

Edwards, E., & Lees, F. (1974). The human operator in process control. London:

Taylor & Francis.

Fishbein, M. & Ajzen, I. 2001. Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An

Introduction to Theory and Research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Fredricks, A.J. & Dossett, D.L. 1983. Attitude-behavior relations: A comparison of

the Fishbein-Ajzen and the Bentler-Speckart models. Journal of Personality

and Social Psychology, 45:501-512.

Funk, K. & Lyall, B. 2000. A Comparative Analysis of Flight Decks with Varying

Levels of Automation. Final Report prepared for the FAA Chief Scientific and

Technical Advisor for Human Factors. Washington DC: Federal Aviation

Administration.

Funk, K., Lyall, B., & Riley, V. 1995. Perceived Human Factors Problems of Flight

Deck Automation. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Department of

Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering.

Gollwitzer, P.M. 1999. Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans.

American Psychologist, 54:493-503.

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Hancock, P. A. (1996). Teleology of technology. In R. Parasuraman & M. Mouloua

(Eds.), Automation and human performance (pp.461–498). Mahwah, NJ:

Erlbaum.

Jose Ortega y Gasset 2008. THE COCKPIT: A BRIEF HISTORY ``History will not

tell us what to do, but . . . what we ought to avoid.''

web.mit.edu/digitalapollo/Documents/Chapter11/cockpithistory.pdf

Kingsley. M. 2006. Airbus Rethinks Plan to put Winglets on A320. Flight

International. Magazine. October: (pp.15-19).

Little, G.R. 1999. A Theory of Perception. San Francisco: Freeman.

Mark Twain.(1886) ‘Roughing It,’ Chapter XXII.

Mosier, K.L., Skitka, L.J., Heers, S. & Burdick, M. 1998. Automation Bias: Decision

Making and Performance in High Tech Cockpits. The International Journal of

Aviation Psychology, 8(1):47-63.

Parasuraman, R., & Riley, V. (1997). Humans and automation: Use, misuse, disuse,

abuse. Human Factors, 39, 230–253.

Parsons, H. M. (1985). Special-issue preface – Automation and the individual:

Comprehensive and comparative views. Human Factors, 27, 1–2.

Prevender Naidoo. 2008. AIRLINE PILOTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF ADVANCED FLIGHT DECK

AUTOMATION.upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-06152009.../dissertation.pdf

Rigner, J. & Dekker, S. 2000. Sharing the Burden of Flight Deck Automation

Training. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 10(4):317-326.

Roth, E. M., Bennett, K. B., & Woods, D. D. (1987). Human interaction with an

“intelligent” machine. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 27, 479–

526.

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Sheridan, T. B. (2002). Humans and automation. New York: Wiley.

Skitka, L.J., Mosier, K.L., Burdick, M. & Rosenblatt, B. 2000. Automation Bias and

Errors: Are Crews Better than Individuals? The International Journal of

Aviation Psychology, 10(1):85-97.

Stokes, J. 2007. Inside the Machine: An Illustrated Introduction to Microprocessors

and Computer Architecture. San Francisco, CA: No Starch Press

Vermeulen, L. P., & Mitchell, J. I. 2007. Development and validation of a measure to

assess perceptions regarding gender-related behavior. The International

Journal of Aviation Psychology, 17(2), 75-96.

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Abstract

Most people when they think of flying, believe that it’s impossible, unlikely or simply

they are afraid of heights, "Limited in his nature, infinite in his desire, man is a fallen god who

remembers heaven" - Alphonse de Lamertin, "L'Homme" adressed to Byron in 1819 .. As time

has passed, changes have been generated and the technology has advanced, and unfortunately for

those that give everything to feel the wind in their wings and have the total control of his (er)

aircraft, and a couple of years ago this technology reached the aviation, giving a new name to the

term "fly", that is automation of aviation. And if it is true, automation is not new, because it

started from 1800 with the creation of automatic weaving loom, but for aviation began not long

ago.

Automated aviation was created to meet the basic needs of all of the 70’s companies, that

including: workload to pilots, to improve aircraft performance and reduce costs and how to

forget the first premise of automation "Security." The first signs of an automated aviation were

the creation of the autopilot, then moved forward in the levels of automation and controllers were

created, also the FMC and its multiple actions, which promised to reduce accidents and

incidents, and make any changes in flight with minimal effort in the most accurate, to avoid

errors and save, so they were leaving behind the pilot who previously had total control of the

maneuverability of the airplane, now only works to plan, schedule, confirm, monitor, identify

and review how the different machines are working. As we all know a human pilot is first of all

as one, they need to feel ownership of the object that controls as to create an affinity with it,

creating a bond of responsibility that makes you more alert and warned any changes.

All progress, generates a change and all changes have pros and cons, and although the

computers were created by man, many do not have the capacity to respond properly in certain

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situations. And as in everything, there is always a why? well after many studies came to the

conclusion that the man must be active to not enter a state of inactivity, because he could reflects

a series of states of lightness and comfort on a flight, that would be reflected by the loss of

situation awareness, not be prepared for a surprise, not understanding the commands reflected by

the airplane, etc. Physiologically these commands are based on psychophysical aspects of vision,

Visual grouping by proximity, Structural description of visual form, perception and production

of sound, and this are dominated depending on immediate and normal perceptions of the person,

based on their beliefs about normative , control and behavior .

Automation aviation show it though, includes all flight crew, as to adapt to such changes

requires a complex learning. For man and machine can again be one and need one another, a man

must begin again to meet his great friend, as though time has passed and changes have been

raised, that ones who really loves the aviation, are ready to overcome any challenge in order to

feel what he felt the first time that aboard an airplane. No one can say whether the automation is

beneficial or not, for aviation, but we can say that is a new challenge to man.

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Resumen

La mayoría de personas cuando piensan en volar, lo creen imposible, poco probable o

simplemente le temen a las alturas, “Limitado en su naturaleza, infinito en su deseo, el hombre es

un dios caído que recuerda el cielo” - Alphonse de Lamertine, "L'Homme", dirigida a Byron en

1819..A medida que ha transcurrido el tiempo, cambios se han generado y la tecnología ha ido

avanzando, y lamentablemente para ellos que dan todo por sentir el viento en sus alas y poder

controlarlo, ya hace un par de años alcanzo la aviación , dándole un nuevo nombre al termino

“volar”, ese es Automatización de la aviación. Y si bien es cierto, la automatización no es algo

reciente, ya que comenzó desde 1800 con la creación del telar automatizado, para la aviación no

comenzó hace mucho.

La aviación automatizada se creó con el fin de satisfacer las necesidades básica de todo

compañía de los años 70, entre ellos: aligerarle la carga a los pilotos, de mejorar el rendimiento

del avión y así reducir gastos y como olvidar la primera premisa de la automatización

“Seguridad”. Los primeros indicios de una aviación automatizada se vieron con la creación del

piloto automático, luego fueron avanzando en los niveles de automatización y se crearon los

controladores, el FMC y sus múltiples acciones, las cuales prometían disminuir los accidentes e

incidentes, y efectuar cualquier cambio en el vuelo con el mínimo esfuerzo a de la manera más

precisa, para evitar errores y economizar, lo cual fueron dejando rezagado al piloto quien antes

tenía el control total de la maniobrabilidad del avión, ahora solo se dedica a planear, programar,

confirmar, monitorear, identificar y revisar como van trabajando las diferentes maquinarias.

Como todos sabemos un piloto es humano primero que todo y como uno, tiene la necesidad de

sentir posesión del objeto que controla, ya que al crear una afinidad con el mismo, se crea un

vinculo de responsabilidad que le hace estar más alerta y prevenido a cualquier cambio.

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Todo progreso, genera un cambio y todos los cambios tienen pros y contras, y a pesar que

las computadoras fueron creadas por el hombre, muchos no tienen la capacidad de responder

correctamente en algunas situaciones. Y como en todo siempre existe un porqué? bueno luego de

muchos estudios se llego a la conclusión de que el hombre necesita estar activo para no entrar en

un estado de sedentarismo , sino refleja una serie de estados de ligereza y confortabilidad que en

un vuelo se verían reflejado por la pérdida de conocimiento en la situación, no estar preparado

para una sorpresa, no entender lo comandos reflejados por el avión, etc. Fisiológicamente estos

comandos se basan en: aspectos de la visión psicofísica, agrupación Visual por proximidad,

Descripción estructural de la forma visual , La percepción y la producción de sonido que son

dominados dependiendo de las percepciones inmediatas y normales de la persona, basado en sus

creencias normativas, de control y de comportamiento.

La Automatización de la aviación a pesar de no aparentarlo, incluye a todo el equipo de

vuelo, ya que para adaptarse a este tipo de cambios se requiere un aprendizaje complejo. Para

que el hombre y la maquina puedan volver a ser uno y necesitarse mutuamente, el hombre tiene

que volver a comenzar a conocer a su gran amigo, porque aunque el tiempo haya pasado y

cambios se hayan suscitado, aquel que realmente ama la aviación está dispuesto a vencer

cualquier reto para poder sentir, lo que sintió la primera vez que abordo un avión. Nadie puede

afirmar si la automatización es beneficiosa o no, para la aviación, lo que podemos afirmar es que

un nuevo reto para el hombre.