Black British Music keithhussein@gmail.com

#med332

n  Black British music has its origins in the Jamaican music scene of the late 1950s and early 1960s through ska – took the form of bluebeat, dance hall, rock steady and lover’s rock. Jamaica had previously been a British colony that gained independence but maintained a close relationship to Britain and the US. Ska drew on a mix of US blues, do-wop and (later) traditional African musical styles

n  Cheaply produced on an industrial basis by local entrepreneurs and companies such as Coxsone Dodd, Studio One and Trojan Records - For local consumption through Jamaican music dealers and radio stations. Early examples of ska - bluebeat, and lover’s rock - include:

n  The Valentines - Blam-Blam Fever n  Prince Buster - Whine ‘n’ Grine n  Delroy Wilson - Dancing Mood

n  By the mid 1960s ska style became increasingly more complex – emphasis away from horn/brass sections toward heavy electric bass and bit part harmonies

New musical style found appeal amongst young adult males in Jamaican street gangs commonly referred to as Rude Boys (Hebdidge 1978). Youth subculture involved in petty crime or hustlin’ within an informal urbanised ‘ghetto’ economy which ‘exists on the blind-side of the law’ (Hall 352 1978)

These concerns which include drinking, gambling, womanising and street crime in midst of poverty and unemployment played - out in the themes of ska genre from mid-late 1960s: The Pioneers - Long Shot Kick de Bucket The Maytals - Sweet and Dandy Slickers - Johnny Too Bad The Maytals - 54-46 That’s My Number The Melodians - Sweet Sensation Harry J and the All-Stars - Liquidater

Sub-cultural and musical style of ska had an equally important impact within the multi-ethnic British urban cities such as Birmingham, London, Coventry and Leeds - drew in immigration from former colonies in West Indies, notably Jamaica, Antigua and Trinidad, into manufacturing centres during the 1950s and 1960s

n  Significantly, rude-boy style had began to be taken up by white working class British youth sub-cultures through the ‘skinheads’ from 1967 onward (Clarke 1976. Hebdidge 1977. Bennett 2001)

n  Ska music arguably provided this sub-cultural group with a way of recovering a ‘traditional’ working class identity and culture that was perceived to be in decline or ‘under attack from outsiders’ – eg. Asian immigrants (‘Paki Bashin’) (see Clarke 99-102 1976)

n  Joe ‘The Boss’ - Skinhead Revolt n  Claudette and Corporation – Skinhead ‘a Bash ‘em n  Byron Lee and the Dragonaires – Elizabethan Reggae n  Rico - Brixton Cat

n  Also taken up by Afro-Caribbean youth in British inner-cities amongst a second generation of Black-British teenagers and young adults - the experiences of institutional racism, police harassment (SUS Laws), unemployment and the rise of ‘Powellism’ and the National Front had the impact of ‘radicalising’ a second generation of Black-British youth

n  A ‘militant consciousness’ of racial oppression and injustice emerged within Black-British youth subcultures during mid 1970s against what was perceived as ‘a white racist society’ termed ‘Babylon’ (Brake 116-143 1992)

n  The early 1970s marked the emergence of Rastafarianism (Rastafari) and ‘Rasta’ style linked to developments in reggae, roots and dub. This music was now being produced specifically for British, European and American markets (often in the format of the album rather than the single) through companies such as Island Records to target a much wider audience

n  Lee ‘Scratch’ Perry - Arkology n  Linton Kweshi - Forces of Victory/Inglan is a Bitch n  Culture – Two Sevens Clash n  Junior Murvin – Police and Thieves

n  Use of soulful melodic vocal, ‘bluesy guitar styles’ and ‘funk rhythms’ injected into the genre through Bob Marley. A series of ‘commercial motivations’ contributed to the development of a distinct black musical identity (see Negus 73-78 1991)

Rock Against Racism, Anti-Nazi League and Red Wedge benefit concerts and albums of late 1970s consolidated alliance between punk and reggae outfits (Steel Pulse, TRB, UB 40, Culture, Billy Bragg) They ‘galvanised a white following for reggae - empathised with the fundamental politics of its sound and lyrical content’ . It fed into ‘shared local experiences and cross racial affiliations’ - strong left wing university following during 1980s (Bennett ibid 83)

n  http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/arts_entertainment/music/rock+against+racism+30+years+on/2082447

n  Jones (1988) argues that this process of cultural hybridity was reinforced in multi-ethnic cities such as Birmingham, Coventry Bradford, Leeds and London. This image of multiculturalism contested ‘racist’ identities assigned to ethnic groups by politicians, news media and the National Front.

n  Black and white communities steadily became more harmonised around the ‘shared’ space of local neighbourhoods, streets, ‘dancehalls’ and pubs – racial distinctions, particularly between young people, become far less important to identities

n  Within this cultural context an indigenous Black-British musical style and independent production company - Two Tone - founded by Jerry Dammers in Coventry in 1978 that drew equally upon the traditions of punk, ska and reggae

n  Other similar independent labels specialising in ‘ska-revival’ such as Go-Feet launched in Birmingham and Stiff Records set up in East London. All three companies enter distribution deal with Chrysalis Records

n  Two Tone emerged against the background of ‘Thatcherism’ and prominence of New Right political policy in Britain (1979-1997)

n  One of the central strategies of New Right in Britain was to represent the presence of Black British youth as a ‘social problem’ and unemployed white youth as the ‘dangerous classes’

n  Labelled within political and news discourse – popular tabloids, primetime TV news - as a potential ‘enemy within’ (see Brake 1992)

n  Pose a cultural threat to British national identity or ‘Britishness’

n  Criminal activities represented as a crisis in law and particularly in tabloid press (see Hiro 1991: Gilroy 1987). A series of media moral panics in relation to ethnicity in Britain become common place – street crime, welfare, violence welfare dependency etc

n  Series of inner city riots between 1980-85 highlighted the plight of disenfranchised inner city black-white youth during period of massive unemployment and social deprivation (see Brake 1992)

n  Main Two-Tone act The Specials - a multi ethnic outfit - produced a series of punk-influenced ska cover versions and originals on self-titled first album (1979). Songs also drew links with earlier ‘skinhead’ musical tradition

n  Too Much Too Young n  Rudie, A Message to You n  Gangsters

n  Doesn't Make it Alright, significantly, interrogated the ethics of racial assaults and violence against ethnic minorities in British cities, indicting The National Front as a threat to race relations in UK

n  More importantly, second album More Specials (1981) further highlighted political stance of group in alliance with Black-White British working class youth with releases such as Do Nothing, Why? Racist Friend and Ghost Town

n  Ghost Town highly controversial release – tackles unemployment and social breakdown in West Midlands home town of Coventry. Music video showing urban decay (and hinting at social unrest and looting) given minimal airplay by broadcasting authorities – coincided with inner-city riots in Liverpool and Bristol protesting against social deprivation of black and white youth

n  http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=RZ2oXzrnti4

n  Two Tone also included other bands such as The Selector and The Body Snatchers (all-girl) Concentrated mainly on covers of ska ‘classics’ Too Experienced, Do Rock Steady

n  Reformation of band into Special AKA (1983) led to national campaign for the release of imprisioned political activist Nelson Mandela in apartheid controlled South Africa after commercial success of anti-racist anthem Free Nelson Mandela

n  National concert followed (1985) at Wembley Stadium raising social awareness of racism in UK and South Africa - arguably helped bring about the release of Mandela and eventual liberation of South Africa

n  Birmingham based multi-ethnic outfit The Beat - who emerged in 1979 - relied much more heavily on Jamaican reggae traditions of toasting (rapping), over-dub production and intricate use of brass section.

n  Hands Off She’s Mine n  Rough Rider n  Drowning

n  Nevertheless the band retained militant stance against New Right politics that celebrated multi-culturalism and promoted a breakdown of ethnic boundaries

n  Stand Down Margaret n  Doors of Your Heart

n  Band played final concert at Gateshead Stadium in 1983 to raise awareness of racism and apartheid along with The Police and U2 – forerunner of ‘benefit gigs’ that have taken place in recent years

n  The Beat still continue to tour raising awareness of multi-culturalism giving financial support to Searchlight, Trade Unions and The Anti-Nazi league

n  In summary, Black-British music was initially bound up with the experiences of second generation Afro-Caribbean immigrants in Britain

n  Initially emerged through indigenous Jamaican ska during the 1960s. By the 1970s this genre had began to be specifically targeted at Black and White British audiences within multi-ethnic urban centres

n  Fusion of punk and reggae during mid 1970s helped to transform genre (militant political stance) which became popular with white working class British audiences – through shared experience of unemployment, poverty and deprivation – supported new ‘youth based’ multicultural identities

n  Success of Two Tone and bands such as The Specials and The Beat marked the emergence of indigenous multi ethnic outfits and explored important concerns for black and white working class youth in post – colonial Britain during the 1980s – provided an influence to later politically committed and militant ‘second generation’ ethnic bands – Asian Dub Foundation

n  Initiated the launch of benefit concerts and raising of social awareness amongst ‘white mainstream’ audiences. Street (1992) in Wagg (1995) argues that such ‘events’ mark the final incorporation of resistant and militant forms of music into the mainstream of the culture industry and beginnings of corporate sponsored rock (eg.Band-Aid)

Bibliography Chambers (1985) Urban Rhythms: Pop Music and Popular Culture (MacMillan) Chambers (1986) Popular Culture: The Metropolitan Experience (MacMillan) Clarke (1976) ‘Skinheads and the Magical Recovery of Community’ in (eds) Hall (1976) Resistance Through Rituals: Youth Subcultures in Post War Britain (Routledge) Brake (1992) Comparative Youth Culture (Routledge) Hall (1978) Policing the Crisis (Methuen) Bennett (2001) Cultures of Popular Music (OU Press) Jones (1988) Black Culture, White Youth: The Reggae Tradition From JA to UK (MacMillan) Price (1981) ‘Black Identity and the Role of Reggae’ in (eds) Porter (1981) Society and the Social Sciences: an Introduction (Routledge) Hebdidge (1978) Subculture: The Meaning of Style (Methuen) Negus (1991) Producing Pop: Culture and Conflict in the Music Industry (Hodder Arnold) Street (1992) ‘Shock Waves: The Authoritative Response to Popular Music’ in (eds) Wagg (1995) Come on Down: Popular Media Culture in Post War Britain (Routledge)

http://images.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/chimage.php%3Fimage%3D2007/2059/rar_lewisham.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/art.php%3Fid%3D12352&usg=__djPmFkI1hKgrQ4DEwXpdjfthXMs=&h=159&w=250&sz=18&hl=en&start=48&sig2=LLd_8WQNubdFX_iKS0RKXQ&tbnid=P-UUeHdinWrAlM:&tbnh=71&tbnw=111&ei=eLguSYehOZuYwwHXzY2nBA&prev=/images%3Fq%3Drock%2Bagainst%2Bracism%26start%3D36%26ndsp%3D18%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%26rlz%3D1T4ADBF_enGB249GB249%26sa%3DN