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Mexican Culture

{ Artist: Roberto Sieck Flandes (1939) }


Contents Indigenous Mexico : An Overview Cultural Industry : Language, History, Art, Dance forms, Music, Cinema in Pictures and Festivals. General Information : Location, Borders, Climate, Natural Resources,

Demography, Religion, Economy. Geography : History and culture of the top 9 cities of Mexico Ethnic Diversity in Mexico : Indigenous – Maya, Huichol, People of Oaxaca,

Zecatecas, Jalisco, Chihuaha. : Immigration - Chinese, Jews, Afro Mexicans,

Mennonites ( Dutch ) Cultural History : The Beginnings - Olmecs, The Teotihuacans,

The Toltecs, The Mayans, The zepotec & Mixtec, The Aztecs, Chiche Itza;

Colonial Mexico ( 1521-1821 ) – “New Spain” – European Culture ( 1523 – First School of Language and Arts ) ( 1539 – First Printing House ) ( 1551 – First University ) Independent Mexico ( 1821 ) : War of Independence Modern Mexico ( 1929 - -- ) : Arts and Traditions

Mexican Culture : Language , Religion and Literature Mexican Music : Mariachi, Jerochos, Arpa Grande, Abejenos &

ISTMENOS, Son Huasteco, Ranchera, NorteO, benda, Duranguense, Cumbia & Pop, Electronic, Latin Alternative, Classical Music

Mexican Cinema : Silent Films ( 1896- 1926 ),

The Golden Age, 1960s to present.

Mexican Art : Graphing a new direction


INDIGENOUS MEXICO: AN OVERVIEW

The Republic of Mexico is a very large country, boasting a total area of almost 1,978,000 square kilometers (760,000 square miles) and a population of 103,400,165 (July 2002 estimate). With its central government located in Mexico City, Mexico has a national culture, held together by the Spanish language, which is the primary means of communication across this large land mass. However, the Mexico of five centuries ago was, in fact, a collection of many indigenous nations.

Throughout every corner of pre-Hispanic Mexico lived hundreds of indigenous groups scattered across mountains, valleys, plateaus, deserts and tropical forests of the lower third of the North American continent. The delicate balance of power that existed between these aboriginal states was forever altered in 1519, when a small band of Spanish soldiers made their way into the heart of the continent and - with the help of indigenous allies - engineered the destruction of the formidable Aztec Empire two years later.

Between 1519 and 1600, the Spanish encountered dozens of indigenous groups speaking a plethora of languages, worshipping a pantheon of Gods, and practicing a multitude of cultures. In essence, Mexico was a collection of many nations and autonomous states. But this diversity is a phenomenon that developed slowly and over time.

The key to understanding Mexico's incredible diversity is to realize that Mexico possesses a great variety of landscapes and climates. While mountains and plateaus cover more than two-thirds of her landmass, the rest of Mexico's environment is made up of deserts, tropical forests, and fertile valleys. Mexico's many mountain ranges tend to split the country into countless smaller valleys, each forming a world of its own.

Mexico's "fragmentation into countless mountain valleys, each with its own mini-ecology," according to the historian Nigel Davies, led the Indians within each geographical unit to develop their own language and culture. This is a key to understanding Mexico's unique and fascinating diversity.

Individual ethnic groups - as their component parts became isolated geographically from one another - would undergo linguistic differentiation and cultural divergence. The result was that one linguistic group would slowly - over a period of centuries - splinter into smaller communities, each of which spoke dialects that became incomprehensible to one another. This would eventually lead to one ethnic group - for example the Zapotec Indians - speaking dozens of languages, all of which evolved from the original mother tongue, perhaps thousands of years ago.

Today, however, one might be tempted to ask the following questions: "Where are the indigenous people of present-day Mexico? Did the old cultures and languages disappear centuries ago?"


Music of the Fifties

Maya :La Gran Plaza

The HuicholNorth Central Mexico

The olmecsMexico’s 1st Established culture

Mexican Films :Cantinflas in Ahí está el detalle.

Artist : Enrique Velazquez. Traditional mariachi music.


Regional Dances of Mexico

01 Aguascalientes 09 Distrito Federal 17 Morelos. 25 Sinaloa 02 Baja Calif. Norte 10 Durango. 18 Nayarit. 26 Sonora 03 Baja Calif. Sur 11 Estado de Mexico. 19 Nuevo Leon. 27 Tabasco 04 Campeche 12 Guerrero. ` 20 Oaxaca 28 Tamaulipas 05 Chiapas 13 Guanajuato. 21 Puebla 29 Tlaxcala 06 Chihuahua 14 Hidalgo. 22 Queretaro 30 Veracruz 07 Coahuila 15 Jalisco. 23 Quintana Roo 31 Yucatan 08 Colima 16 Michoacan. 24 San Luis Potosi 32 Zacatecas


The Guelaguetza

The Guelaguetza is the annual folk dance festival that features groups representing the seven regions of Oaxaca. They have a huge parade through town before the festival followed by a big party in the zocalo. The variety of the dances and the

costumes is astounding.

Pineapple Dance


GUELAGUETZA

A Zapotec word signifying offering or offertory, Guelaguetza was the term used to describe the ceremony and celebration held each year to propitiate the gods in return for sufficient rain and a bountiful harvest.

More than three thousand years ago the indigenous peoples in what is now the state of Oaxaca began to cultivate plants to augment hunting, fishing and gathering. The most important of these was corn which formed the basis of their diet and, with the addition of tomatos, beans, chiles and squash, evolved into a richly varied and delicious regional gastronomy. Thus the gods and goddesses involved with water and corn were vital among the hagiarchy and the tribute to them was a lively and colorful celebration of the music, dance and products of the people.


MEXICO : GENERAL INFORMATION

Location México is located in the American Continent, and geographically is one of the three North American countries, the other two being Canada and the United States of America (USA). Because of its history, culture and civilisation, México is a Latin American country: Latin America comprises México, Central America, South America and some of the Caribbean Islands. The country covers a land area of 1,953,152 sq. km. Due to its extension it is the 14th largest country in the world, occupying 1.6% of the land above sea level.

Borders The country borders to the North with the United States of America, to the South with Guatemala and Belize; to the West with the Pacific Ocean and to the East with the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. It shares with the United States a land border of 3,117.9 km. The Southern border with Guatemala extends for 943.3 km and with Belize for 249 km.

Capital..City The country's capital is Mexico City, located at an altitude of 2,240 meters above sea level. It is one of the largest cities of the world with around 8.489 million people.


Geographical..Division The Federal Republic of México is composed by the following 31 States and the Federal District (México City): Aguascalientes, Baja California, Baja California Sur, Campeche, Coahuíla, Colima, Chiapas, Chihuahua, Durango, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jalisco, México, Michoacán, Morelos, Nayarit, Nuevo León, Oaxaca, Puebla, Querétaro, Quintana Roo, San Luis Potosí, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Tlaxcala, Veracruz, Yucatán and Zacatecas.

Climate The country has a very diverse climate as a consequence of its varied geography. To the north there are extensive areas of desert and to the south, tropical jungle (rain forest). The continental territory of México is divided into 6 climatic areas. Mountains The main mountain ranges are: the Western Sierra Madre and the Eastern Sierra Madre which run from north to south; the Eje Central (Central Axis) or Eje Volcánico and the Sierra Madre of the South which cross the country from east to west. The main mountains are located at the Eje Central. The "Pico de Orizaba" or "Citlaltepetl" (in Nahuatl), is the highest at 5,610 meters above sea level. Rivers Among the most important rivers are the Bravo, which marks part of the border with the USA; the Pánuco, Lerma-Santiago, Grijalva and Usumacinta rivers, the latter serves as a border limit with Guatemala.

Natural..Resources Due its diverse territory and climate conditions México is rich in natural resources. In mining, Mexico occupies one of the primary places in the production of gold, silver, and mercury. Among others, total value of mining production in 1993 was 9,473 million Danish kroner. Oil industry is also very important with total reserves of 43,127 million barrels in 1995, total production of crude oil was 2,686 million barrels per day, with internal sales of 1,768 barrels in 1994. Production of petrochemicals was approximately 8,410 million tons in 1993, with a value of 2,477 million Danish kronen.

With 10,143 kilometres of littorals in the Pacific Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, fisheries are extensive in all the Mexican Coasts with a total catch of 1, 143, 457 tons in 1994.

Intensive agriculture is other important area, the main crops in million tons during 1994, were: corn 18,200; beans 1,353; wheat 4,171; barley 308,000 thousand tons. México is also a great producer and exporter of fruits, main products in thousand tons in 1995, were: avocado 774; lemon 831; mango 1,088; orange 3,209 and banana 2,339. In the same way, Mexico has climatic conditions which allow the production of cattle, pigs, goats and sheep.


Demography México is the world's tenth most populated country. According to the 1995 figures the country's population reached 91'158,290 inhabitants, of which 44'900,499 million are men and 46'257,791 are women.

The most populated areas are the State of México and the Federal District (México City). It is estimated that in 1995 the population of these was 11'707,964 and 8'489,007 inhabitants respectively. A considerable part of the population of the State of México live in the urban areas (28 municipalities ), neighbouring México City. Following in importance are the states of Veracruz with 6.7 million inhabitants, Jalisco 6, Puebla 4.6, Guanajuato 4.4, Michoacán 3.9, Chiapas 3.6, Nuevo León 3.5, and Oaxaca 3.2.

Religion The Mexican population is principally Roman Catholic. In 1990, 89.7% of people over 5 years of age declared their belief in this religion and 10.3% are members of other churches.

Mexican Economy According to the World Bank, Mexico is the 12th nation in the world in regards to GDP and the highest per capita income in that region; and is firmly established as an upper middle-income country. Since the economic debacle of 1994–1995 the country has made an impressive economic recovery. According to the director for Colombia and Mexico of the World Bank, the population below the poverty level has decreased from 24.2% to 17.6% in the general population and from 42% to 27.9% in rural areas.

Mexico has a free-market economy with a mixture of modern and outmoded industry and agriculture, increasingly dominated by the private sector. The number of state-owned enterprises in Mexico has fallen from more than 1,000 in 1982 to fewer than 200 in 1999. The administration of President Ernesto Zedillo (1994–2000) continued a policy of privatizing and expanding competition in sea ports, railroads, telecommunications, electricity, natural gas distribution, and airports which was initiated by his predecessors Miguel de la Madrid and Carlos Salinas.


MEXICAN GEOGRAPHY :

( HISTORY AND CULTURE OF ITS TOP 9 CITIES )

Situated in the southwestern part of mainland North America and roughly triangular in shape, Mexico stretches more than 3000 km from northwest to southeast. Its width is varied, from more than 2000 km in the north and less than 220 km at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in the south.

Mexico is bordered by the United States to the north, and Belize and Guatemala to the southeast. Mexico is about one-fourth the size of the United States. Baja California in the west is an 1,250-km peninsula and forms the Gulf of California. In the east are the Gulf of Mexico and the Bay of Campeche, which is formed by Mexico's other peninsula, the Yucatán. The center of Mexico is a great, high plateau, open to the north, with mountain chains on the east and west and with ocean-front lowlands lying outside of them.

The terrain and climate vary from rocky deserts in the north to tropical rain forest in the south. Mexico's major rivers include the Río Bravo del Norte (Rio Grande) and the Usumacinta on its northern and southern borders, respectively, together with the Grijalva, Balsas, Pánuco, and Yaqui in the interior.

Mexico City Mexican Geography

Mexico City (Spanish: Ciudad de México) is the name of a megacity located in the Valley of Mexico (Valle de México), a large valley in the high plateaus (altiplano) at the center of Mexico, about 2,240 metres (7,349 feet) above sea-level, surrounded on most sides by volcanoes towering at 4,000 to 5,500 metres (13,000 to 18,000 feet) above sea-level.

Mexico City was originally a municipality founded in 1521 by Cortés on the ruins of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire, in the middle of the now drained Lake Texcoco. The municipality was abolished in 1928, and the name "Mexico City" can now refer to two things.

Officially, the name Ciudad de México is used by the Distrito Federal (D.F.). The D.F. is a federal district serving as the capital of Mexico and which is administered by the Mexican Federal Government. The D.F. encompasses the historical center of Mexico City, but is much larger than the historical municipality of Mexico City abolished in 1928. The urbanized area of Mexico City covers only the north of the D.F., while the south of the D.F. is made up of rural areas and mountains. Although the D.F. is not a municipality, the name Ciudad de México is used by Mexican authorities as a synonym for Distrito Federal (such as in Article 44 of the Mexican Constitution).

In a broader meaning, "Mexico City" refers to the whole metropolitan area of Greater Mexico City. The metropolitan area extends beyond the limits of the D.F. and encompasses tens of independent municipalities located in the State of México (Estado de México), to the north, east, and west of the D.F., extending as far north as the State of Hidalgo. The population of the entire metropolitan area in 2005 is estimated between 18 and 22 million inhabitants (depending where the limits of the metropolitan area are


set). This means Mexico City is the third or fourth most populated metropolitan area in the world (behind Tokyo, New York, and possibly Seoul, depending which data is compared).

Mexico City, with its distinct mestizo culture, blending native Indian (Nahuatl) and Spanish heritages, is the largest metropolitan area in Latin America, and the second-largest in the Americas behind New York. By the end of the 20th century it became one of the largest financial, economic, educational, cultural, and tourist centers of the world.

Guadalajara Mexican Geography

Guadalajara is a large city in the Western-Pacific region of Mexico, located at 20¡ã67¡ä N 103¡ã35¡ä W. Guadalajara is the capital of the state of Jalisco.

It is the second most populous city in Mexico, with an estimated population of 4,640,000 people in 2004. The Guadalajara metropolitan area also includes the municipalities of Zapopan, Tlaquepaque, Tonal¨¢, Tlajomulco, and Ixtlahuac¨¢n. The estimated population of the metropolitan area was 8.9 million in 2004.

Guadalajara is known as La Perla del Occidente (Spanish for "Pearl of the West"), la Perla Tapat¨ªa ("tapat¨ªo" is an informal adjective of origin for people and things from Guadalajara) and, Ciudad de las Rosas. The city is also the birthplace of mariachi music and charreadas.

The name of the city originates from the Arabic Wad-al-hidjara, meaning "River Running Between Rocks". The city refers to itself as the Silicon Valley of Mexico. Such high-technology companies as General Electric, IBM, Hitachi, and Hewlett Packard have facilities in the city or its suburbs. The Universidad de Guadalajara, the state's public university, has its headquarters here. Guadalajara is home to three popular soccer teams: Chivas, Atlas and Tecos.

Guadalajara is served by Don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla International Airport.

Monterrey Mexican Geography Monterrey is the capital city of the Mexican state of Nuevo León, well known for its industries, particularly beer, finance, glass, and steel. Carta Blanca, Tecate, Bohemia, Sol, Casta, Indio, XX (Dos Equis), and Nochebuena are examples of the beers produced in the city by FEMSA group. Vitro figures as one of the most important glass factories in North America. Cemex, the world wide conglomerate of cement, concrete, and building materials, has its headquarters there, as well as Banorte, the only large Mexican bank controlled by Mexicans. The industry used to be led by the "Compañía Fundidora de Fierro y Acero de Monterrey", popularly known as Fundidora, which went broke in the mid-1980s. Today, the remains of the Fundidora factory have been transformed into the beautiful Fundidora Park, which hosts a Champ Car World Championship race once a year.

Monterrey is located in northeastern Mexico, and has about 1.1 million inhabitants, although the Greater Monterrey metropolitan area (San Pedro Garza García, San Nicolás de los Garza, Apodaca, Guadalupe, Escobedo, Santa Catarina, Garcia, and Juarez) add another 2.7 million distributed on 572.8 km² making Monterrey's metropolitan area the third most populous in Mexico but the second largest urban area.


Puebla Mexican Geography

The city of Puebla – known more formally as "Heróica Puebla de Zaragoza" or less formally as "La Angelópolis" or "Puebla de los Ángeles" – is the capital and largest city of the Mexican state of the same name, and the fourth largest city in Mexico just behind Mexico City, Guadalajara and Monterrey. It is a vibrant city where the old and the new meet: high-tech industries and talavera artisans' handicraft shops; recently built skyscrapers and majestic 400-year old colonial architecture.

Puebla is located in the valley of the same name, surrounded by volcanoes and snow-capped mountains, just over 110 km south-east of Mexico City. It has an estimated population of 1,900,000 people, and its metropolitan area reaches a population of 2,400,000 in contiguous towns and sections

The city of Puebla was founded as "La Puebla de los Ángeles" on April 16, 1531. It was the first city in central Mexico founded by the Spanish conquistadors that was not built upon the ruins of a conquered Amerindian settlement. Its strategic location, half-way from the port of Veracruz to Mexico City, made it the second most important city during the colonial period. It was in this period that Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, playwright, writer, poet and nun lived a prolific life, until her confrontation with the Bishop of Puebla.

Four decades after Mexico's independence, General Ignacio Zaragoza's army defeated French expeditionary forces near Puebla on May 5, 1862, in the Battle of Puebla. It was after this battle that the name of the city was changed to Heróica Puebla de Zaragoza.

In Puebla the folkloric Mexican women's dress named China Poblana was created.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries a considerable number of European immigrants came to the city, mainly from Germany, Italy and Spain. Nowadays, the "Colonia Humboldt" neighborhood shows the influence of the Germans in the city's architecture, and in the town of Chipilo, now absorbed by the metropolitan area of the city, people still speak the Italian Venet dialect of their great-grandparents.

Tijuana Mexican Geography

Tijuana is the largest city in the state of Baja California, Mexico. Tijuana is also the most northerly city in Latin America. It is known as the corner of Mexico and consequently of Latin America. The city is bordered to the north by San Diego County, California, United States; to the south, by the municipalities of Playas de Rosarito and Ensenada; with the municipality of Tecate to the east; and to the west, by the Pacific Ocean. The municipality of Tijuana has an extension of 1,727 square kilometers and includes part of the Coronado Islands located off the coast of the municipality in the Pacific Ocean.

Tijuana is at 32¡ã31¡ä N 117¡ã01¡ä W. This border city just south of San Diego, California, USA, is sometimes considered a mix of Mexico's good and bad: known for its economic prosperity, popular discos, and shopping areas, Tijuana is also considered to be Mexico's biggest illicit drug and prostitution center. Many of the prostitutes are women from Central America who hope to enter the United States.

According to the INEGI (Instituto Nacional de Estad¨ªstica, Geograf¨ªa e Inform¨¢tica Eng: National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Data Processing) the municipality of Tijuana in 2000 included 1,210,820 inhabitants. More than 20 universities and centers for higher education give it a dynamic student sector. The city ranks fifth in population in Mexico, after Mexico City, Guadalajara, Monterrey and Puebla. See also Metropolitan Areas of Mexico.


Le n Mexican Geography

Le¨®n (formally: Le¨®n de los Aldama) is the most populous city in the state of Guanajuato, Mexico. It was founded on 20 January 1576. The city of Le¨®n is located at 21¡ã08¡ä N 101¡ã39¡ä W.

In 2003 the estimated population was about 1,068,000 people reaching up to 1,235,000 in the Metropolitan Area. Le¨®n, once the second-most populous city in Mexico (currently the sixth), was founded in 1576. Today, the city boasts of being "the leather capital" of Mexico. It produces large quantities of boots, belts, jackets, and other leather accessories to both the individual consumer and businesses. The city has also a new bus rapid transit system called Optibus. It is located roughly four hours by road from Mexico City.

Le¨®n is served by Del Baj¨ªo International Airport

Toluca Mexican Geography

Toluca (formally: Toluca de Lerdo) is the state capital of M¨¦xico State in central Mexico, located at 19¡ã29¡ä N 99¡ã67¡ä W. It is only a 45 minute drive west of Mexico City and 30 minutes from its fast-growing suburb, Santa Fe.

The name Toluca is a hispanization of the N¨¢huatl "Tollocan", which means "Place of the God Tollo". Its N¨¢huatl symbol was in use as the municipality symbol until 1979, when its Coat of Arms was created to replace it in official documents.

The center of the shield contains a map of Toluca with a red background delimited in red; the internal part of the map contains the Nahuatl symbol of Tollocan in green. The lower part depicts two oval shapes in red and yellow, and at the bottom of the shield there is a banner reading "Municipio de Toluca" (Municipality of Toluca).

In 2003, Toluca had an estimated population of about 475,000 people. The climate is cool, particularly at night, not surprising considering its altitude of 2,680 m (8,790 ft) above sea level. Toluca is an important industrial center, with a large Chrysler plant and many other factories.

It also has excellent educational facilities, including a campus of the prestigious Tecnol¨®gico de Monterrey (ITESM). The municipality of Metepec adds another 450,000 to the population and directly borders the city of Toluca.

Ciudad Ju rez Mexican Geography

Ciudad Juárez (also known simply as Juárez) (2000 population 1,142,354) is a city in Chihuahua, Mexico, across the Rio Grande (Río Bravo) from El Paso, Texas, USA. It is the major port of entry and transportation center of north central Mexico and the fifth largest city in the country. It is a growing industrial center, with numerous maquiladoras (assembly plants).

Juárez was founded as El Paso del Norte ("the Northern Pass") in 1659 by Spanish explorers, seeking a route through the southern Rocky Mountains. The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo established the Rio Grande as the border between Mexico and the United States, separating the settlements on the north bank of the river from the rest of the town. During the French Intervention in Mexico (1862–1867), El Paso del Norte served as a temporary capital of Benito Juárez's republican forces. In 1888, El Paso del Norte was renamed in honor of Juárez.


Juárez again served as a provisional Mexican capital during the initial phase of the Mexican Revolution, when forces loyal to opposition candidate Francisco I. Madero, led by Pancho Villa, seized the city on 20 November 1910. The scene of intense fighting for a decade, Juárez recovered during the United States Prohibition era (1919–1933) as an entertainment center. Juárez continued to attract tourists from the southwest USA during the 1940s and 1950s, with its bars, nightclubs, brothels, bullfighting, and shopping.

Juárez has grown substantially in recent decades, and now has extensive areas of slum housing. Juárez has gained further notoriety as a major center of narcotics trafficking, and for several hundred unsolved murders of young women since the early 1990s. As a result, Juárez has declined as a center of tourism, and now functions mostly as a industrial and commercial center.

Torren Mexican Geography Torre¨®n is a city in Coahuila, Mexico. In 2003 it had an estimated population of 517,000 people, reaching 915,000 in the Metropolitan Area, considering G¨®mez Palacio and Lerdo in the state of Durango. It is considered the 9th biggest Metro area in the country. Torreon is served by Francisco Sarabia International Airport.

Torre¨®n is located at (25¡ã33¡ä N 103¡ã28¡ä W}, and is a city in southwest border of the state of Coahuila and within the Lagoon region of the state. The border is marked by the R¨ªo Nazas river and is also the divider between the city of G¨®mez Palacio in Durango and Torre¨®n.

Despite its promising name of Lagoon, the region has a quite arid climate, with plants generally found in deserts and the animals commonly found in these habitats. The cities of Torre¨®n, Gomez Palacio and Lerdo make up the Comarca Lagunera, which is a basin within the Chihuahuan Desert that has a high economic activity.


Ethnic Diversity In Mexico

México is an ethnically diverse country. To understand México, one must understand her peoples, their history and contributions to what is the México of today. Within this section, we consider those who lived here prior to the 14th century as Indigenous Peoples - Toltec, Olmeca, Zapotec, Maya, Aztec, Huichol, Purapecha, Tarahumara, and many more. Those who arrived with the Spanish Conquest and later we identify as Immigration Peoples.

Indigenous

México celebrates the history of its founding peoples. Some of the earlier civilizations are now thought to be the oldest in the world. Some of the archeological sites pre-date those found in Egypt. Some of the technologies used also pre-date those found elsewhere. As we develop signicant materials, we will add to this ever-growing celebration of México's Ethnic Diversity.

The Maya make up the largest homogenous group of Indians north of Peru, inhabiting a vast area that encompasses Mexico's Yucatan peninsula and parts of the states of Tabasco and Chiapas, as well as Guatemala, Belize and parts of western Honduras and El Salvador.

While not the earliest of the great Mesoamerican civilizations, the Maya are generally considered the most brilliant of all the Classic groups. The culture's beginnings have been traced back to 1500 BC, entering the Classic period about 300 AD and flourishing between 600 and 900 AD.


The Huichol. are a hearty and enduring people numbering about 18,000, most of which live in the Jalisco and Nayarit, two rugged and mountainous states in North Central Mexico.

They are descendents of the Aztecs and are related to their Uto-Aztecan speaking cousin, the Hopi of Arizona. They are representatives of a pre-Columbian shamanic tradition which is still functioning according to the ceremonies of their remote past. Having withstood the Spanish Invasion, they are still striving to keep their culture alive and viable, despite the ever increasing physical and cultural encroachment of their Mexican neighbors.

Indigenous Peoples of Oaxaca. Oaxaca's rugged topography has played a significant role in giving rise to its amazing cultural diversity. Because individual towns and tribal groups lived in isolation from each other for long periods of time, the subsequent seclusion allowed sixteen ethnolinguistic groups to maintain their individual languages, customs and ancestral traditions intact well into the colonial era and - to some extent - to the present day. For this reason, Oaxaca is - by and large - the most ethnically complex of Mexico's thirty-one states. The Zapotec (347,000 people) and the Mixtec (241,000 people) are the two largest groups of Indians, but they make up only two parts of the big puzzle.


Indigenous Peoples of Zacatecas. Millions of Americans today look to the Mexican state of Zacatecas as their ancestral homeland. But it is very difficult to locate historical information on Zacatecas in the English language media. As a result, many Zacatecanos know little or nothing about the region in which their ancestors lived for thousands of years.

Indigenous Peoples of Jalisco.

Jalisco is La Madre Patria (the Mother Country) for millions of Mexican Americans. Given this fact, it makes sense that many sons and daughters of Jalisco are curious about the cultural and linguistic roots of their indigenous ancestors. The modern state of Jalisco consists of 31,152 square miles (80,684 square kilometers) located in the west central portion of the Mexican Republic. However, the Jalisco of colonial Mexico was not an individual political entity but part of the Spanish province of Nueva Galicia, which embraced some 180,000 kilometers ranging from the Pacific Ocean to the foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental.

Indigenous Peoples of Chihuahua. Several million Americans look to the northern Mexican state of Chihuahua as their ancestral homeland. An understanding of Chihuahua's indigenous inhabitants from the pre-Hispanic era to the Nineteenth Century requires an imagination that dispenses with national borders.

Immigration

When one thinks of foreign influence within Mexico due to immigration, Spain is the first country that comes to mind. However, Mexico's cultural and ethnic fabric is woven with other foreign ethnic groups that have each contributed to the tapistry that is Mexico.

This Feature Section is devoted to exploring some of these other, lesser known, ethnic groups: where they came from; how they contributed to their new country; and what presence they have in today's modern Mexico.


Just as the Chinese contributed to the development of the west in both Canada and the USA, Chinese immigration to Mexico at the turn of the 20th century contributed significantly to the development of irrigation in the Mexicali area.

Joe Cummings' article "Sweet and Sour Times on the Border" traces the Chinese immigration and experience in Mexico.

Jews in Mexico.

The survival of Judaism in Mexico is a tale of tenacity and tolerance. The story starts in Spain with the "Conversos", Jews who had converted to Christianity, always under duress, and begins in Mexico around 1530.

The combination of tenacity on the part of Jews, and tolerance by Mexicans, both official and as individuals, has permitted Judaism to put down deep roots. Mexican Jews still struggle today against inter-marriage and migration to the United States and Israel. They have taken positive steps to handle these problems and, barring a radical change in the attitude of Mexicans or their government, are here to stay.


Afro-Mexican. By 1650, more than 150,000 blacks and mulattoes lived in Mexico, a figure that actually surpassed Spanish immigration. The Afro-Mexican presence is not widely known. Yet Blacks in Mexico have a long history here, and in both the east coast, (Veracruz) and the west Coast (Costa Chica) there are thriving communities. In Bobby Vaughn's Black Mexico, we explore the Costa Chica.

With Roberto Rodriguez and Patrisia Gonzales' "African Roots Stretch Deep into Mexico", we explore the still thriving African legacy in Mexico, where Mexicans play African "hand pianos" and perform "the dance of the black people." Mexican "corridos" -- or song-stories -- tell of slave uprisings. And the marimbas of Mexico, as well as those of Central America and Ecuador, all have their origins in Africa.

Mennonites in Mexico. A Dutch Heritage.

The Mexican government needed farmers to work on land previously owned by William Randolph Hearst, one of the many foreign landowners expelled from Mexico after the end of the Mexican revolution in 1921. The Mennonites agreed to purchase this land. In return they were freed from Mexico's educational laws and military service. They were also promised a tax-free life in Mexico. A 2nd emigration wave from Canada to Mexico took place in the late 1940s when the Kleine Gemeine (small church) Mennonites, originally from Russia, settled in Mexico.


CULTURAL HISTORY

The beginnings

There is evidence of human existence in México since 20,000 years BC. In Tepéxpan to the North of the Valley of México, the remains of a human corpse were found beside those of a mammoth. Using the Carbon 14 test, these remains were dated at approximately 10,000 years BC. Agriculture began to manifest itself from the year 3,000 BC.

The American continent was isolated during many centuries, which explains the originality of its civilisation. Northern México was populated by peoples who lived from hunting and collecting in a desert or semi-desert geographical environment. The South was populated by agricultural societies.

Eventhough in the vast Mesoamerica region (a term used by scholars to designate peoples which occupied the central area of México down to Guatemala and Honduras to the South), many different peoples with their own ethnic and linguistic differences coexisted, they had a cultural homogeneity, for instance they cultivated corn, they have a singular structure of government, they used the 365 day calendar, they built pyramids, they used similar rituals and worshiped the same gods and goddesses of the sky, of nature, of fertility and of war. The same concept of cosmic duality - the beginning and the end - appears in the religion and art of all Mesoamerican cultures. The most evident example of this cosmic duality is the god Quetzalcoatl (or Kukulkán in the Mayan area) which is represented by a feathered serpent (earth and sky).

While there were many native cultures in México, these are six that are considered to be the most influential. Each developed in a different epoch of the history of ancient México:

The Olmecs México's first-established culture, had far-reaching influence; later groups are known to have borrowed heavily from the Olmecs. The Olmec culture is quite mysterious, since we know almost nothing about where they came from, or why they disappeared.

Teotihuacans This city-state of Teotihuacán located on the central highland of México covered an area of 22.5 sq. km. and its population reached 200,000 inhabitants by the year 350 AD (probably the largest city in the world at the time). Being the most highly urbanized centre in the New World, its religious, political and economical influence covered almost all the Mesoamerican territory.


The Toltecs

The Toltecs occupied the northern regions of the Valley of México. They built Tula, one of México's most impressive ancient cities. They strongly influenced later Mayan and Aztec cultures.

The Mayans

Their achievements are noteworthy, they controlled a huge empire, created complex systems of mathematics and astrology and were also skills traders. They were master architects and engineers, and had a highly ornamented architecture. Of all the indigenous cultures, they are considered to have been the most influential; every other Pre-Columbian culture is thought to have borrowed from them.

The Zapotec and Mixtec

The Zapotec and Mixtec cultures developed in the Valley of Oaxaca. They were superlative builders and artists; they created magnificent temples, pottery, and metal work. Remarkably, these two ancient cultures still survive today. Descendants of both ancient Zapotecs and Mixtecs inhabit today the State of Oaxaca. The Aztecs

The Aztecs are probably the most well-known of all México's ancient cultures. The Aztec empire was composed of three Nahua's groups established in the Valley of Mexico with Tenochtitlán (presently Mexico City) as the main city-state. Their empire was huge when Spanish conquistadors arrived in 1519; by 1521 they were conquered by the troops of Hernán Cortés.

During the Pre-Classic Period, from 2,000 BC to 500 AD, When the civilisation of México arose. Nomadic natives became settlers. Many advances in art and the sciences were made. Agricultural methods improved and the population increased. Rural villages became towns and ceremonial centres began growing in importance. The best example of this period: the City of La Venta of the Olmec culture.


The Classic Period dates from 500 BC to 800 AD, and was a time of great social change. Urban centres became more powerful than rural ones. Outstanding advances in architecture were made. It was a true renaissance period for art and learning. Best examples of this period: Teotihuacán, Monte Albán, El Tajín, Palenque, Cobá, Labná, Bonampak, Dzibilchaltún, Kabáh, Sayil,

Chichén Itzá. The Post-Classic Period dates from 800 AD to 1521 AD, and it's notable because of the increasing emphasis on military rule. It was a time of great change for several important ceremonial centres and cities. Some went into decline, some died, and others grew in power and influence. Best examples of this period: Cholula, Xochicalco, Tula, Tenayuca, Tenochtitlán (the Aztec City), Yagul, Uxmal and Mitla. The geography of México is incredibly diverse, thus the people of each region developed their own civilisation at different times due to a variety of influences, both natural and cultural. So it should be no surprise that México's artistic history is wildly eclectic. Still there is a subtle consistency in the outlook on life that binds it all together.

These indigenous civilizations are credited with many inventions: pyramid-temples, cities, mathematics (becoming the first people in the world to use zero), astronomy, medicine, writing, highly-accurate calendars, fine arts, intensive agriculture, engineering, an abacus, a complex theology, and the wheel.

Latecomers to Mexico's central plateau, the Mexica, or Aztecs, as they were sometimes called in memory of Aztlán, the starting point of their tribes wanderings, never thought of themselves as anything but heirs of the brilliant civilizations that had preceded them. For them all the highly-civilized arts, sculpture, architecture, engraving, feather-mosiac work, the invention of the calendar, were due to the former inhabitants of Tula, the Toltecs, who reached the height of their civilization in the tenth and eleventh centuries.

The arrival of the Spanish in the early 16th century, and their defeat of the Mexica in 1521, marked the beginning of the 300 year-long colonial period of Mexico as New Spain. It is now estimated that Spanish-Europeans committed and facilitated the genocide of 23 million indigenous people in Mexico (and what is now called Central America.) Within 100 years of contact with Europeans, 95% of indigenous Mexicans were dead.


Colonial México

During the colonial period, México was called "New Spain", and it covered three centuries of its history: from the 13th of August of 1521, the date of the conquest of Tenochtitlán by the Spanish, until 1821 when the Independence movement was consummated. From 1521 Hernán Cortés governed as Head of the Army. In 1535 don Antonio de Mendoza was appointed by Emperor Charles V, the first Viceroy of New Spain. He established the precedent of good government due to his honesty and great initiative, although this was not always the case. He was succeeded by 63 viceroys in the space of 284 years, the most noteworthy of these being Juan Vicente de Güemes-Pacheco, Second Count of Revillagigedo, who governed from 1789 to 1794. While Hernán Cortés consummated the conquest, the Franciscan and Dominican monks brought Christianity and European civilisation and culture to the country. In 1523 Friar Pedro de Gante founded the first school for the indigenous population, the School of San José, where languages and arts were taught. The construction of the first Cathedral of the American Continent began in México City in 1530.

The first Casa de Moneda (Royal Mint), was opened in Mexico city, and the first printing house was established in Mexico City in 1539.

Friar Bartolomé de las Casas is known for protecting indigenous peoples. His efforts culminated with the New Laws of 1542 that abolished slavery and recognised human rights and their right to property.

In 1551 the first university of the American mainland was opened in México City. The European artistic tradition introduced to a land which possessed its own culture and artistic heritage produced the colonial Art of New Spain, which can be admired in the: Colonial Cities.

The first viceregal architecture was of a military character. The construction of convents was controlled by the friars themselves based on memory and the illustrations they brought with them. The convent walls were painted by indigenous artists who copied from European pictures. The indigenous techniques in ceramics, textiles, lacquer and featherwork persisted but the native subjects were replaced by European ones.

In the XVII Century, the Spaniards born in México, called "criollos", began to become conscious of a Mexican identity. European elements continued to be incorporated in the arts becoming something different in México, giving rise to the exuberant Mexican Baroque style.


The XVIII Century marks the height of the Mexican colonial period with the Baroque and ultra Baroque styles, which include the churrigueresco, the rococo, the popular and other styles.

The foundation of the Royal and Pontifical Art Academy of San Carlos in 1783 marked the end of the barroc and introduced the neo-classic style.

Independent México

The Modern period began with the War of Independence (1810-1821). The priest Miguel Hidalgo initiated a revolt against the Spanish rule on the 16th of September, 1810. This date is México's National Day.

In 1821 the first independent government was established and in 1822 Agustín de Iturbide was proclaimed Emperor of México.

In 1824, the Congress adopted a Constitution instituting a Federal Republic under the first President of México, Guadalupe Victoria. During his government England and the United States of America recognised the country's independence, noble titles and slavery were abolished, and different measures were taken to develop a more democratic society. In 1827 the first treaty of friendship and trade was signed between México and the Kingdom of Denmark.

In 1836 Texas declared its independence from Mexico, provoking a war between México and the United States. In 1847 México was defeated and lost half of its original territory: the states which are presently known as California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas.

In 1859 president Benito Juárez issued the Laws of Reform which established the separation of the Church and the State.

In 1862 the French Emperor Napoleon III intervened militarily in México: an empire was established from 1864 to 1867, under the Austrian prince Maximilian of Hapsburg. On the 5th of May 1862, General Ignacio Zaragoza, named Major General of the Army by the government of Juárez, obtained victory in the Battle of Puebla against the French.

In 1867 Benito Juárez re-established the Republic, and while in power died in 1872. In 1887 one of Benito Juárez's generals, Porfirio Díaz became President. He was reelected in 1864 and remained in power until 1911 when he was taken from power due to the Revolution which initiated in 1910.


The Mexican Revolution

During the government of Porfirio Díaz internal peace was established under his dictatorial rule and economic development started, foreign investment was encouraged with the aim of exploiting raw materials and promoting industrial development. However, the social unrest and the political opposition to the regime of Porfirio Díaz triggered the Mexican Revolution.

Francisco I. Madero was elected as the new President but was assassinated in 1911. With his assassination the Mexican Revolution started. Various factions lead by Emiliano Zapata in the south, Francisco Villa in the north and others, took up arms against dictator Victoriano Huerta, who had ordered the murder of Madero and Vice President Pino Suarez.

Under the new leadership of Venustiano Carranza, the Constitution was approved in 1917, which was one of the most advanced of its time due to its high social content.

Modern México

In 1929 former President General Plutarco Elías Calles created the National Revolutionary Party (PNR) which was restructured several times and became the Institutional Revolutionary Party in 1946. In 1938 the President of the Republic, General Lázaro Cárdenas restructured the party with the name Party of the Mexican Revolution (PRM) made up of four sections: workers, rural, popular and military. In 1946 the President Manuel Avila Camacho reorganised the party once again under the name of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), which excluded the military section.

Other relevant dates in contemporary history are the following:

In 1938 President Lázaro Cárdenas declared the expropriation of oil companies and concessions ceased.

In 1939 the National Action Party was created by Manuel Goméz Morín, at the present time the main political parties represented at Congress are: Institutional Revolutionary Party; National Action Party; Peoples’ Socialist Party; Mexican Democratic Party; Revolutionary Democratic Party; The Cardenista Front Party for National Reconstruction; Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution; The Labour Party; the Green Ecologist Party of Mexico.

In 1942 México entered the Second World War against Germany, Italy and Japan. In 1945 México signed the Charter of San Francisco, being one of the founding members of the United Nations Organisation. At the initiative of Mexico, the Treaty


of Tlatelolco was signed in 1967, being the first treaty of its kind which prohibits nuclear weapons in a geographic region, in this case in Latin America.

In 1989, the Revolutionary Democratic Party (PRD) was formed.

Thanks to the political stability of the accelerated economic and social development which Mexico has experienced during the first half of the twentieth century, the country has gone from being at the turn of the century a principally agricultural economy to become the 13th most important economy in the world. Various recent changes in the economic policies have had a great impact in the process of modernisation of the national economy; in 1986 Mexico entered the GATT and in 1994 signed with the United States and Canada the North American Free Trade Agreement. The former has been accompanied by a wide program of structural reforms, privatisations and deregulations.

With Free Trade Agreements policies, Mexico is looking for modernisation, but at the same time wishes to preserve its cultural heritage. Today, many of the motifs and themes of the Mexican culture are simply modern interpretations of the ancient traditions. They are prized because of the feeling, and the soul that the Mexican artist puts into each piece his hands create. Traditional arts and crafts such as pottery, silverware, lacquers, woodcrafts and masks shown up roots that go back to Pre-Colombian times.

Arts and Traditions Since the arrival of the Spaniards, Mexican artists tended to follow the lead from Europe. But that changed after the revolution of 1910: in the 1930's such

well-known artist as Diego Rivera, Jose Clemente Orozco and others began to paint unique murals and other works that brought together the styles of the Old World and the ancient Mexican cultures.

Mexican music, like Mexican art, has a rich and varied history. No other country has such a diversity of traditional musical styles. Of all the music in México, perhaps the most well-known is "mariachi.", originally form the state of Jalisco.

In the South of México, the music centres around the "marimba". It calls to mind the balmy tropical weather of this region.

In the Northern and Central part of Mexico the Corridos are very typical, there are a kind of ballad that recounts stories and legends, originally from Spain, but their popularity quickly spread throughout México.

In addition to its music, or perhaps to go along with it, México has an incredible variety of traditional dances. In some, you'll hear carved drums and reed flutes that echo the timeless rhythm of rain dances to the god Tlaloc. Or dances to


Huitzilopochtli, god of war. In others, you'll hear strains from the waltzes brought by the French and Spaniards. But in most cases the two have blended together in a vibrant style so unique that it is now México's own. Some of the more popular are the "Viejitos" ("Dance of the Little Old Men") from Michoacán. The "huapango", a dance from Veracruz, is performed on a wooden platform that acts as a sort of drum for the dancers' feet. And of course, there's the "Jarabe Tapatio", which is considered the national dance. You probably know it as the Mexican Hat Dance. The best time to see and hear Mexico's kaleidoscope of music and dance is at a fiesta. And it seems that almost any excuse is good enough to have a party. In November, Mexicans celebrate the "Day of the Dead", a beautiful festivity especially in Janitzio, and around the country.

Every December, the traditional "posadas" are performed in cities and towns across the country. And at the beginning of Lent, Mexico's Carnival is celebrated principally in Veracruz and Mazatlán.

Hundreds of native dancers and musicians perform their colourful ancient rituals each year at the "Guelaguetza" in Oaxaca. The Cervantes Festival in Guanajuato is another unforgettable experience, some of the finest singers, musical groups and actors of the world perform in the theatres and plazas of this magical city.

Mexican Culture With an estimated 2005 population of about 106.5 million, Mexico is the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world.

Mexico is ethnically and culturally diverse. According to the CIA World Factbook, about 60% of the population is mestizo (mixed Amerindian and white), another 11.9% is Amerindian or predominantly

Amerindian, and 9% is white (or of European descent). The remaining 1% includes Afro-Mexicans and others. Mexico is also home for many other Latin American groups: mostly Argentines, but also Brazilians, Nicaraguans, Cubans, and Colombians. The PRI governments in power for most of the 20th century had a policy of granting asylum to fellow Latin Americans fleeing political persecution in their home countries.

According to the Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas ("The National Council for the Development of Indigenous People]] the Amerindian population in Mexico is approximately 12.7 million. However, the Mexican government does not collect racial information during censuses. In 2004, the National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Informatic had estimated this figure to be 12,089,094 of indigenous people of which, more than one million do not speak Spanish and almost five million are bilingual (INEGI, 2004).


Judging by the proportion of people speaking indigenous languages the states with a higher proportion of indigenous people are Yucatán (37.3%), Oaxaca (37.1%), Chiapas (24.6%) and Quintana Roo (23%). The states of Aguascalientes (0.2% ), Coahuila (0.2%), Zacatecas (0.2%) and Nuevo León (0.5%) have the lowest proportion of speakers of indigenous languages ([INEGI, 2004]).

Mexico is the country where the greatest number of U.S citizens live outside the United States. This may be due to the growing economic and business interdependence of the two countries under NAFTA, and also that Mexico is considered an excellent

choice for retirees. A clear example of the latter phenomenon is provided by San Miguel de Allende and many towns along the Baja California peninsula and around Guadalajara, Jalisco. The official figures for foreign-born citizens in Mexico are 493,000 (since 2004), with a majority (86.9%) of these born in the US (with the exception of Chiapas, where the majority of immigrants are from Central America). The five states with more immigrants are Baja California (12.1% of total immigrants), Federal District (11.4%), Jalisco (9.9%), Chihuahua (9%) and Tamaulipas (7.3). More than 54.6% of the immigrant population are 15 years old or younger, while 9% are 50 or older. 4.2% of male immigrants and 3.8% of female immigrants did not have formal education while 20.2% of male immigrants and 17.7% of female immigrants had a college degree [INEGI, 2004.

Life expectancy in Mexico increased from 34.7 for men and 33 years for women in 1930 to 72.1 for men and 77.1 years for women in 2002. The states with the highest life expectancy are Baja California (75.9 years) and Nuevo Leon (75.6 years). The Federal District has a life expectancy of the same level as Baja California. The lowest levels are found in Chiapas (72.9), Oaxaca (73.2) and Guerrero (73.2 years), although the first two have had the highest increase (19.9 and 22.3% respectively).

The mortality rate in 1970 was 9.7/1000 people and by 2001 the rate had dropped to 4.9/1000 for men and 3.8/1000 for women. The most common reasons for death in 2001 where heart problems (14.6% for men 17.6% for women) and Cancer (11% for men and 15.8% for women).

Mexican Language Mexican Culture

Spanish is the official language of Mexico and is spoken by the majority of the population. About 7% of the population speaks an Amerindian language. The government officially recognizes 62 Amerindian languages. Of these Nahuatl, and Maya are each spoken by 1.5 million, while others, such as Lacandon, are spoken by less than 100. The Mexican government has promoted and established bilingual education programs in indigenous rural communities.

Although Spanish is the official language of Mexico, English is widely used in business. As a result, English language skills are much in demand and can lead to an increase in the salary offered by a company. It is also spoken along the U.S.-Mexican border, in big cities, and in beach resorts. Also, the majority of private schools in Mexico offer bilingual education, both in Spanish and English. English is the main language spoken in U.S. expatriate communities such as those along the coast of Baja California and the


town of San Miguel de Allende. There are also Mormon colonies in Chihuahua where education is delivered in English.

With respect to other European languages brought by immigrants, the case of Chipilo, in the state of Puebla, is unique, and has been documented by several linguists like Carolyn McKay. The immigrants that founded the city of Chipilo in 1882 came from the Veneto region in northern Italy, and thus spoke a northern variant of the Venetian dialect. While other European immigrants assimilated into the Mexican culture, the people of Chipilo retained their language. Nowadays, most of the people who live in the city of Chipilo (and many of those who have migrated to other cities) still speak the unaltered Veneto dialect spoken by their great-grandparents making the Veneto dialect an unrecognized minority language in the city of Puebla. A similar case is that of the Plautdietsch language, spoken by the descendants of German and Dutch Mennonite immigrants in the states of Chihuahua and Durango.

Mexican Religion Mexican Culture

Mexico is predominantly Roman Catholic (about 89% of the population), with 6% adhering to various Protestant faiths (mostly Pentecostal), and the remaining 5% of the population adhering to other religions or professing no religion. Some of the country's Catholics (notably those of indigenous background) syncretize Catholicism with various elements of Aztec or Mayan religions.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormonism) enjoys a growing presence in the major border cities of northeastern Mexico. Judaism has been practiced in Mexico for centuries, and there are estimated to be 100,000 Jews in Mexico today. Islam is mainly practiced by members of the Arab, Turkish, and other expatriate communities; Mexico's indigenous Muslims number only a few thousand or less, although recent years have seen some growth of Islam in Chiapas.

Mexican Literature Mexican Culture

Mexican literature plays an important role in Mexican culture. In particular, there were many important Mexican scholars and writers during the time of the Mexican Revolution.

Several periods characterize Mexican literature: the Pre-Columbian epoch, which lasted until the conquest of Mexico by the Spanish Conquistadors; the Colonial Era, defined by the baroque movement and influences from Spain; the Independence Era, which reached a nebulous climax in the second half of the 19th century, dominated by the influence of the French Revolution; the Revolutionary Era, from 1910 to 1960, proletariat and socialistic in its impulses and themes; and a contemporary fragmentary era from the 1960s onwards.

From pre-Hispanic times, the writer best known today is the poet-king Nezahualcoyotl.

Two outstanding figures in the colonial era were Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (1651–1695), a nun who wrote many fine poems and won fame for her defense of women's rights, and the playwright Juan Ruiz de Alarcón.

Perhaps the most famous and influential writer of the Revolutionary years was Mariano Azuela. He is known for writing the first novel of the Revolution. He was born in 1873, in Lagos de Moreno, Jalisco. He started writing early. He was a liberal who supported Francisco I. Madero. During the war he was a doctor on the battlefield, so he witnessed many horrific scenes himself. He wrote Los de abajo (translated into English as "The Underdogs") in Texas in 1915. The Underdogs is about the Mexican Revolution. It achieved great success all over the world. Azuela continued writing after that, but he became very disappointed with all of the corruption that was happening in his country. This can be seen in the sarcasm of his later works Las moscas, El camarada Pantoja, and La luciernaga.


Mexican Music The music of Mexico is extraordinarily diverse and features a wide range of different musical styles. The most well-known Mexican genre by far is mariachi, a style of traditional Mexican son which is considered old-fashioned but respected traditional music and is usually listened to as modern music. Mexican ranchera (country music) styles, including norteño and banda, are not only popular within Mexico itself, but they are also frequently enjoyed by Mexican immigrants in both rural and urban American communities. Norteño, similar to Tejano music and Tex-Mex, arose in the 1930s and 40s in the Rio Grande border region of southern Texas. Influenced by Bohemian immigrant miners, its rhythm was derived from the European polka dance popular during the 1800s. Banda, similar to norteño in musical form, originated from the Mexico state of Sinaloa during the 1960s. Other new styles such as cumbia, pop, and rock have seen increased popularity as the music of Mexico faces a new generation of young people.

Southern Mexican folk music is centered around the marimba, which remains popular in Chiapas and Oaxaca. In Yucatán the traditional Jarana music and dance is popular.

Modern Mexican musical styles are also changing Mexican music. Cumbia, pop, hip-hop, and rock, which are heavily influenced by music from the Caribbean islands and the United States, are increasingly becoming popular among Mexican youths on both sides of the border.

In the 1940s, Mexican music began its rise to international fame, just as Cuban music was topping charts across the globe. Since then, Mexico has absorbed influences from across Latin America, most especially include Colombian cumbia, which is now as much or more known as a Mexican trend than a Colombian one.

Mexican pop music derives from a mixture of Spanish, African and Aztec or other indigenous sources. Related to Cuban son montuno and Venezuelan joropo, Mexican son arose in the 18th century. It is similar to, but historically and characteristically distinct from, Cuban son montuno, despite the similarity in nomenclature. Nine or ten styles of Mexican son have been popular, including mariachi. Mexican son has been rural for most of its history, and requires audience participation for zapateado, or foot-stamping done in a counter-rhythm. Most bands use string instruments and improvised lyrics.


Mariachi Mexican Music

As the most well-known regional musicians of Mexico, mariachi bands became common in Jalisco around the beginning of the 20th century, originally playing at weddings. The earliest known appearance of this term in reference to music is from 1852. It is said that General Porfirio Díaz, in 1907, ordered a mariachi band to play for the United States Secretary of State, only if they wore charro suits, which were worn by the poor musicians' bosses. This is the source of traditional dress for mariachi bands, and is considered the beginning of modern mariachi. By the turn of the century, mariachi was popular across Mexico. Rural subgenres have largely died out, and urban mariachi from Mexico City has dominated the field since the 1930s. It became known as the national music of Mexico after the 1910 Mexican Revolution, and was subsidized during the term of Lázaro Cárdenas. Cornets were added to mariachi in the 1920s; they were replaced by trumpets ten years later.

Mexican immigrants in the United States made Los Angeles the mariachi capital of the USA by 1961. Mexican music was popularized in the United States in the late 1970s as part of a revival of mariachi music led by performers like Linda Ronstadt. One of the most well known examples of Mexican music (at least in the United States) is "La Cucaracha" and the Mexican Hat Dance ("El jarabe tapatío").

The golden age of mariachi was in the 1950s, when the ranchera style was common in American movies. Mariachi Vargas played for many of these soundtracks, and the long-lived band's long career and popular acclaim has made it one of the best-known mariachi bands.

Jarochos Mexican Music

Jarochos music comes from the Veracruz area, and is distinguished by a strong African influence. International acclaim has been limited, including the major hit "La Bamba". The most legendary performer is Graciana Silva, whose Discos Corason releases made inroads in Europe. Southern Veracruz is home to a distinct style of Jarochos that is characteristically lacking a harp, is played exclusively by requinto or jarana guitars, and is exemplified by the popular modern band Mono Blanco.


Arpa Grande Mexican Music

Sones de arpa grande developed in an arid, hot area of western Mexico. It is dominated by a harp, accompanied by violins and guitars. Originally confined to poor rural areas and urban brothels, sones de arpa grande is now popular among the suburban and urban middle- and upper-class audiences. Juan Pérez Morfín and Beto Pineda are the most well-known performers.

Abajenos And Istmenos Mexican Music

Indigenous communities have produced their own variants of Mexican son, which is otherwise a primarily mestizo genre. The Purépecha (from Michoacán) are known for the sones abajeños, which are often played alongside pirekaus, a form of native love song. Famous bands include Atardecer and Erandi.

The Zapotecs of Oaxaca have produced some extremely famous love songs, and the people's sones istmeños, which are sung in both Zapotec and Spanish. The music has been popularized, primarily by pop stars from outside the area, including Lila Downs.

Son Huasteco Mexican Music

Son huasteco music, a style developed by Mexico's Huastec people, is a genre which has been gaining in popularity in recent years. Two guitarists sing in a falsetto with accompaniment by a violin. Improvisation is common. Los Camperos de Valle and Trio Tamazunchale are especially influential performers.

Mexican Ranchera Mexican Music

The first major international trend from Mexico was the popularization of ranchera, which had developed early in the 20th century out of mariachi, and became popular in Latin America after being used in several films. Thus, a new traditional Mexican ranchera (country music) style came out. Norteño and banda are popular bands that play mainly rancheras and corridos. Most first-generation Mexicans prefer norteño and banda, while the younger generation are more oriented toward cumbia and Mexican hip-hop. Many Mexican radio stations in the United States are devoted to playing mainly norteño and banda, including La Raza and Estereo Sol.


Norte o Mexican Music Norteño music (similar to Tex-Mex and Tejano in the United States) almost always has the accordion as the lead instrument, with guitars serving as its roots. Norteño is an outgrowth of corridos which told tales of the Mexican Revolution. In the late 1920s, the corridos entered a golden age when Mexicans on both sides of the border recorded in San Antonio-area hotels, revolutionizing the genre alongside Mexico's political revolution. By the time the golden age ended, Narciso Martínez and Santiago Jimenez had introduced the accordion, which had been introduced by Bohemian miners who immigrated to the country in the late 19th century. Alongside the accordion came the polka, which, alongside waltzes, chotis and mazurka, mixed with corridos to form modern norteño in the early 1950s. Although norteño originated in the American state of Texas, it is popular among Mexican Americans from virtually any region of the United States. Later in the century, bands such as Los Tigres del Norte and Los Cadetes de Linares added influences from cumbia, rock music, and other new styles, thus creating a unique new blend in some of their new songs.

Banda Mexican Music

Banda music, or Mexican big band music, originated in the northwestern Mexican state of Sinaloa. In the 1990s, banda exploded in popularity among Hispanics in both the United States and Mexico. Originally instrumental, this style was popularized by Banda el Recodo, Julio Preciado, and other major stars who started including lyrics and converting popular songs into this genre.

Duranguense Mexican Music

Música durangunese (often simply called duranguense) is a type of music which originated from the northern Mexican state of Durango. Located just east of Sinaloa, where banda began, its music is based on both brass and wind instruments and includes the clarinet, trumpet, flute, and drums. It is usually played at a rapid tempo and relies more on percussion than banda does. [1] In the 2000s, musica duranguense rose to fame as it gained position as an equal with banda and norteño. Duranguense bands play mainly rancheras, polkas, and cumbias. Some of the most popular artists include Grupo Montez, Patrulla 81, Alacranes Musical, Horoscopos de Durango, and Brazeros Musical.

Cumbia And Pop Mexican Music

The 1980s saw Colombian cumbia become even more popular in Mexico than its native land, and it was by far the dominant genre throughout the decade, before banda overtook it in the 1990s. In the early 1970s and 1980s Mexican bands like Rigo Tovar y su Costa


Azul and Los Bukis topped the charts, and helped, by the end of the decade, inspire grupera bands such as Yonics, Bronco, El Gran Silencio and Los Kumbia Kings.

Electronic music Electronic music is prominent in the North with the Nortec Collective and the Static Discos Label, Nopalbeat in Guadalajara, and Discos Konfort, Filtro and Noiselab Collective among others in Mexico City. Electronic music is by far most popular among young people and has been getting stronger in Mexico over the last ten years. It is heavily influenced by American and European disco music. The cities with most electronic music parties raves and events are Mexico D.F., Guadalajara, Cancún, Acapulco, Monterrey, Ciudad Juárez, Puebla and Tijuana.

Latin alternative An eclectic range of influences is at the heart of Latin Alternative, a music created by young players who have been raised not only on their parents' music but also on rock, hip-hop and electronica. It represents a sonic shift away from regionalism and points to a new global Latin identity. The name "Latin Alternative" was coined in the late 1990s by record company executives as a way to sell music that was -- literally -- all over the map. It was marketed as an alternative to the slick, highly produced Latin pop that dominated commercial Spanish-language radio, such as Ricky Martin or Shakira. Artists within the genre, such as Kinky and Cafe Tacuba, have set out to defy traditional expectations of Latin music. Now, in an age of Internet connections, downloading and sampling, Latin Alternative has become not just a reaction to outside influences but its own genre.

Classical music Mexico has a long tradition of classical music, as far back as the 16th century, when it was a Spanish colony. Music of New Spain, especially that of Juan Gutierrez de Padilla and Hernando Franco, is increasingly recognized as a significant contribution to New World culture. Puebla was a significant center of music composition in the 17th century, as the city had considerable wealth and for a time was presided over by Bishop Juan de Palafox y Mendoza, who was an enthusiastic patron of music. Composers during this period included Bernardo de Peralta Escudero (mostly active around 1640), and also Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla, who was the most famous composer of the 17th century in Mexico. The construction of the cathedral in Puebla made the composition and performance of polychoral music possible, especially compositions in the Venetian polychoral style. Late in the century, Miguel Matheo de Dallo y Lana set the verse of poet Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz. In the 18th century, Ignacio Jerusalem, an Italian-born composer, brought some of the latest operatic styles as well as early classical (galant) styles to Mexico. His best-known


composition is probably the Matins for the Virgin of Guadalupe (1764). Ignacio was maestro di capilla at the cathedral in Mexico City from 1749 until his death in 1769. In the 19th century the waltzes of Juventino Rosas reached world recognizion. In the 20th century, Carlos Chavez, is a composer of note who wrote symphonies, ballets, and more. Another recognized composer is Silvestre Revueltas who wrote such pieces as "The night of the mayas", "Homenaje a García Lorca", "Sensemayá" based on a poem by Nicolas Guillen, "Janitzio" and "Redes". Manuel M. Ponce is recognized as an important composer for the Spanish classical guitar, responsible for widening the repertorium for this instrument. Jose Pablo Moncayo with compositions such as "Huapango", and Blas Galindo with "Sones de Mariachi", are also recognized as adapters of Mexican sons into symphonic music .


CINEMA OF MEXICO

The history of Mexican cinema goes back to the beginning of the 20th century, when several enthusiasts of the new medium documented historical events – most particularly the Mexican Revolution – and produced some movies that have been only recently been rediscovered.

• 1 Silent films (1896-1929) • 2 The "Golden Age" • 3 1960s to present • 4 Famous people

o 4.1 Actors o 4.2 Directors o 4.3 Cinematographers o 4.4 Sound

Silent films (1896-1929) The silent film era in Mexico produced several movies. However, many of the films up to the 1920s have been lost and were not well-documented. The first "moving picture", according to sources by film historian Jim Mora, was viewed in 1895 using Thomas Edison's kinetoscope. A year later, the cinematographe projector was introduced by Auguste Lumière. Mexico's first queues appeared in cinemas in the capital to see international one-minute films such as The Card Players, Arrival of a Train, and The Magic Hat. [1]

The origins of early filmmaking is generally associated with Salvador Toscano Barragán. Toscano compiled the country's first fictional film, titled Don Juan Tenorio. During the Mexican Revolution, Toscano recorded several clips of the battles, which would become


a full-length documentary in 1950, assembled by his daughter. Other short films were either created or influenced from French film-makers.

By 1906, 16 movie salons opened their doors to accommodate the popularity of cinema in Mexico City. Carpas, or tent shows, were popular beginning in 1911 where lower-class citizens would perform picaresque humor and theatrical plays, a place for training for aspiring actors. Politically affiliated films appeared in 1908, often deemed propagandistic by today's terms. Significant battles were filmed and broadcast during the Revolution which fueled Mexicans' excitement in cinema. [2]

During the 1920s very few movies were produced, given the political climate that was still very unsettled and the resurgence of the American film industry.

The "Golden Age"

Cantinflas in Ahí está el detalle.

In the 1930s, once peace and a degree of political stability were achieved, cinematography took off in Mexico and several movies still experimenting with the nascent medium were done. Hollywood's attempt at creating Spanish language films for Latin America failed mainly due to the combination of Hispanic actors from different ethnicities exhibiting various accents unfamiliar to the Mexican people. It is important to notice how early Mexican cinematographers were influenced and encouraged by Russian director Sergei Eisenstein's visit to the country in 1930. [3]

During the 1940s the full potential of the industry developed. Actors, actresses, and directors became popular icons and even figures with political influence on diverse spheres of Mexican life. The industry received a boost as a consequence of Hollywood redirecting its efforts towards propagandistic films and European countries focusing on the war, which left an open field for other industries. Mexico dominated the film market in Latin America for most of the 1940s without competition from the United States film industry.


Dolores Del Rio

The Golden Age of Mexican cinema took place during the 1940s and beyond. The most prominent during this period was Mario Moreno, better known as Cantinflas. The film Ahí está el detalle (There is the Detail) in 1940 made Cantinflas a household name and became known as the "Mexican Charlie Chaplin" to Americans. His films were ubiquitous in Spain and Latin America and influenced many contemporary actors. Only until the appearance of "Tin-Tan" in the late 1940s did his popularity wane. [4]

A movie poster of comedian Tin-Tan.

Mexican actresses also were a focus in Mexican cinema. Sara García was the "grandmother of Mexico". Her career began with silent films in 1910, moved to theatre, and ultimately the film that made her famous, No basta ser madre (It's Not Enough to be a Mother) in 1937. Dolores del Río, another dramatic actress, became well-known for her roles in a couple films directed by Emilio Fernández. [5]

In 1943, the Mexican industry produced seventy films, the most for a Spanish speaking country. Two notable films released in 1943 by director Emilio Fernández were Flor silvestre (Wild Flower) and María Candelaria, both films starring Dolores del Río. The movies were triumphs for the director and for internationally acclaimed cinematographer,


Gabriel Figueroa especially with María Candeleria winning the top prize at the Cannes Festival. [6]

The only other comedian with the same level of popularity as Cantinflas was German Valdez "Tin-Tan". Tin-Tan played a pachuco character appearing with a zoot suit in his films. Unlike Cantinflas, Tin-Tan never played as a pelado, but as a Mexican-American. He employed pachuco slang in many of his movies and made famous spanglish, a dialect that many Mexican residents disdained.

Other relevant films during these years include Espaldas mojadas (Wetbacks) by Alejandro Galindo, Aventura (Adventure) a melodrama, and Los olvidados (The Young and the Damned) (1950), a story about impoverished children in Mexico City. The themes during those years, although mostly conventional comedies or dramas, touched all aspects of Mexican society, from the 19th century dictator Porfirio Díaz and his court, to love stories always tainted by drama.

1960s to present

Gael García Bernal in El crimen del Padre Amaro

During the 1960s and 1970s many cult horror and action movies were produced with professional wrestler El Santo and Hugo Stiglitz being the biggest stars. During 1990s the era of the Nuevo Cine Mexicano took place with high quality films by Arturo Ripstein, Alfonso Arau, Alfonso Cuarón and María Novaro. The most famous films produced at this time were Como agua para chocolate (Like Water for Chocolate) (1992) and Sexo, pudor y lágrimas (Sex, Shame, and Tears) (1999). Many in the film industry have transferred over to the American film industry. Most recently, several Mexican movies starring Gael García Bernal have enjoyed great popularity, including Amores perros (Love's a Bitch) (2000), Y tu mamá también (2001), the polemical El crimen del Padre Amaro (The Crime of Father Amaro) (2002), and the Latin American film, The Motorcycle Diaries (2004). Film directors Alejandro González Iñárritu and Alfonso Cuarón have been noted for both their Mexican and American films. Their works include


Y tu mamá también, Amores perros, 21 Grams (2003), and Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (2004).

Famous people

Actors

• Cantinflas • Dolores del Río • Jorge Negrete • María Félix • Pedro Infante • Diego Luna • Salma Hayek • Anthony Quinn • Gael Garcia Bernal

Directors

• Luis Buñuel • Alfonso Cuáron • Fernando Eimbcke • Emilio ("El Indio") Fernández • Alejandro Jodorowsky • Gabriel Retes • Antonio Serrano • Guillermo del Toro • Carlos Salces • Arturo Ripstein • Carlos Carrera

Cinematographers

• Gabriel Figueroa • Alex Phillips • Alex Phillips, Jr.

Sound

• Gonzalo Gavira


Graphing the New Directions of Mexican Art The artist's print has played a major role in twentieth century Mexican art. The original print media are as often a first choice of expression for contemporary artists as they were for the artists of the early twentieth century. For such contemporary masters as José Luis Cuevas and Francisco Toledo, printmaking is their principal medium of artistic expression. In a similar manner the Mexican artists of the early twentieth century in general handled the essential elements of graphic imagery "light and shadow" with such mastery that color was of secondary importance. Such outstanding artists as Diego Rivera, Leopoldo Méndez and Alfredo Zalce were first and foremost graphic artists. Rivera created his fresco paintings in black and white and added color in a manner not unlike the "colorizing" of motion pictures.

In the work of the painters José Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros and Rufino Tamayo the vibration of color fused with the oscillation of light and shadow into one immutable and incorruptible unit. Although Tamayo--Mexico's archetypal colorist--added a palette of bright, vibrant color to his painting he was, nevertheless, a graphic artist. Tamayo's visual expression like that of Rivera issued forth from delineation; color being an additive.

The Mexican artists born during and after the decade of the 20s benefited from both the rich graphic and the color legacies left to them by their artistic forefathers. The artists proved that color and graphic description could merge, but the art theoreticians insisted that they couldn't; that graphic description alone was the true Mexican vision. And the on-going polemic between redundant culturecrat and innovative artist continues...

But regardless of reiterative doctrine, the artists of mid-century who envisioned their painting in color also envisioned lithographs in color. In order to bring lithography into their scope they needed to amplify the scale of the print and to expand and intensify the register of color. This could not be achieved in Mexico where lithography had obeyed the authorities and not the needs of the artists. Mexican artist-lithographers would have to work in European and a few American lithographic ateliers. By the time KYRON was founded in Mexico City in 1972, Mexican artists were well adept in large-scale, color lithography. KYRON's contribution to Mexican art, therefore, was to bring the resources of European and American ateliers to Mexico.

Sooner or later, when the arts of the print in Mexico achieve recognition on printmaking's own terms and cease to be looked at as offshoots of painting and/or drawing, it will be discovered that many contemporary masters are first and foremost printmakers. Maximino Javier, Lucía Maya and Remigio Valdés de Hoyos are continuously involved in the making of prints. Perhaps in due time the painter Francisco Corzas and the Cuban ceramist Alfredo Sosabravo will also be recognized first and foremost as printmakers.

Through lithography, the Costa Rican sculptor Francisco Zúñiga merged sculptural illusion, drawing and the brushwork of a painter into a medium of expressive visual possibilities unattainable in any other way. Zúñiga's seemingly limitless expressive


exploration into texture and tonality has attracted many painters to create their first images directly on stone. Such was the case of Leonora Carrington and Armando Morales.

Artist: Roberto Sieck Flandes (1939)

mexican culture - business with latin america pages/country pages/mexico...spanish lang. project...

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