Media Theories االعالم نظريات

Effects Theories

تأثير نظرياتاالعالم وسائل

Elements of Mass Communication

Five elements of mass communication1. Sender: مرسل : It may be media professional or media

institution or organization which sends the information.

2. Receiver: مستقِب�ل person who receives the information sent. This mass of receivers are often called mass audience

المتلقي .الجمهور3. Message: الرسالةcontent of information sent by sender.

The message is put in various forms like an interview, documentary, film, an article, feature or news story.

4. Channel قناة ,Modern mass media like radio :االتصالtelevision or newspapers spread the message with great speed.

5. Feedback: الراجعة .response from receiver التغذيةMass communication will have indirect feedback.

The Communication Model

SourceSource MessageMessage ChannelChannel ReceiverReceiver

FeedbackFeedback

Persuasion vs. Manipulation االقناعالتالعب مقابل

What is the difference between persuasion and manipulation?

Persuasion - االستمالة االقناع

Persuasion is an attempt to influence a person’s actions through an appeal to his/her self-interest

الشخصمن أعمال على للتأثير محاولة هو اإلقناعله خالل أن على ذاتية التركيز مصلحة

A PR person must be aware of what the audience wants to know.

Gained knowledge is “mutually beneficial” المعرفة

متبادلة منفعة فيها المكتسبة

Manipulation التالعب Coercion القهر The audience might not need to know the message,

but they are coerced or tricked into that knowledge when there is little of no benefit to them. ال قد الجمهور

خداعه أو اكراهه يتم ولكن الرسالة يعرف ان يحتاجلهم فائدة بال كانت وان حتى المعرفة .بخصوصهذه

There is manipulation of audience’s feelings, emotions, thinking into believing certain things or favouring or disfavouring other things. تالعب هناك

أشياء تفضيل تجاه بدفعه وتفكيره الجمهور بعواطفأخرى أشياء تقبل وعدم

Manipulation suggests something dishonest. Short-term gains are short-lived. Manipulation comes with a cost: credibility.

Persuasion versus Manipulation

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What is propaganda?

“The deliberate and systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist.”

(Jowett & O’Donnell, 1986). It’s the enemy that uses/makes propaganda (we

say) while we provide “information,” “evidence,”

“education,” “reasoned arguments” (we say)

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Propaganda and the mass media

Mass media—then and now—are regarded as essential to successful propagandaThey’re the only channels guaranteed to

reach the whole publicMass media have advantage (in free

societies) of being regarded as trustworthy

Why Public RelationsIs Not Propaganda

Many falsely use the two terms as if they are synonyms.

Propaganda is associated with manipulation. Public relations uses persuasion to satisfy the

needs of all parties.

The goal of all media theories اإلعالم نظريات هدف

Explain relationships between media and people Individuals Societies Cultures

Often, to explain media’s influence or “effects”

What’s in it for us? Placing PR in context.

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Timeline (highlights)

1880s-1910s (or so): mass society and mass culture theories

1920s-30s: public opinion research; propaganda theories (including “magic bullet”)

1940s-60s: “limited effects” paradigm 1960s: reactions against “limited effects” (in

various directions: some moderate, some powerful)

Effects Theories تأثير نظرياتاالعالم وسائل

Do the media have an effect on viewers

and listeners?There are several theories that support the

extremes and the middle on this Yes, it impacts us No, it does not Yes and No... somewhere in between

Effects Theories Mass media/mass communications make people

powerless to resist messages the media carries. الجماهيري / االتصال وسائل اإلعالم وسائل

مقاومة عن عاجزين الناس التي رسائل التجعلاإلعالم تحملها وسائل .

Consumers seem to be ‘drugged’ or ‘addicted’ to the media messages. وكأنهم المستهلكون يِبدوتحملها التي الرسائل على مدمنون أو مخدرون

االعالم .وسائل Effects theories establish links between violence

and the media, especially with the effects on the young.

Effects TheoriesHistorical Background Frankfurt School: Marxist German intellectuals

reacting against Nazi propaganda and US advertising. : مثقفون الفرانكفورتية المدرسةالنازية الدعاية دور انتقدوا ماركسيون ألمان

المتحدة الواليات في .واإلعالنات It suggested the power of big corporations and the

state to control how we think. تأثير قوة إلى أشارتتفكيرنا تشكيل في والدولة الكبرى .الشركات

Rise of TV in the 50’s and 60’s – fear of danger to children والستينات الخمسينات في التلفاز ظهور

األطفال على السلبي تاثيره من مخاوف .أثار

Effects Theories

Historical Background Influence of behavioural scientists (think of

Pavlov’s dogs) – media may reinforce attitudes through repetition بالعلماء تأثرت ( أن ( بمعنى الشرطية واالستجابة المثير السلوكيين

التكرار خالل من االتجاهات تعزز االعالم .وسائل Bobo doll experiment (1963) that pointed out

that children imitate adult treatment of doll. يقلدون االطفال ان الى أشارت البوبو دمية تجربة

الدمى مع الكبار .تعامل

Moderate-Effects Theory نظريةالمعتدل التأثير

Recognizes that media is not all-powerful in its influence

However, under certain circumstances it can have a very strong effect

نفوذها، كل في قوية ليست االعالم وسائل أن تعترفجدا قوي تأثير لها فان معينة ظروف في ولكن

Limited-Effects Theory التأثير نظرية المحدود

Media often does not have a direct effect on audience and decision making. اإلعالم وسائلعلى مباشر تأثير لها يكون ال األحيان من كثير في

القرارات واتخاذ الجمهور However, it is just one of many influences,

including: Opinion leaders One’s prior held beliefs Influence of family, friends, peers

Powerful-Effects Theory نظريةالقوي التأثير

Media has the potential for a huge influence on the audience

Influence increases if: Audience has little or no opinion on an issue Audience has no direct experience with the issue

Mass MediaMass Media

PublicPublic

The Magic Bullet Theory

WWI (1930’s) Mass Media has the power with the right message; therefore, can influence people to do most anything.

Hypodermic Needle Theory or Magic Bullet Theory الطلقة أو الجلد تحت االبرة نظريةالسحرية

One of the earliest theories held that mass media was highly influential. It was started by the Frankfurt School, a group of German Marxists in the 1930’s. They observed how Hitler user Propaganda to influence the nation. The Communists in the Soviet Union had a similar impact.

The media is like a syringe injects ideas and attitudes into people’s minds, as a doctor shoots a hypodermic needle into a patient.ه اإلعالم الناس، ت يوسائل أذهان في والمواقف األفكار يحقن حقن كما

المر في الجلد تحت إبرة ضيطِبيب Audiences passively receive the information transmitted via a media text, without any attempt on their part to process or challenge the information.

سلبي يتلقى الجمهور تنتقل المعلومات بشكل خالل التي مناإلعالم أي ، وسائل دون جانبهم محاولة من أو لمعالجة من

. المعلومات هذه تحدي Violence in the Media encourages viewers to imitate what they see. يتأثر

لتقليدها ويميلون العنف بمشاهد الناس This theory is no longer widely held.

The Magic Bullet Theory

Mass MediaMass Media YouYou

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“Magic bullet” theory of propaganda Simplistic propaganda theory: media stimuli

work like “magic bullets” (or hypodermic needles) people are simply “targets,” unwitting victims people are powerless to resist influence

no matter who they are

Media messages penetrate people’s minds and instantly and directly create associations between strong emotions and specific concepts.

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magic-bullet theory

External stimuli, like those in mass media, can condition anyone to behave in whatever way a master propagandist wants Built on stimulus-response (behaviorist) model

No matter what your level of education or social status magic bullets (media messages) penetrate your

defenses and transform your thoughts/actions

Example Origin: A British recruitment poster which

would have come out before conscription was introduced in January 1916.

Motive: To encourage men in Britain to enlist in the New Armies.

Audience: Men who are eligible to enlist and who are in the right age group.

Content: The symbol - John Bull represents the British people, note the Union Jack waistcoat. Personal appeal - Use of Question -'Who's Absent? Is it You?‘

The finger pointing at the reader -'You'. Soldiers waiting in the background for 'your' response.

Two-Step Flow Theory نظريةمرحلتين على التدفق

Media messages analyzed, interpreted and passed on by opinion leaders first. تحليلها يتم االعالمية الرسالة

أوال الرأي قادة قِبل من وتمريرها وتفسيرها Ideas flow from mass media to opinion leaders and from

them to the less active sections of the population

الرأي قادة الى االعالم وسائل من األفكار تتدفق. المجتمع في االخرى الفئات الى ثم ومن

The mass public gets information via these opinion leaders: Opinions are formed Perceptions are created Knowledge is gained (or repressed)

Two-Step Theory

Mass MediaMass Media

PublicPublic

Opinion LeadersOpinion Leaders

End of WWII (late 1940’s): This theory recognizes that opinion leaders influence the rest of society

Opinion Leaders الرأي قادة Opinion leaders serve as powerful channels in the flow of information

الرأي بمثابة قادة قوية يكونون المعلومات لقنوات تدفق Opinion leaders may have more direct access to the media and/or a

better media literacy than the masses. إلى الوصول الرأي قادة يستطيعاالعالم وسائل مع التعامل بكيفية معرفة ولديهم مباشر بشكل االعالم وسائل

الجمهور من .اكثر They may include:

Political leaders Experts Celebrities Community or religious leaders Writers Media analysts Journalists

Example Audience knows that a

Hollywood famous actor uses a special type of mobile phone.

To some of the public, this communicates that this mobile is the one to “buy”

نجم أن يعرف الجمهورنوع يستخدم شهير هوليوود

.معين المحمول الهاتف منهذا الِبعض عند بالتالي

جدير الهاتف هذا ان يعنيبالشراء.

Decision-making Process القرار اتخاذ عملية

Exists on a continuum سلم شكل على موجودةمتدرج

Depends on: The information itself Personal psyche or disposition

Some key factors: Socio-economic status (class)

Religion

Gender

Intra-familial status

Uses and Gratifications

نظرية االستخدامات واالشِباعات

“what audiences do with the media”

Uses & Gratifications Theory االستخدامات نظرية واالشِباعات

It attempts to answer the question: What do people do with the media? : االعالم؟ وسائل الناسمع يفعل ماذا السؤال عن تجيب أن تحاول

The media have a limited effect on their audiences because audiences are able to exercise control over their media

Active use of media by audience members to seek gratification of a variety of needs. أفراد ل نشط استخدامهناك قبل من اإلعالم وسائل

للحصول االحتياجات في اإلشباع على الجمهور من متنوعة مجموعة The needs most commonly identified are:

Information المعلومات (i.e. monitoring what's going on in the world) integration and social interaction االجتماعي والتفاعل we) االندماج

use the media to find out more about the circumstances of other people perhaps through empathy or sympathy)

personal identity الشخصية we may watch television for models)الهويةfor our behaviour. For instance - we may identify with film characters or their situations)

Diversion االنظار الترفيه i.e. entertainment and escapism) تحويل.(والهروب

Uses & Gratifications TheoryUses & Gratifications Theory There are 4 basic assumptions: أربعة افتراضات هناك

1. People are active & choose what they want to watch & why. ما ويختارون للناس فاعل دور هناك

ولماذا يشاهدون2. The media compete with other sources for need

gratifications. مصادر مع االعالم وسائل تتنافسالحاجات إلشِباع .أخرى

3. People are aware of their media use, interests and motives. لوسائل باستخدامهم وعي على الناس

ودوافعهم ومصالحهم .االعالم3.1 People choose media that suit them3.2 People choose media that fulfill needs, are useful, and are pleasurable to them

4. Value judgments of the media can only be assessed by the audience. االعالم وسائل بتقييم فقط الجمهور يقوم

Uses and Gratifications Theory

Mass MediaMass Media

PublicPublic

Message is blocked by

the receiver as they now

have the power to pick and

choose their communicati

on source المتلقي يقومالرسالة بصد

القوة لديه حيثمصدر ليختار

.االتصال

Mass MediaMass Media

PublicPublic

Message

received تلقيالرسالة

Uses and Gratifications Theory

Mass MediaMass Media

PublicPublic

Interactive

Uses and Gratifications Theory

Mass MediaMass Media

PublicPublic

Self-selected

messagesريختارها سائل

بذاته المتلقي

Uses and Gratifications Theory

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological/ Survival (lowest): The most basic needs that must be fulfilled before all others… food, water, rest and sex.

Safety: Personal security, comfort and peace, and orderly surroundings

Love & Acceptance: A sense of belonging, love and affection.

Self-esteem: Seeking recognition, prestige, leadership opportunities and success.

Self-actualization: (highest) To seek a goal just for the sense of accomplishment

Mass MediaMass Media

PublicPublic

The Agenda-Setting Theory األولويات ترتيب نظرية

Based on the principle that the mass media does not tell the people what to think, but what to think about.

The challenge: Who tells the media what to think about?

Agenda Setting Theory ترتيب نظرية االولويات

The theory was developed by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in the late 1960s.

McCombs and Shaw argued that the “Mass media have the ability to transfer the salience of items on their news agendas to the public agenda.” As they put it : “We judge as important what the media judge as important.”

على" بأن شو مكومسو جادل القدرة لديها اإلعالم وسائلالبارزة نقل جداول البنود على االعالم المدرجة وسائل

أعمال جدول قال" الجمهور على نحكم" واكما نحناالعالم أهمية على وسائل عليه تحكم بما شيء

مهم ."انه

Agenda Setting

Political scientist Bernard Cohen observed

“The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling them what to think about.” (1963)

تنجح » ال ربما الصحافة أن الحظ كوهين برنارد السياسة عالمولكنها يفكرون، الناسكيف تخبر أن في الوقت معظم في

يفكرون ماذا عن لهم تقول أن في كبير بشكل “تنجح “Media agenda” determines the “public agenda” What’s covered—and emphasized—in news becomes what

people say is important to them

One Study on Agenda Setting

McCombs and Shaw’s study defined media agenda by studying coverage of issues in nine print and broadcast sources.

They used position and length of story as main criteria of prominence in print media and placement in first three stories or a discussion over 45 seconds for broadcast

Agenda setting

Issues prominent in the media were: Foreign policy Law and Order Fiscal Policy Public Welfare Civil Rights

Agenda Setting

To determine public’s agenda they asked voters to identify what they considered to be the top issues in the 1968 campaign between Nixon and Humphrey.

They compared aggregate data from voters with media content and found that the issues and the ranking of the issues was nearly identical on both lists.

Agenda Setting Theory

The pattern of news coverage of a particular topic helps to determine what the public perceives as important

على يساعد معين لموضوع اإلعالمية التغطية نمطالمهم تحديد هو لجمهور ل ما

In other words, the media sets the agenda

جدول تضع اإلعالم وسائل فإن ، أخرى وبعبارةاألعمال

Agenda Setting

Who is most likely to be affected by the agenda-setting function of the media ? تكون الجمهور من فئة أي

األولويات ترتيب بوظيفة e تأثرا أكثراالعالم؟ لوسائل

Agenda Setting

McCombs and Shaw have argued that the people who have a willingness to let the media shape their thinking. تشكل ألن استعداد لديهم من

تفكيرهم االعالم وسائل A high need for orientation or index of curiosity

stemming from high relevance and uncertainty.

عن ناجم فضول مؤشر أو للتوجيه كبيرة حاجة ولديهم . تجاهه يقين عدم أو بالموضوع كبير اهتمام

Criticism of original AS theory

How do you know the relationship is causal in THIS direction? Media agenda voters’ agenda

Isn’t it possible that it works the other way? Voters’ agenda media agenda (That is, the media give their audiences what they

want)

What other questions arise?

Who sets the agenda for the media? يرتب منلالعالم؟ بالنسبة األولويات

i.e., how do the media determine what to cover? كيفتتناول؟ موضوعات أية االعالم وسائل تقرر

What do you think? What/who determines what’s deemed

“newsworthy”? أن الجدير الموضوع يحدد مناألخبار؟ يتصدر

Mass MediaMass Media

PublicPublic

The Agenda-Setting Theory األولويات ترتيب نظرية

Based on the principle that the mass media does not tell the people what to think, but what to think about.

The challenge: Who tells the media what to think about?

1990s: challenge to that idea!

New claim: media do also tell us what to think!!! : كيف لنا تقول e أيضا االعالم وسائل جديد طرح!!!نفكر

i.e., which attitudes/opinions to hold about people, events, ideas in the news.

التي واألفكار واآلراء االتجاهات هي ما لنا تقول أنها بمعنى. األخبار في واألفكار واألحداث الناس عن نحملها أن يجب

Updating the Agenda Setting

“The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about” (Cohen, 1963).

“The media may not only tell us what to think about, they may also tell us how and what to think about it, and perhaps even what to do about it” (McCombs, 1997)