Meditating differences in children’s interaction with digital libraries through modeling their tasks

Authors

Dania Bilal

School of Information Sciences, University of Tennessee

1345 Circle Park COM 451, Knoxville, TN 37919

Email: dania@utk.edu

Sonia Sarangthem

School of Information Sciences, University of Tennessee

1345 Circle Park COM 451, Knoxville, TN 37919

Email: sonia@utk.edu

Describes four graphical preliminary task-based models of ten Arabic-speaking children, ages 6-

10, based on their interaction with the International Children’s Digital Library (ICDL). Data

generated from a previous study (Bilal & Bachir, 2007b) were coded and analyzed to generate the

models. Seven modes of behavior characterized children’s interaction: Start, Recognize, Browse,

Differentiate, Read, Explore, and Finish. Each mode is associated with moves based on task

characteristics. The models were constructed using the general model developed by Bilal,

Sarangthem, & Bachir (2008), which was partially informed by the works of Ellis (1989), Ellis &

Haugan (1997), Choo, Detlor, & Turnball (2000), and Marchionini (1995). New patterns of

behavior that are missed in these works were identified (Explore and Read). The models lack a

Search mode that characterized children’s keyword searching. The ICDL allowed entry of Arabic

script in the search box, but failed to retrieve Arabic books by keyword. Children’s behavior that

combined linear and non-linear progression and the core iterative processes that occurred

between certain modes of behavior and varied by task provide additional perspectives for

understanding information seeking behavior within the specific context of a small and well

structured Web space such as the ICDL.

INTRODUCTION

Many studies have investigated the relationships between a user task and information seeking

behavior (Xie, 2007; Jarvelin & Ingwersen, 2004; Jarvelin & Wilson, 2003; Ingwersen & Jarvelin,

2005; Vakkari, 2003; Bystrom & Jarvelin, 1995; Belkin, Chang, Downs, Saracevic, & Zhao, 1990;

Saracevic & Kantor, 1988; Belkin, 1980). Researchers have investigated various types of tasks

including collaborative vs. individual (Hyldegård, 2009), open vs. closed (Bilal, Sarangthem, &

Bachir, 2008); transactional vs. informational (Terai, et al. 2008); complex/goal-oriented (Bartlett

& Neugebauer, 2008); directed vs. general purpose (Thatcher, 2008); factual vs. interpretive vs.

exploratory (Kim, 2007); known-item vs. subject-oriented (Kim & Allen, 2002); imposed vs. self-

selected (Gross, 2004); assigned vs. semi-assigned vs. fully self-generated (Bilal, 2002; Bilal,

2001; Bilal, 2000). Studies have also examined task specificity, monitoring, and interruption

(Bailey, Adamczyk, Chang, & Chilson, 2006); task manipulation (Vakkari, 2003); and task

complexity (Bystrom & Jarvelin, 1995; Vakkari, 1999). Recently, Wildemuth & Hughes (2006)

have raised the issue of the embedded tasks. Despite these prolific works about task influence

on information behavior, there are insufficient empirical studies that resulted in task-based

graphical models of children’s information seeking behavior in digital environments. This paper

describes four preliminary task-based models of Arabic speaking children’s interaction with the

international Children’s Digital Library (ICDL) and identifies the core iterative processes and linear

progression children performed on each task. The models provide additional understanding of

children’s information behavior in digital environments that a general model of such a behavior

may not provide.

RESEARCH QUESTION

The overarching research question addressed in this paper was: What task-based empirical

models can be generated based on Arabic-speaking children’s interaction with the ICDL?

RELATED LITERATURE

Due to space limitation, only two bodies of relevant literature are briefly reviewed: 1. Models of

children’s information seeking behavior, and 2. Children’s use of the ICDL.

1. Models and children’s information seeking

There is scarcity of empirical work that modeled children’s information seeking

behavior, in general, and in using Web-based interfaces (e.g., digital libraries), in

particular. This section reviews studies that concluded with models of children’s

information seeking behavior in different Web environments.

Using data sets collected of a previous study that investigated Arabic-speaking

children’s use of the ICDL (Bilal & Bachir, 2007b), Bilal, Sarangthem, & Bachir (2008)

developed a preliminary, general model of the children’s behavior that consists of 7

modes of information behavior: Start, Recognize, Browse, Differentiate, Read,

Explore, and Finish. The model is . partially informed by the work of Ellis (1989), Ellis

& Haugan (1997), Choo, Detlor, & Turnball (2000), and Marchionini (1995). One

limitation of this model resides in its lack of a Search mode. Children used Arabic

script in the ICDL keyword search box, but the ICDL failed to retrieve books due to its

lack keyword indexing of Arabic books. This deficient design feature of the ICDL

provided an incomplete representation of the children’s interaction.

Shenton (2007) developed a graphical model of information seeking failure of young

users, ages 3-18. The model consists of five dimensions: Source Dimension,

Knowledge Dimension, Skills Dimension, Social Dimension, and Psychological

Dimension. Each dimension lists the issues that contributed to information seeking

failure. Relationships among the dimensions are clearly described. However, the

model does not show the “task” as a factor in any of the dimensions.

The imposed query framework developed by Gross (1997) pointed out the issues in

queries assigned by teachers in elementary schools. Use of the framework was

investigated in varied information environments including adult reference desk in

public libraries where Gross & Saxton (2002) examined the effect of task type on user

assessment and satisfaction. The framework has demonstrated utility in informing

practice and guiding professional training in reference services. However, it focuses

on the imposed query rather than on all types of queries.

2. Children and the ICDL

A handful of studies exist about children’s use of the ICDL. In a two-part study, Bilal &

Bachir (2007a-b) examined the information seeking behavior of ten Arabic-speaking

children, ages 6-10, in using the ICDL to find Arabic books on four different tasks. The

study took place at Bibliotheca Alexandrina in late December 2004. In part one, Bilal

& Bachir (2007a), assessed the cross-cultural usability of the ICDL as an international

Web interface. In part two, Bilal & Bachir (2007b) investigated the children’s

information seeking behavior, success, and affective reactions in using the ICDL.

Children were given four different tasks to perform in the ICDL: one assigned and fact-

based, one assigned known-title and fact-based, one semi-assigned and research-

based, and another fully self-generated. Children’s interaction was captured online

and their affective reactions were elicited during exit interviews. Children’s

information seeking behavior was characterized by browsing using a single function;

that is, looking under Arabic language from the drop-down menu to view the Arabic

book collection. Although children were able to type Arabic keywords using an Arabic

keyboard, the ICDL returned zero hits due to lack of indexing of the books metadata.

The data sets generated from this study were used to develop the task-based models

described in this paper.

Massey, Druin, & Weeks (2007) examined the affective reactions of twelve children

from four different countries to reading and reviewing books in the ICDL. Children

were selected from the United States, Honduras, New Zealand, and Germany.

Children were given a book review form to use for answering five questions about

each book they read. Findings revealed that children preferred books with happy

endings. Language capabilities were a stronger factor in choosing books than culture

or nationality as children did not choose books in languages they did not speak. When

children were unable to read books in different languages, they relied on images and

colors to understand the story and to express how it made them feel. Therefore, their

interpretations of book images influenced their emotional classifications of the

books. The findings provided insights into the role of emotions in children’s book

selection and reading. They also informed us that visual representations of textual

information could help overcome language barriers in book selection and reading.

In an earlier study, Reuter & Druin (2004) investigated the searching and book

selection behavior of ninety-six first- through fifth-grade children from the suburbs of

Maryland. Age and gender influenced searching and book selection. Younger children

preferred simple and more interactive interfaces; whereas older children favored

more sophisticated interfaces. Issues in system designed were identified and

recommendations were made for making the ICDL more supportive of younger

children.

The literature review showed a scarcity in studies that modeled the information

seeking behavior of children in digital environments. The four task-based models

described in this paper are a first step towards filling this research gap.

METHOD

The task-based models were developed based on data sets generated from the previous study

(Bilal & Bachir, 2007b) where both quantitative and qualitative methods were employed to

generate the data.

Participants

Ten Arabic-speaking children ages 6-10 participated in data collection. Children were

recruited by staff at Bibliotheca Alexandrina’s Children’s Library (Bib. Alex.). Four

children were male and six were female. Based on the data generated from the open

individual interviews, one child was six-years old, three were seven-years old, two were

eight, two were nine, one child was nine and a half years-old, and one was ten-years

old. Children possessed adequate level of computer and Internet experience. They

were from different social background who attended private and public schools. Only

one child was familiar with the ICDL. All children had limited English language skills.

Children read books on a regular basis and were regular users of Bib. Alex.

Tasks

Children were asked to perform these four tasks: 1. How many books does the ICDL

have in the Arabic language, 2. Find a book in the Arabic language named Dima and

open the first page of the book, 3. Find a book about animals in the Arabic language

and write the name of the book on your sheet, and 4. Find any book in the Arabic

language and read as many pages as you can. 

Data Sets

The four task-based models were generated using the data sets generated from the

previous study by (Bilal & Bachir (2007b). Children’s interaction with the ICDL was

captured online using HyperCam software package. Their affective states were

gathered during an exit interview. Each child’s ICDL interaction activity on each of the

four tasks was saved, replayed, coded, and analyzed. Each child’s ID number and

interaction activity was input into an excel sheet along with the sequence of the

activity, a description of the activity (e.g., scan, browse, select book, open page, move

to next page), and comments and/or observations about the activity. This process

resulted in a total of forty excel sheets on the four tasks (10 children x 4 tasks). These

sheets formed the basis of the data sets that were utilized to build the models.

Models used as frameworks

The four task-based models were informed by the general model that represented the

children’s interaction with the ICDL (Bilal, Sarangthem, & Bachir, 2008). This general

model was partially based on the work by Ellis (1989), Ellis & Haugan (1997), Choo,

Detlor, & Turnball (2000), and Marchionini (1995). Certain modes and moves of

behavior shown in the models were adapted from each of these authors’ work. New

modes of behavior and associated moves that are missed in these frameworks were

generated.

TASK-BASED MODELS

The models consist of 7 modes of information seeking behavior and moves associated with each

of them. Each mode and move is labelled for ease of understanding of the models.

Start (M1): This mode characterizes the beginning of a task after a child recognizes the

information need. It generally begins in the ICDL default interface by scanning the Simple search,

Advanced search, and Keyword search features. The scan move (M1V1) results in making a

selection that takes the child to the interface containing the book language options. The select

move (M1V2) is confined to the Simple search interface. A child returns to the ICDL homepage to

restart a task or to explore the other features.

Recognize (M2): This mode embraces two moves, scan and select. The scan move (M2V1) at this

step consists of activating the book language drop-down menu from the ICDL Simple Search

interface. The select move (M2V2) pertains to choosing the Arabic language option. This activity

results in a display of Arabic books thumbnails.

Browse (M3): This mode comprises browsing and is of two types: Directed and Semi-directed.

Directed browsing includes two specific moves, view (M3V1) and verify (M3V2). These moves

typically characterize a behavior on a target-oriented task (e.g., finding an answer for a fact-based

task). It also extends to browsing to find a known-title item (e.g., finding a book with a specific

title in the Arabic book collection). Semi-directed browsing includes one specific move, examine

(M3V3), that reflects a behavior on a less definite or less focused task (e.g., finding a book of

interest for a semi assigned task or for a fully self-generated task). The examine move may be

followed by filtering sources and making a selection decision.

Differentiate (M4): This mode consists of filtering books based on differences or criteria such as

book cover, images, book length, subject matter, affect (happy/sad), or other factors.

Differentiation is both Directed and Undirected. Directed Differentiation is similar to Directed

browsing in that it is focused and target-oriented. It consists of the more specific view move

(M4V1). Undirected Differentiation has very little focus and is described by the sweep move

(M4V2), which reflects a behavior such as paging through book thumbnails, book titles, book

pages, and/or jumping from one thumbnail to another. Typically, sweeping includes little reading

or engagement in a task.

Read (M5): This mode involves different levels of reading and consists of two types: Directed and

Undirected. Directed Reading is characterized by the view move (M5V1) that takes account of

reading engagement. Undirected Reading includes little or no reading and has very little focus

(flip). The flip move (M5V2) also reflects a much faster behavior than the sweep move.

Explore (M6): This mode embraces use of the navigation controls of the ICDL and/or Internet

Explorer. It has two specific moves: Navigate (M6V1), which includes activation of all navigation

controls, except for the Back button (Internet Explorer) and the various back icons (ICDL). All other

navigation activities are classified under the backtrack move (M6V2).

Finish (M7): This mode marks a completion of a task. It sometimes results in note taking, as

required by a task.

MODEL ANALYSIS

The seven modes that characterized children’s information seeking behavior on the four tasks are

seen in Figures 1-4. Children’s information seeking on tasks 2-4 (Figures 2-4) shows 7 modes of

behavior (Start, Recognize, Browse, Differentiate, Read, Explore, and Finish). However, the

behavior on Task 1 (Figure 1) precluded the Differentiae mode due to the nature of the task that

did not necessitate book filtering or making book selection decisions.

Children’s information seeking behavior was dominantly non-linear and iterative and included

core iterative processes between modes of behavior that varied by task. The exception was the

behavior on the fact-based task (Task 1) that was mostly linear in nature. On this task, children

were asked to locate the total number of Arabic books, which pops up as soon as the Arabic

language option is selected from the Language drop-down menu that resides in the ICDL Simple

search interface.  

As seen in Figure 1, children’s iterative transitions were minimal and occurred only between the

Information Need that was driven by the task and the Explore mode (Information need-Explore-

Information need). However, from Start to Finish, children’s behavior on this task was typically

linear between the modes and without iterations (Start-Recognize-Browse-Read-Finish). Children

made the lowest number of moves (ToMV=64) and the lowest level of iterative transitions

(ToT=30) on this task (Figure 1).     

On Task 2, children’s information seeking consisted of the seven modes of behavior and showed

a higher level of interaction than on the previous task (Figure 2). Children’s iterative transitions

progressed between Browse-Differentiate-Browse; Differentiate-Read-Differentiate-Explore; Read-

Browse-Read-Explore. The core iterative processes occurred b between Browse and Differentiate

(T=13) and between Browse and Explore (T-12) and accounted for half of the total number of

transitions made (ToT=50). The total number of moves children exhibited on Task 2 were higher

than those on Task 1 (ToMV=78 vs. ToMV=64, respectively). Similarly, the number of specific

Explore moves were much higher on this task, as opposed to the previous one (MV=13 and MV=3,

respectively).

Children’s behavior was much more interactive on Task 3 (Figure 3) than on the two previous

tasks, as evident in the level of iterative transitions they made between these modes: Browse-

Differentiate-Browse; Browse-Explore-Browse; Differentiate-Read-Differentiate; Differentiate-

Explore-Differentiate-Start; Read-Explore-Read-Browse-Read. Here too, the core iterative

processes occurred between Browse and Differentiate. Children made 18 transitions (T=18) from

Browse to Differentiate and 11 transitions (T=11) from Differentiate to Browse, totalling 29

(T=29), slightly over one-third of the total number of transitions made on this task ((ToT=80).  

The moves children made on Task 3 were much higher than those on Tasks 1 and 2 (ToMV=145

vs. ToMV=64 vs. ToMV=78, respectively). Similarly, the specific Explore moves they made were

also much higher on this task, as opposed to Tasks 1 and 2 (MV=21 vs. MV=3 vs. MV=13,

respectively). Children’s reading reflected in the Read mode increased dramatically on Task 3

(MV=47) over Task 2 (MV=7).  

Figure 4 reflects children’s information seeking on Task 4. Children made nearly the same

number of transitions on Task 4 as they did on Task 3 (ToT=79 vs. ToT=80, respectively).

However, the total number of moves on Task 4 were much higher than those on Task 3

(ToMV=286 vs. ToT=145, respectively), due to the amount of reading (MV=187 out of ToMV=286)

that was driven by the task demand.   

Children’s behavior on Task 4 flowed between Recognize-Differentiate; Browse-Explore-Browse;

Browse-Read; Read-Recognize; Differentiate-Browse-Differentiate; Read-Explore-Read; and

Explore-Differentiate-Explore. Again on this task, children’s core iterative processes progressed

from Browse to Differentiate (T=10) and from Differentiate to Browse (T=12). However, these

processes were slightly lower (T=22) on this task than they were on Task 3 (T=29) and Task 2

(T=25).        

New patterns of behavior

Children’s information seeking exhibited new patterns of behavior that are missed in models

used as frameworks. These include the Explore and Read modes. While the Explore mode is Web-

specific in that it an integral component of navigating web space (Back, Forward, Home, etc.), the

Read mode is task-specific. The amount of reading was mainly driven by each task

characteristics and was influenced by the level of children’s engagement with the content of the

book they selected or encountered. Affective reactions that underlined the children’s information

seeking behavior are also absent in these frameworks.

DISCUSSION

Arabic-speaking children’s task-based information seeking in the ICDL was characterized by

seven modes of behavior: Start, Recognize, Browse, Differentiate, Explore, Read, and Finish.

However, on Task 1, children’s behavior precluded the Differentiate mode due to the fact that the

task was closed and had a target answer (numeric information) that did not necessitate filtering

books and making a selection decision. The simplicity of this task combined with the convenient

ICDL display of the target answer (26) above the Arabic book thumbnails made easy to find by

older children. Two younger children (ages 6-7) who did not pay attention to this information

pursued a different approach- counted each Arabic book thumbnails and calculated the total

number of books (used their fingers to count). This alternative strategy, although creative,

resulted in miscounting the books (37 instead of 26) by one child.

The dominant linear behavior children exhibited on Task 1 (Figure 1) was not surprising,

considering the small space allocated for the small Arabic book collection, sequential display of

thumbnails, and immediate availability of the target answer. One should expect this type of

behavior in using a small and structured Web space such as the ICDL. Conversely, in using a Web

search engine to find information for a similar task, one should expect a more iterative behavior

from children due to the heterogeneous nature of the Web (Bilal, 2000).

Children’s behavior on the known-item title (Dima) (Task 2) was somewhat iterative. As seen in

Figure 2, children’s core processes flowed from Browse to Explore and from Browse to

Differentiate. The centrality of these processes suggests that children continued to explore the

collection even after locating the target book. This behavior can be explained by the fact that on

Task 1, children did not have the opportunity to familiarize themselves with the content of the

Arabic book collection, or that children were uncertain as to whether the collection had more than

one book with the same title, Dima. It also insinuates that children began to construct knowledge

about the content of the Arabic book collection and the ICDL various features as they began

working on Task 2. The uncertainty children experienced in using ICDL was due to their perceived

inability to use it successfully (based on data generated from exit interviews). This affective state

is typical of user behavior and emerges due to lack of familiarity with the ICDL. Kuhlthau (2003)

supports this view by noting that “when the information search process is viewed as a process of

construction, uncertainty and anxiety are anticipated and expected as part of the process” (p.7).

The behavior children exhibited on Task 3 (Figure 3) was more iterative than that seen on Task 2

(Figure 2). Previous studies found that the more open-ended a task was, the more browsing

moves children made (Large & Beheshti, 2000; Schacter, Chung, & Dorr, 1998). This was, indeed,

the case in this study as children’s browsing moves (shown under the Browse mode) on Task 4

were slightly higher (MV=35) than those on Task 3 (MV=31). The number of iterative transitions

children made on Task 4 was nearly the same as that on Task 4. This finding was not expected as

Task 4 was more open-ended, fully self-generated, and most complex. Finding a book of interest

on the semi assigned topic (Animals) for Task 3 seemed to be slightly more complex for the

children than Task 4. To select a book about the topic, children had to: a. identify the books in the

Arabic collection dealing with the assigned topic, b. employ filtering skills, and c. make a book

selection decision based on interest. The fact that children’s core iterative processes occurred

between Browse-Differentiate and Differentiate-Browse and the fact that the number of moves

they made (29) was the highest across all tasks substantiate the higher complexity level of

executing this task.

Figure 4 represents children’s information seeking behavior on the open-ended, fully self-

generated task (Task 4). Children were asked to find a book of interest on any topic and read as

many pages as they could. As avid readers, two children read two books instead of one and the

rest completed one book each. The amount of reading children exhibited on this task was

attributed to task demand that, in a few cases, children exceeded its requirements. Similar to the

reading behavior on Task 3, children ‘s reading on Task 4 was both Directed (View) and

Undirected (Flip).

The level of iterative transitions children made on Task 4 was nearly the same as that on Task 3.

Similarly, the number of moves associated with each of these modes was nearly the same as

those shown on Task 3, with the exception of the amount of reading that was much higher on

Task 4 (Figure 4). The iterative core processes that occurred between Browse- Differentiate and

Differentiate-Browse were slightly lower on Task 4 than those on Task 3. By the time children

performed Task 4, they had already been exposed to the Arabic book collection, constructed

some level of knowledge about its content, and gained experience in manoeuvring within the

ICDL environment. These skills and knowledge gain could have contributed to the children’s

effectiveness in performing Task 4.

The task-based models identified depict the combined nature of the children’s linear and non-

linear iterative processes. Absence of one of the seven modes of behavior (Differentiate) on the

fact-based task testifies to the fluidity of the stages of the information seeking process and, thus,

provides additional perspectives about the influence of task characteristics on the process of

information seeking.

LIMITATIONS

The limitations of this study may reside in using a small (10) and convenient sample. Like any

research involving human subjects, obtaining a random sample was difficult to achieve.

Therefore, the information seeking behavior reflected in the task-based models may not be

representative of all Arabic-speaking children. Lack of a Search mode in these models was due to

the design of the ICDL that, although it accepted Arabic script in the keyword searching box, it

failed to retrieve Arabic books. Testing the validity of the models using the Arabic version of the

ICDL could provide data about keyword searching that would contribute to building this important

component. In addition, allowing children to use the entire book collection rather than limiting

them to the Arabic collection could provide a more holistic picture of their interaction, book

selection, and book reading strategies.

CONCLUSIONS

This study aimed at identifying task-based empirical models that could be generated based on

data sets collected in a previous study of Arabic-speaking children’s information seeking behavior

in the ICDL (Bilal & Bachir, 2007b). The data on which these models are based were collected in

late 2004 when the ICDL interfaces could only be negotiated in the English language. Currently,

most of the interface design of the ICDL has changed and versions in many languages, including

Arabic are available. Validating these models in future research should account for language and

changes in the interface design.

The task-based models are a crossover from the grounded works of Ellis (1989), Ellis & Haugan,

(1997), Marchionini (1995), and Choo, Detlor, & Turnball (2000), yet they unveil new patterns of

interaction (Explore and Read) that should be explored further in future research.  Children’s

information seeking was characterized by seven modes of behavior: Start, Recognize, Browse,

Differentiate, Read, Explore, and Finish. Each mode consisted of moves that varied by task. On

the fact-based task, however, children’s behavior precluded the Differentiate mode as it was

strongly influenced by task characteristics. This finding affirms the fluidity of the nature of the

information seeking process and that these modes of behavior are not fixed in space or time. 

Children’s behavior that combined linear and non-linear progression and the core iterative

processes that occurred between certain modes of behavior and varied by task provide additional

perspectives for understanding information seeking behavior within the specific context of a

small and well structured Web space such as the ICDL.  Further research is needed to validate the

models and to unveil the nature of the children’s searching strategies. Using a large sample of

children from various geographic locations, allowing them to use the whole ICDL book collection,

and constructing tasks with various layers of complexity could provide a more valid

representation of children’s information seeking behavior in the ICDL.

Acknowledgements

This paper is based on a research project that was partially funded by the University of Tennessee

Office of Research. The authors wish to thank the University for its financial support. The

comments and suggestions of the reviewers are greatly appreciated.

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